Solutions of Assignment 1

ME 541 (Continuum Mechanics)

Q.1.1:For an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation in the Eulerian form is

vx v y vz
   0,
x y z

wherevx, vy and vz are components of velocity field along x, yand zdirections, respectively. Express this
equation in index notation.

Ans: vi ,i  0.

Q.1.2:The 3-dimensional stress equilibrium equations are given by

 ij , j   bi  0,

whereσis the stress tensor and bis body force per unit volume. Write down the stress equilibrium

equations in unabridged notations.

Ans:In the given expression, there is one free index, namely i. Dummy index j represents a sum over
three terms. Further, the comma before j indicates differentiation with respect to xj. Hence, the given
equation takes the form

 i1  i 2  i 3
    bi  0.
x1 x2 x3

Since, i is a free index and takes the values 1, 2 and 3, the above equation represents the following three
scalar equations:

 11  12  13
    b1  0,
x1 x2 x3

 21  22  23
    b2  0,
x1 x2 x3

 31  32  33
    b3  0.
x1 x2 x3

Q.1.2:Evaluate the following expressions:

(i )  ii (ii )  ijk  ijk  iii   ijk  kji (iv)  ij ik jk

Ans:

1
(i )  ii  11   22   33  1  1  1  3.

(ii )  ijk  ijk   1 jk 1 jk   2 jk  2 jk   3 jk  3 jk

 11k 11k  12 k 12 k   13k 13k   21k  21k   22 k  22 k   23k  23k   31k  31k   32 k  32 k   33k  33k
 12 k 12 k   13k 13k   21k  21k   23k  23k   31k  31k   32 k  32 k
 121121  122122  123123  131131  132132   133133   211 211   212 212   213 213
  231 231   232 232   233 233   311 311   312 312   313 313   321 321   322 322   323 323
 123123  132132   213 213   231 231   312 312   321 321
 1 1   1 1   1 1  1 1  1 1   1 1
 6.

 iii   ijk  kji

Expanding similar way as in (ii), we get

 ijk  kji  123 321  132 231   213 312   231132   312 213   321123
 1  1   1  1   1 1  1  1  1  1   1  1
 6.

(iv)  ij ik  jk   jk jk

  jj
 11   22   33  1  1  1  3

Q.1.4. Prove the following ε-δidentity:

 ijk  pqk   ip jq   iq jp

Ans:

To proof the identity,  ijk  pqk   ip jq   iq jp (1)

let usstart by explicitly writing out the sum over k on the LHS:

 ijk  pqk   ij1 pq1   ij 2 pq 2   ij 3 pq 3 (2)

Now consider  ij1 pq1 , the first term on the RHS of Eq. (2). This term is zero if i, j, p or q is equal to 1.It is
also zero if i=j or p=q. Therefore,  ij1 pq1 is nonzero for only four combinations of the indices (i, j, p, q):
(2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 3, 2), (3, 2, 2, 3) and (3, 2, 3, 2). Thus, the first term on the RHS of Eq. (2) becomes

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  1 for (i, j , p, q)  (2,3, 2,3) or  3, 2,3, 2 

 ij1 pq1  1 for (i, j , p, q)  (2,3,3, 2) or  3, 2, 2,3 (3)
0 otherwise


Similarly, the other two terms on the RHS of Eq. (2) results:

 1 for (i, j , p, q)  (1, 3,1,3) or  3,1,3,1


 ij 2 pq 2  1 for (i, j , p, q)  (1, 3,3,1) or  3,1,1, 3 (4)
0 otherwise


and

 1 for (i, j , p, q)  (1, 2,1, 2) or  2,1, 2,1


 ij 3 pq 3  1 for (i, j , p, q)  (1, 2, 2,1) or  2,1,1, 2  (5)
0 otherwise


The LHS of Eq. (1) is the sum of three terms as described above. For a given set of values for i, j, p and q
with i  j and p  q , only one of the terms is nonzero. Therefore,

 1 for i  j, p  q, i  p, j  q

 ijk  pqk  1 for i  j, p  q, i  q, j  p (6)
0 otherwise


These conditions are also satisfied by the quantity  ip jq   iq jp , because

 1 for i  j, p  q, i  p, j  q

 ip jq   iq jp  1 for i  j, p  q, i  q, j  p (7)
0 otherwise


Hence, we have

 ijk  pqk   ip jq   iq jp

Q.1.5. Prove that

 ijk  pqr   ip  jq kr   jr kq    iq  jr kp   jp kr    ir  jp kq   jq kp  .

Ans:First, it shall be proved that

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 aip aiq air
 ijk  pqr det  aij   a jp a jq a jr , (1)
akp akq akr

wheredet(aij) denotes the determinant of matrix [aij]. It shall be proved by showing that the two sides of
Eq. (1) are equal. It is easy to see that if at least two of i, j, k or two of p, q, r are equal, then both sides are
zero. If i, j, kare different from one another and p, q, r are also different from one another, then the
following two cases may occur:

(i) Both i, j, k and p, q, r appear in the sequence 12312 or both appear in the sequence 32132. In
this case, both sides of Eq. (1) are equal to det(aij).
(ii) Between i, j, k and p, q, r, one group appears in the sequence 12312 and the other in the
sequence 32132. In this case, both sides of Eq. (1) are equal to −det(aij).

This completes the proof for Eq. (1).

Now, let aij   ij . From Eq. (1)

 ip  iq  ir
 ijk  pqr det  ij    jp  jq  jr . (2)
 kp  kq  kr

 
Using the fact that det  ij  1 and expanding the RHS of Eq. (2), we get

 ijk  pqr   ip  jq kr   jr kq    iq  jr kp   jp kr    ir  jp kq   jq kp  .

Hence, proved.

Q.1.6.A second-order tensor is a linear transformation that maps vectors to vectors. For example, if [σ] is

the matrix containing stress components, {n}is the vector of direction cosines to a plane and {t} is the

traction vector on the plane, then by Cauchy’s relation

t   n .
Here, stress tensor maps direction cosine vector into traction vector.

The transformation law for vectors is given by

vq   qr vr

Using the definition of tensor, find out the transformation law for tensors.

Ans:Consider the second order tensor given by Cauchy’s relation

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 t   n , (1)

expressed in two different co-ordinate systems:

tq   qr nr in  xi 
in  xi
(2)
tq   qr nr

From the transformation law for vectors

tq   qr tr
(3)
nr   rp n p

Combining Eqs. (2) and (3):

 qr tr   qr  rp n p

 rq tr   qr  pr n p (4)

and so

 mq rq tr   mq qr  pr n p (5)

Since,  mq rq tr   mr tr  tm therefore, Eq. (5) can be written as

tm   mq qr  pr n p (6)

Or, t      T  n

(7)

Comparing Eq. (7) with Eq. (1) , we get

       T  , (8)

which is the tensor transformation relation.

Q.1.7. If a and bare vectors with components ai and bi, respectively, then aibj are components of a
second-order tensor, called the tensor product a⊗b. Prove that

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(i) If aijare components of a second-order tensor Aand biare components of a vector b, then aijbkare

components of a third-order tensor (known as the tensor product of Aand bin that order, denoted A⊗b.

(ii) If aijand bijare components of two second-order tensor Aand B, then aijbklare components of a

fourth-order tensor (known as the tensor product of Aand Bin that order, denoted A⊗B.

Ans.

(i) (aijbk) is a system of 33=27 numbers. Putting cijk = aijbkin all coordinate systems we get

  aij bk   ip jq a pq   kr br 

cijk
  ip jq kr  a pq br    ip jq kr c pqr

Thus, the numbers cijkobey the transformation rule of a third-order tensor. Hence, cijk = aijbk are
components of a third order tensor.

(ii) (aijbkl) is a system of 34=81 numbers. Put cijkl=aijbkl in all coordinate systems. Then,

  aij bkl   ip jq a pq   kr ls brs 

cijkl
  ip jq kr ls  a pq brs    ip jq kr ls c pqrs

Thus, the numbers cijklobey the transformation rule of a fourth-order tensor. Hence, cijkl = aijbkl are
components of a fourth order tensor.

Q.1.8. If aij and bijare components of two second-order tensor A and B and ci are components of vector c,
then prove that

(i) aijcjare components of a vector (known as the vector product of Aand cin that order, denoted Ac.

(ii) aikbkjare components of a second-order tensor, called the product of Aand B in that order denoted by
AB.

(iii) aijbijis a scalar, called the scalar product of Aand Band denoted by A.B.

Ans.

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(i) We note that, aijck are components of a third-order tensorandaijcj can be obtained from aijck by
a contraction operation (namely, changing k to j). We have to show that aijcj are components
of a vector.
Since aijck are components of a tensor, we have
aij ck   ip jq kr a pq cr   ip jq kr c pqr

Hence,

aij cj   ip jq jr a pq cr   ip qr a pq cr   ip a pq cq

This transformation rule shows that aijcj are indeed components of a vector. The result illustrates
that a third-order tensor reduces to a vector as a result of a contraction operation.

(ii) We note that, aikbmj are components of a fourth-order tensor and that aikbkj can be obtained
from aikbmj by a contraction operation (namely, changing m to k). We have to show that aikbkj
are components of a second-order tensor.
Since aikbmjare components of a fourth-order tensor, we have
   ip kq mr js a pq brs
aik bmj

Hence,

aik bkj   ip kq kr js a pq brs

  ip qr js a pq brs
  ip js a pq bqs .

This transformation rule shows that aikbkjare indeed components of a second-order tensor.
The result illustrates that a fourth-order tensor reduces to a second-order tensor as a result of a
contraction operation.

(iii) We note that aijbij can be obtained from aikbmj by two contraction operations (namely,
changing k by j and m by i). Whereas aikbmj are components of a fourth-order tensor, we have
to show that aijbij is a scalar.
Since aikbmj are components of a fourth-order tensor, we have
   ip kq mr js a pq brs
aik bmj

Hence,

7
 aij bij   ip jq ir js a pq brs
  pr qs a pq brs
 arq brq  aij aij .

Thus, aijbij is a scalar.

Q.1.9. Prove the following quotient rules:

(i) Let aibe an ordered triplet related to the xisystem. For an arbitrary vector with components bi, if aibi are
scalar, then aiare components of a vector.

(ii) Let aijbe a 3×3 matrix related to the xi system. For an arbitrary vector with components bi, ifaijbj are
components of a vector, then aijare components of a tensor.

Ans.

(i) Since aibi is a scalar, we have ai bi  aibi . Since bi are components of a vector, we get

ai bi  ai  ip bp  ; that is,

a p   ip a  b p  0 .

Since, bi are arbitrary, it follows that a p   ip a. Thus, ai obey the transformation rule of a vector.

Hence, ai are components of a vector.

(ii) Put ci=aijbj in all coordinate systems. Then ci  aij bj , or

 ip c p  aij  jq bq 

becausebi and ci are components of vectors, by data. Multiplying the above equation throughout
by  ir and noting that  ip ir   pr and that  pr c p  cr  arq bq , we obtain

a rq   ir jq aij  bq  0.

Since, bi are arbitrary, it follows that arq   ir jq aij . Thus, aij obey the transformation rule of a

second-order tensor. Hence, aijare components of a second-order tensor.

8
Q.1.10. By using the transformation law for a vector show that the vector product ofa×bis also a vector.

Ans.We have

 a  bi   ijk a j bk

and set ci   ijk a j bk in all coordinate systems. Then

ci   ijk
 aj bk .

By using the fact that  ijk are components of a tensor and ai, bi are components of vectors, this becomes

ci   ip jq kr  pqr  jm am   kn bn 

  ip qm rn pqr ambn   ip pmn ambn
  ip c p .

This shows that ci   ijk a j bk are components of a vector; in other words a×b is a vector.

Q.1.11. Prove that if Ais a second-order tensor, then it is a linear operator on vectors and its components
are given by

aij  ei  Ae j .

Also prove that conversely, if Ais a linear operator on vectors and aijare defined by the above equation,
the aijare components of a second-order tensor.

Ans.First suppose that A is a second order tensor with components aij. Consider any two scalars α, β and
any two vectors b and c. Then Ab, Ac and A(αb+βc) are vectors. Also,

 A  b   c   j  aij  b   c  j  aij  b j   c j 

   aij b j     aij c j     Ab i    Ac i
   Ab     Ac  i

so that

 A  b   c      Ab     Ac  . (1)

9
This expression shows that A is a linear operator on vectors.

Further,

aij b j   Abi  ei  Ab
 ei  A  b j e j   ei  b j  Ae j 

By Eq. (1);

aij b j   ei  Ae j  b j .

Since, this is true for any vector b, we get

aij  ei  Ae j . (2)

Hence, proved.

Conversely, suppose A is a linear operator on vectors and aijare defined by Eq. (2). From Eq. (2) we note
that aijare defined with respect to the xi system and are uniquely determined by A and with respect to this
system. Let aij be the corresponding numbers determined by A and defined with respect to the xi system;

i.e.

aij  ei  Ae j . (3)

Since ei   ei  e p  e p   ip e p , yields

aij   ip e p   A  jq eq 
  ip e p    jq Aeq 

becauseA is a linear operator;

  ip jq  e p  Aeq    ip jq a pq

byEq. (2). This transformation rule shows that aijare components of a second-order tensor. Hence, proved.

Q. 2.12. Show that every tensor with components aijcan be represented in the form

10
A  aij ei  ei

Ans.Letc be any vector with components ci, then

Ac  A  c j e j   c j  Ae j 

becauseA is a linear operator;

 c j  ei  Ae j  ei

because any vector a   ei  a  ei ;

 aij c j ei

Using aij  ei  Ae j ;

 aij ck  kj ei  aij ck  ek  e j  ei
 aij ck  ei  e j  ek
 aij  ei  e j  c

Since c is an arbitrary vector, we get

A  aij ei  ei .

Q.1.14. Let aijand bij be the components of two 3×3 matrices respectively and their scalar product is
defined as aijbij. Prove that the scalar product of a symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix is zero.

Ans.Let aijare components of a symmetric tensor represented by A and bij are components of a skew-
symmetric tensor represented by B. The scalar product of A and B is defined as aijbij.We have to prove

A  B  aij bij  0.

In the expression aijbij, both the suffixes i and j are dummies. As such, aij bij  a ji b ji . As A is symmetric

and B is skew-symmetric, we have a ji  aij and b ji  bij . Hence,

11
 aij bij  a ji b ji  aij  bij    aij bij

so that aij bij  0.

Q.1.15. Prove that following are three invariants of a tensor Awith components aij:

(i) I A  trA = aii (tr is a short form of trace.).

 trA   tr  A2     aii akk  aik aki 

1 1
(ii) II A 
2

2  2

 trA   2tr  A3   3tr  A2   trA     aii a jj akk  2aik akm ami  3aik aki a jj 
1 1
(iii) III A 
3

6  6

Further, prove that third invariant can also be written as

III A  det  aij    ijk ai1a j 2 ak 3   ijk a1i a2 j a3k .

Ans.(i)Given a tensor A with components aij in xi system, if aij are the components of A in xi system

we have by the transformation rule of a tensor components of order 2, aij   ip jq a pq . Hence,

aii   ip iq a pq   pq a pq  aii . (1)

Thus, aii has the same value in all coordinate systems; it is therefore a scalar invariant called the trace of
A and denoted trA. Besides this invariant, two other invariants associated with A are encountered.
Keeping this in view, trA is often referred to as the first invariant of A and denoted by I A . Thus,

I A  trA = aii . (2)

(ii) The square of a tensor A, defined by A2  AA , is also a tensor and that the components of A2
are aik akj . Hence,

tr  A2   aik aki (3)

 trA   tr  A2  is also a scalar. This scalar is called the second invariant
1
is a scalar. Consequently,
2

2 

of A and denoted by II A . Thus,

12
  trA   tr  A2   .
1
II A  (4)
2

2 

This expression can be written in index notation as

 trA   tr  A2     aii akk  aik aki  .

1 1
II A  (5)
2

2  2

(iii) The cube of a tensor A, defined by A3  A 2 A , is also a tensor and its components are aik akm amj .

Hence,

tr  A3   aik akm ami (6)

 trA   2tr  A3   3tr  A2   trA  is also a scalar. This

1
is a scalar. Consequently, it follows that
3

6 

scalar is called the third invariant of A and denoted by III A . Thus,

 trA   2tr  A3   3tr  A2   trA   .

1
III A  (7)
3

6 

In index notation:

 trA   2tr  A3   3tr  A2   trA     aii a jj akk  2aik akm ami  3aik aki a jj  .
1 1
III A  (8)
3

6  6

We know that

det  aij  
1
 aii a jj akk  2aij a jk aki  3aij a ji akk 
6

Replacingj=k and k=m in the second and third terms we see from Eq. (8) that the third invariant is equal to
det (aij). Hence,

III A  det  aij  (9)

Also,

det  aij    pqr a1 p a2 q a3r   pqr a p1aq 2 ar 3 (10)

13
Using Eq. (10) in Eq. (9), we get

III A  det  aij    ijk ai1a j 2 ak 3   ijk a1i a2 j a3k

Q.1.16. Let aijbe components of a tensor A. If

1
aij   ipq jrs a pr aqs
2

show that aij are components of a tensor. If this tensor is denoted by A , prove the following:
*

  A 
(i) A A A   det A  I
T  T

(ii) If A is invertible then

A 1 
1
 A 
T

det A

(iii)For all vectors a, b

A  a  b   Aa  Ab

(iv)For all vectors a, b, c

A 
 T
a   b  c   a  Ab  Ac

Here A is called adjugate or cofactor of A and A  

T
is called the adjoint of A.

Ans.Since aij and  ijk are components of tensors, the RHS of

1
aij   ipq jrs a pr aqs (1)
2

represents a contraction of a product of tensors. As such aij are components of a tensor A .



(i) We have

 aij   aij    aik a jk  ,  aij   aij    aki akj  .

T T
(2)

14
Using Eq. (1),

 ijk  det A    pqr aip a jq akr   pqr a pi aqj ark (3)

and  ijk  pjk  2 ip (4)

we find that

aik a jk   jpq krs aik a pr aqs   jpq  det A   ipq   det A   ij
1 1
(5)
2 2

aki akj   kpq irs aik a pr aqs akj   jrs irs  det A    det A   ij
1 1
(6)
2 2

Using Eqs. (5) and (6) in Eq. (2) and noting that  ij    I  , we get

 aij   aij    aij   aij    det A  I

T T

Or,

A  A    A  A   det A  I .
T T
(7)

(ii) If A=[aij] is invertible, it follows from Eq. (7) that

A1 A  A    det A  A1I

T
(8)

This gives

 A    det A A
 T 1

A 1 
1
 A 
T
(9)
det A

(iii) For any vectors a and bwith components aiand bi, we have

 A  a  b    aij  a  b  j  aij   jmn ambn 

i

Using Eq. (1),

 A  a  b     ipq jrs a pr aqs jmn am bn

1
i 2

15
   ipq  rm sn   rn sm  a pr aqs am bn
1
2
Using the    identity;

 A  a  b     ipq  a pr ar  aqs bs    ipq  a pr br  aqs as 

1 1
i 2 2
  Aa  Ab i   Ab  Aa i   Aa  Ab i
1 1
2 2
Thus, we get

A  a  b   Aa  Ab
(iv) We have

A 
 T
a   b  c   a  A  b  c 

Using, A  a  b   Aa  Ab we get


A 
 T
a   b  c   a  Ab  Ac .

Q. 2.17. Obtain the expressions for 3 invariants of a deviatoric tensor of A.

Ans.Given a tensor A, suppose we define a new tensor A  as follows:

d

 tr A  I
1
A   A  (1)
d

d 
If aij are components of A, then from Eq. (1) it follows that the components aij of A  are
d

given by

1
aij   aij  akk  ij (2)
d

Hence, aii   aii   3akk   0; i.e.,

d 1
3

tr A d   0 (3)

If we set

1 1
  tr A = akk (4)
3 3

16
Then Eq. (1) can be written as

A   I  A d  (5)

Thus, every tensor A can be represented as a sum of two tensors; one of these,  I , is an isotropic tensor

called the spherical part and the other A  , is a tensor whose trace is zero called deviatoric part of tensor
d

A.

From Eq. (3), we note that the first invariant of A  is always zero. Thus,
d

I A d   0. (6)

The second and third invariantsare given by

II A d  
1

tr A      
 tr A
2 2
(7)
d d

2

III A( d ) 
1

tr A    2tr  A  
 3tr  A( d )  tr A
d

3
(d ) 3 2
(8)
d

6

Using Eq. (3) in Eqs. (7) and (8), we get

1
II A d    tr A   ,
2
(9)
d

III A( d )  tr  A( d )  .
1 3
(10)
3

Q.1.18. Prove that a number λis an eigen value of a tensor A if and only if it is a real root of the cubic

equation

 3  I A  2  II A   III A  0.

Ans.Let  v i  vi and  Aij  aij . Then

17
 aij v j   vi or a ij   ij  v j  0 (1)

When written in expanded form, this equation gives the following system of three equations:

 a11    v1  a12v2  a13v3  0

a21v1   a22    v2  a23v3  0 (2)
a31v1  a32 v2   a33    v3  0

The determinant of the coefficients of these equations is

a11   a12 a13

det  A   I   a21 a22   a23
a31 a32 a33  

  3  I A  2  II A  III A (3)

With this information we now suppose that  is an eigenvalue of A. Then there exists a unit vector v such
that Av   v holds. Consequently, the system of equations (Eq. 2)has anontrivial solution. Therefore, the
determinant of the coefficients of the system is equal to zero. Eq. (3) now shows that  is a root of
equation,

 3  I A  2  II A   III A  0. (4)

Since  is a real number, being an eigenvalue of A, it is a real root of Eq. (4).

Conversely, suppose that  is a real root of the cubic Eq. (4). Then the determinant of the
coefficients of equations (Eq. 2) is zero for this  , and consequently the system (Eq. 2) has a nontrivial
solution, say ui. This implies that

Au   u (5)

whereu is a vector whose components are ui. If we set v = u u , Eq. (5) becomes Av   v and  is

therefore an eigenvalue of A.

Thus,  is an eigenvalue of A if and only if it is a real root of Eq. (4).

Q.1.19. Prove that if Ais a symmetric tensor, then all three roots of the characteristic equation of Aare

18
real, and therefore, Ahas exactly three (not necessarily distinct) eigen values.

Ans.It is noted that at least one of the roots of the characteristic equation

 3  I A  2  II A   III A  0 (1)

is real and this real root is an eigenvalue of A. Denote this eigenvalue by 1 and let v1be a corresponding

eigenvector. Then, if v1iare components of v1 and aij=aji are components of A, we have

aij v1 j  1v1i (2)

Introduce a coordinate system xi such that the x1 axis is along the vector v1; i.e., e1  v1 . For this system,

we have

1i  e1  ei  v1  ei  v1i (3)

If aij are components of Ain the xi system, we have

  1 p1q a pq  a pq v1 p v1q  1v1 p v1 p  1

a11 (4)

In obtaining Eq. (4), we have used Eqs. (2) and (3) and the fact the v1 is a unit vector. Also,

a12  1 p 2 q a pq  1q 2 p aqp   2 p a pq v1q (Using Eq. 3 and that apq=aqp)

 1 2 p v1 p (Using Eq. 2)

Using Eq. (3) and the orthogonality of  ij

  1 2 p1 p  1 21

a12

=0 (5)

Similarly, a13  0 (6)

In view of Eqs. (4, 5 and 6), the characteristic equation of A in the xi system is given by

19
 1   0 0
0  
a22 
a23 0
0 
a23  
a33

which simplifies to

 1     2   a22  a33    a22 a33   a23  0

2
(7)


Evidently, one of the roots of this equation is 1 and the other two roots, say, 2 and 3 are determined by

the quadratic equation

 2   a22     a22
  a33    a23
 a33   0 (8)
2

The discriminant D of this equation is

D   a22    4 a22
  a33
2
 a33 
   a23
 
2

  a22    4  a23
  a33   0
2 2

Therefore, 2 and 3 are also real.

Thus, all the three roots of the characteristic equation of A are real. Since each real root of the
characteristic equation is an eigenvalue of A, it follows that A has exactly three eigenvalues. Further,
since the three roots 1 , 2 and 3 are not necessarily distinct, the three eigenvalues of Aneed not be

different from one another.

Q.1.20. Prove that eigen vectors (principal directions) corresponding to two distinct eigen values

(principal values) of a symmetric tensor are orthogonal.

Ans.Let 1 and 2 be two distinct eigenvalues of A, and v1 and v2be the corresponding eigenvectors. Then

we have

Av1  1v1 ; Av 2  2v 2 (1)

Using Eq. (1)and the fact that A is symmetric, we find that

20
 1v1  v2   Av1   v2   Av2   v1  2v2  v1

Since 1  2 , it follows that v1  v 2  0. The vectors v1 and v2 are thus orthogonal.

Q.1.21. Prove that a symmetric tensor has at least three mutually perpendicular principal directions.

Ans.Since A is a symmetric tensor, it has got exactly three eigenvalues, 1 , 2 and 3 . Let v1, v2 andv3be

the corresponding eigenvectors. Since 1 , 2 and 3 are not necessarily distinct, the following three cases

arise.

Case I:Suppose 1 , 2 and 3 are all distinct. Then, we have v1  v 2  v2  v3  v3  v1  0. Thus, v1, v2

andv3 are mutually orthogonal.

Case II:Suppose two of the three eigenvalues are equal; say, 1  2  3 . Then v1  v3  v2  v3  0.

Thus,v3 is orthogonal to both v1 and v2.

Take any unit vector u coplanar with v1 and v2. Then, u   v1   v2 , for some numbers α and β

and we have

Au  A  v1   v2 

  Av1   Av 2 (By the linear property of A)

   1v1     2 v2 

 1  v1   v2  (Since 1  2 )

 1u

Thus u is an eigenvector corresponding to 1 . Since u is arbitrary, it follows that every unit vector

coplanar with v1 and v2 is an eigenvector corresponding to 1 , and therefore there are infinitely many

coplanar eigenvectors. Of these vectors choose a vector u2 that is orthogonal to v1. Then

v1  u2  u2  v3  v3  v1  0

Showing that there exist (at least) three mutually orthogonal eigenvectors.

21
Case III: Suppose all the three eigenvalues are equal; that is 1  2  3 . Then the characteristic

equation should be of the following form:

 1    0
3

1   0 0
or 0 1   0 0 (1)
0 0 1  

Comparing the determinant in the left hand side of Eq. (1) with that in

a11   a12 a13

det  A   I   a21 a22   a23 (2)
a31 a32 a33  

we find that a11  a22  a33  1 , other aij=0. Thus A  1 I so that for any vector u, we have Au  1u.

Hence, A has infinitely many eigenvectors, all of which correspond to the same eigenvalue 1 . Of these

vectors we can certainly choose (at least)three vectors v1, v2 and v3 that are mutually orthogonal. Thus, in
this case also, there exist three mutually orthogonal eigenvectors for A.

Q.1.22. Given a symmetric tensor A, there exits at least one coordinate system with respect to which

matrix of Ais diagonal.

Ans.We know that there exist at least three eigenvectors v1, v2 and v3 of A that are mutually orthogonal.
Since –v is also an eigenvector when v is an eigenvector, we may choose these three mutually orthogonal
eigenvectors in such a way that they form base vectors of a right handed rectangular coordinate system.

With respect to the base vectors ei, the components aijof A are given by aij  ei  Ae j . Hence with

respect to the coordinate system with vi as base vectors, we have

a11  v1  Av1  v1  1v1  1

(1)
a12  v1  Av 2  v1  2v 2  0

Similarly,

a22  2 , a33  3 , a13  a23  0 (2)

22
In view of Eqs. (1) and (2), it follows that, with respect to the coordinate system having vi as base vectors,
the matrix of A is

1 0 0
 aij    0 2 0  (3)

 0 0 3 

which is a diagonal matrix.

Q.1.23. LetAbe a symmetric tensor with λi as eigen values and vias corresponding eigen vectors. Show
that Acan be represented as

A   k  v k  v k 
3

k 1

This is known as the spectral representation of A.

Ans.Every tensor A has the following representation in a coordinate system having ei as base vectors:

A  aij ei  e j . (1)

Hence, with respect to a coordinate system with the eigenvectors vi as base vectors, a symmetric tensor A
has the representation

A  aij v i  v j . (2)

Also, with respect to this coordinate system, the matrix A is given by

1 0 0
 aij    0 2 0  (3)

 0 0 3 

Using Eq. (3), the representation of Eq. (2) becomes

A  1  v1  v1  + 2  v2  v2   3  v3  v3  , (4)

  v  vk  .
3
which is A  k k
k 1

23
Q. 2.24 Every invertible tensor A can be represented in the form
A = QU = VQ
where Q is orthogonal tensor and U and V are positive definite symmetric tensors such that
U 2 = AT A and V 2 = AAT . Furthermore, the representations are unique.

Ans: Let we denote the square root of AT A by U and define the tensor Q by
Q = AU 1 (1)
Then,
QT Q =  AU -1   AU  = U  AT AU -1
T -1 T -1

U -1U 2U -1 = I . (2)
Hence Q is an orthogonal tensor. From Eq. (1), we also get
A = QU (3)
This is the first of the two representations specified in the question. . To prove the uniqueness of
this representation, we assume that A has another representation,
A = QU (4)
where Q is orthogonal and U is symmetric and positive definite. Then

AT A =  QU   QU  = U  QT Q  U = U 2 (5)
T

showing that U is a square root of AT A . But AT A has a unique square root U . As such U = U . From
Eq. (4) and Eq. (1) we then get
Q = AU -1 = AU -1 = Q (6)
Thus, the representation of Eq. (4) is unique.
Next, let us define V by
V = QUQT (7)

Then,
V 2 =  QUQT  QUQT  = QU 2 QT =  QU  QU  = AAT
T

(8)
Thus, V is the square root of A A ; as such it is symmetric and positive definite. Also,
T

A = QU =  QUQT  Q = VQ (9)
This is the second of the representations specified in the question. Expression provide by Eq. (7)
shows that V is uniquely determined by Q and U . Hence this representation is also unique. The proof of
the theorem is complete.

 dQ  T
Q.1.25 If Q(t) is an orthogonal tensor. Show that   Q is a skew tensor.
 dt 
Ans: Since Q is an orthogonal tensor, we have QT Q = I . Differentiation both sides, we get

24
  dQ  T  dQT 
  Q  Q  dt 0 (1)
 dt   
so that
 dQ  T  dQT   dQ 
T

  Q   Q  dt   Q  dt  (2)
 dt     
Hence
 dQ  T    dQ    dQ  T
T T T

  Q   Q      Q (3)
 dt     dt    dt 
 dQ  T
showing that the tensor   Q is skew.
 dt 

Q. 2.26 Prove that xi , j   ij and xi,i = 3.

Ans:
x1
We know that x1,1   1 . Similarly, x2,2  x3,3  1 .
x1
x1
Also x1,2   0 . Similarly, x1,3  x3,1  x2,3  x3,2  x2,1  0. Thus,
x2
1 if i and j take the same value
xi , j  
0 if i and j take the different value
  ij .
Consequently, xi ,i   ij = 3.

Q. 2.27: Express the divergence and curl of a vector and tensor field in index notation.
Ans:

Divergence of vector
Consider a vector field u and put a  uk , k in all coordinate systems. Then
uk
a 
xk
By using the chain rule of differentiation, this takes the form
uk xn
a 
xn xk
xk
Noting that uk   km um and using   ik , this becomes
xi
a   kmum  ,n  kn   km knum, n
  mn um ,n  um ,m  a

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This transformation rule shows that a  uk , k is a scalar (invariant). This scalar is evidently a function of
xi in general; it is called the divergence of u, denoted div u, or .u
Thus, if u is a vector field, then div u is a scalar field given by
div u  uk ,k  {[u]k },k (1)
It is obvious that the divergence of a constant vector field is equal to 0.
If u=  , then ui  ,i and a  uk ,k  , kk    , or div u =  2 . Thus , we have the identity
2

div( )   2 (2)
If v =  u , then vi   ui and div v  vk , k  ( u k ) , k  , k u k   uk , k  u.   div u . Thus we have
another identity:
div(u)   (div u)  .u (3)
Curl of a vector field
Consider again a vector field uand put ai   imn un , m in all coordinate systems. Then
un
ai   imn

xm
Using the fact that  ijk are the components of the third-order tensor and the chain rule of differentiation,
we get
un xs
ai   ip mq nr  pqr
xs xm
xk
Noting that un   nk uk and using   ik , this becomes
xi
ai   ip mq nr ms nk  pqr uk , s
  ip qs rk  pqr uk , s
  ip pqr uk , s   ip a p
This transformation rule shows that ai   imn un , m are components of a vector. This vector is a function of
xi in general, called the curl of u, denoted curl uor   u .

 curl u i   imnun,m   imn u n ,m

Thus, if u is a vector field, then curl u is also vector field with components given by
(4)
It is obvious that the curl of a constant vector field is the zero vector.
If u   , then Eq. (4) gives  curl u i   imnn ,m  0 , then we have identity
curl  0 (5)
From Eq. (1) and (4), we get another identity:
div(curl u)  {[curl u ]k }, k   kmn un ,mk  0 (6)
If v =  u , then
curl v i   ijk vk , j   ijk ( uk ), j
  ijk  uk , j   ijk , j uk
   curl u i    u i
Thus we have one more identity:
curl (u) =  curl u    u (7)

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From the definitions of div u and curl u, it is easy to verify that div and curl are linear differential
operators on vectors; that is,
div( u +  v)   div u +  div v
curl( u +  v)   curl u +  curl v
For all vectors u and v and all scalar constant  and  .
Divergence of a Tensor field
If aij are the components of a tensor field A, it already has been seen that aij , k are components of the
tensor A . Consequently, it follows (by contraction) that aij , j are components of a vector field. This
vector field is called the divergence of A, denoted div A.
Thus, if Ais a second-order tensor field, then div A is a vector field with components given by
[div A ]i  aij , j  {[ A ]ij }, j (8)
Obviously, the divergence of a constant (second-order) tensor field is the zero vector.
From Eq. (8) it readily follows that div A is a vector field with components
T

[div AT ]i  a ji , j  {[ A] ji }, j (9)
Setting A  u , we find from Eq. (8) and (9), that
 divui  ui , jj  2ui
so that
divu =  2u (10)
and
divuT   u j ,ij  u j , ji   divu i
div uT    div u 
i

(11)

Curl of a Tensor field

Consider again a tensor field Awith components aij . Let us now put cij   imn a jn ,m in all coordinate
systems. Then
ajn
cij   imn

xm
Using the fact that  imn are components of the third order tensor and the chain rule of differentiation, this
expression becomes
cij   ip mq nr  pqr

xs
 ajn  s
x
xm
xk
Noting that a jn   jh nk ahk and using   ik , we get
xi
cij   ip mq nr jh nk  pqr ms ahk , s
  ip jh qs rk  pqr ahk , s
  ip jh pqr ahr ,q   ip jh c ph
This transformation rule shows that cij   imn a jn ,m are components f a second order tensor. Tis tensor is a
function of xi in general and is called curl of A.
Thus , if A is a second-order tensor field, then curl A is also a second order tensor field with components
given by

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 [curl A ]ij   imn a jn ,m   imn {[ A ] jn }, m (12)
It is obvious that the curl of a constant tensor filed is the zero tensor.
From Eq. 12 it readily follows that curl AT and  curl A  are tensors with components given by
T

[curl AT ]ij   imn anj ,m   imn {[ A]nj },m (13)

[ curl A  ]ij   jmn ain ,m   jmn {[ A ]in },m (14)
T

Evidently,  curl A   curl AT , in general.

T

If A  u then from Eq. (12) and (13), we find that

 curl u ij   imnu j ,nm  0
so that
curl u = 0 (15)
and
curl uT    imnun, jm    imn un , m 


  curl u i   curl u
ij ,j

,j ij

so that
curl uT  curl u (16)

Q. 2.28: Prove the following divergence theorem for a tensor. Let V be the volume of a three-dimensional
region bounded by a closed regular surface S, then for a tensor field A defined in V and on S,

 div A dV   An dS
V S

where n is the unit outward normal to S.

Ans:
Proof: Let c be an arbitrary constant vector. Then
c   div A dV   c   div A dV

   div AT c dV
V V

We know that  div A   c  div  AT c  (Please refer Chandasekharaiah and Debnath (1994), pp. 131 ). we
V

get,
   AT c   n dS   c   An  dS
S S

so that
 
c    div A dV   A  n dS   0 .
V S 
Since c is an arbitrary vector, this expression yields the results

 div A dV   An dS .
V S

Hence proved.
In the suffix notation, expression may be written as

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 a
V
ik , k dV   aik nk dS .
S

Q. 2.29: Prove the following Stoke’s theorem for a tensor. Let C be simple closed curve in 3-dimensional
space and S be an open regular surface bounded by C. Then, for a vector field defined on S as well C,

 At ds    curl A  n dS
T

C S

where t is the unit vector tangent to C, which is assumed to be positively oriented relative to the unit
noemal n to S.
Ans.
Let a be an arbitrary constant vector. Then,
a    curl A  n dS   a   curl A  n dS   n   curl A  a dS
T T

  n   curl AT a  dS .
S S S

(1)
By virtue of expression provide by Eq. (1), we have

 n  curl  A a  dS    A a   t dS
T T

  a   At  dS  a   At dS
S C

C C

(2)
Since a is arbitrary, expression provides from Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) yield the result.

 At ds    curl A  n dS . (3)
T

C S

Hence proved.
In the suffix notation, Expression given by Eq. (3) can be written as

a
V
ik , k dV   aik nk dS .
S

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