CHAPTER 2.

Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

CHAPTER - 2
2.1 Introduction
Francis turbines inward flow reaction turbine. In old Francis turbine, the
discharge was radial. The modern Francis turbine is an inward mixed flow
(radial and axial) reaction turbine. In this turbine, water under pressure enters
the runner through the guide blade radially in inward direction and leaves the
runner axially.
The turbine runner consists of a series of curved vanes uniformly fitted
around the circumference. The vanes are smooth and their profile ensures
efficient performance and freedom from “cavitations”.
Water from the reservoir is led to the turbine through the penstock. From
the penstock, water enters the “scroll casing” which surrounds the guide vanes
(called “wicket gates”) and the runner. Flowing through the guide vanes, water
radially strikes the runner blades and causes the runner to rotate. After doing
work in the runner vanes, water leaves the turbine axially through a straight
divergent cone, called “draft tube” and finally flows through the tail race.
Note : Francis turbine is so called, because it was invented by Francis, an
American engineer [1].

2.2 Theory of Turbine

Divided theory of turbine into:
a- reaction turbine b- impulse turbine
Reaction Turbine:
In any reaction turbine the water at inlet possesses both pressure energy
and kinetic energy. As the water flows through the turbine its pressure energy is
transformed into kinetic energy and ultimately energy this water leaves the
turbine at atmospheric pressure or at a pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure.
The runner of the turbine is enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner is
full of water. Reaction turbines are also called pressure turbines.

2.3 Classification of Reaction Turbine

Reaction turbines are classification as follows:
1- Radial flow turbines.
2- Axial flow turbine.

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

3- Mixed flow turbines.

Radial flow reaction turbines are those turbines in which water flows
radially.
Radial flow reaction turbines are sub-divided into (a) inward flow reaction
turbine and (b) Outward flow reaction turbine.
Inward flow reaction turbine, water flows radially from outward towards the
axis of rotation of the turbine shaft. In outward flow reaction turbine, water flows
radially from inwards towards outwards.

2.4 Main Components of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine.

A radial flow reaction turbine consists of the following main components:
1- Casing
2- Guide mechanism
3- Runner
4- Draft tube

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Fig (2.1) main of components of radial flow reaction turbine.

The material with which the spiral casing is made depends upon the head
water under which the turbine works.
HEAD OF WATER MATERIAL USED IN MAKING
THE CASING
Up to 30 m Concrete
Between 30 m to 100 m Welded rolled steel plate
Above 100 m Cast steel
IMPULSE WATER TURBINE REACTION WATER TUBINE
1- All the available pressure head is 1- Only part of the available pressure
converted into kinetic head before head is converted into kinetic head
striking on the buckets. before striking on the runner vanes.
2-As the water moves over the 2-The velocity and pressure both
buckets the pressure throughout from change during flow of water over the
inlet to exit remains atmospheric. vanes.
3-The wheel must not run full. 3-The runner must run full.
4-The turbine must be placed above 4-The turbine must be submerged in
the tail race or at the foot of the fall. the tail race or it can be placed above
the foot of the fall by connecting the
discharge end with draft tube.
5-Water may be admitted over part 5-Water is admitted over the whole
or whole of the wheel circumference. circumference of the runner.
6-Flow of water can be regulated 6-Flow of water cannot be regulated
without loss of efficiency. without loss of efficiency.
7-Work is done due to change in 7-Work is done partly by the change
kinetic energy of water entering into in kinetic energy and party by the
the buckets. change in pressure energy of water
entering into the runner.
8-Components of the turbine are 8-Components of the turbine are not
easily accessible. Hence repairs are easily accessible since the runner is
easy. completely enclosed in an air-tight
casing.
9-It dose not require any a draft tube. 9-It requires a draft tube
10-Working speed is less. Hence for 10-Working speed is more. Hence
the same power developed size of the for the same power developed size of
turbine is large. the turbine is less.

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Table (2.1) Relation between impulse & reaction turbine.

Ff

Fig (2.2) Inlet and outlet velocity diagrams for Francis turbine.

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

In the velocity diagrams for Francis turbine,

u1=peripheral speed of the runner at inlet
u2=peripheral speed of the runner at outlet
v1=absolute velocity of water at inlet
v2=absolute velocity of water at outlet
vr1= relative velocity of water at inlet
vr2=relative velocity of water at outlet
vf1= velocity of flow at inlet
vf2= velocity of flow at outlet
vw1= velocity of whirl at inlet
α1=inlet angle of water
α2= outlet angle of water=90◦
θ1= inlet vane angle
θ2= outlet vane angle

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric power plants

2.5.1 Advantages
i. No fuel requirement: No fuel is required to generate electricity. Water
source is perennially available.
ii. Low runner cost: the electricity per kWh is very cheap as compared to
thermal or nuclear.
iii. No problem of disposal of ash: since no fossil fuel is used, so there is no
problem of disposal of ash.
iv. Pollution free electricity generation: the electricity generated by
hydropower dose not produces any type of pollution.
v. Easily switched on and off in a short period: the hydraulic turbine is
switched on and off in a very short period unlike thermal or nuclear plants.
The steam turbine of thermal or nuclear plant is put on turning gears for
about 48 hours during start-up and shut-down.
vi. Simple in concept, self-contained and reliable in operation. The design
concept of hydraulic power plant is simple in concept and the operation is
self-contained and reliable as compared to thermal or nuclear power plants.
vii. Greater life expectancy. Modern hydraulic power plants have greater life
expectancy (about 50 years) as compared to thermal or nuclear plants
(about 30 years).
viii. Act as ideal spinning reserve :Owing to greater ease of taking up and
throwing off the load, the hydro-power can be used as an ideal spinning
reserve in a system of mix of thermal, hydro and nuclear power stations.
ix. Higher plant efficiency: the plant efficiency is high (about 85 to 94%) over
a considerable range of load.
x. Ancillary benefits; hydroelectric power plants provide ancillary benefits
like irrigation, flood control, a forestation, navigation and aqua-culture.
xi. Less skilled workers: Owing to simple design and operation, hydroelectric
power plants do not require highly skilled workers. Even the manpower
requirements are much less as compared to thermal or nuclear power
plants.
xii. Quick response to the change of load: the outstanding features of hydro-
electric plant are quick response of the change of load compared with
thermal or nuclear. The rapid fluctuating loads are served most
economically by hydro-plants.

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

2.5.2 Disadvantages.
The following are the disadvantages of hydroelectric power plants.
i. High capital cost: hydroelectric power plants are capital intensive with a
low rate of return. The interest rate of this capital cost is a large of annual
cost of hydraulic power station.
ii. Power dependent on quantity of water available: power generated by the
hydro-plants is only dependent on the quantity of water available which
in turn depends on the natural phenomenon of rain. The dry year is more
serious for the hydro-electric project.
iii. Site selection dependent on water availability: the sit is selected on the
criterion of water availability at economical load. Such sites are usually
away from the load centers. Long transmission lines are needed to
transmit power from station to consumers.
iv. Long erection time: the completion of hydroelectric power plants takes a
much longer period (about 10 years) as compared to thermal power plants
(about 3 years).
v. Disturbed ecology of the area: the large hydro-plants disturb the ecology
of the area by way of deforestation, destroying vegetation and uprooting
people. There is a strong public opinion against large hydro-plants. Now,
emphasis is on small, mini and micro level hydro plants.
Presently, Government of India is planning to interconnect all the rivers of
India. Since national grid is now a reality so if rivers are interconnected it will
not only help in power production but in irrigation and flood control also.
2.6 Theory of Francis water turbines
Francis turbine is widely used world over. It operates under the head
varying from 30 to 500 m. the single unit may develop power as high as 750
MW. The specific speed ranges from 60 to 400. It is reaction turbine. Formerly
its specific speed was limited to about 60 and it was radial inward flow type but
at present they are the mixed flow type with radial entry and axial exit.

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Fig. (2.3) A schematic of a Francis water turbine:

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Fig (2.4) Velocity diagram for a Francis turbine:

2.7 Cavitation Problem in Water Turbine
Cavitations are one of the undesirable problems in the operation of water
turbines. The formation of water vapour and air bubbles on the water surface
due to reduction of pressure and sudden collapse are known as cavitations. In
any part of the turbine if the pressure drops below the vapour pressure at the
temperature some of the liquid flashes into vapour .the bubbles formed during
vaporization are carried by the water steam to higher pressure zones, where the
bubbles condense into liquid forming a cavity or vacuum. The surrounding
liquid rushes towards the cavity giving rise to a very high level pressure as high
as 700 atm.the rapid formation and collapsing of the bubbles cause the pitting of
the metallic surface accompanied with variation and noise . This phenomenon
is known as cavitations. It also reduces the hydraulic efficiency of turbine.
Since the chance of reduction of pressure below atmospheric occurs only at
the exit of runner blade of turbine or inlet of draft tube so the cavitations occur
at the exit of runner. The energy balance at the exit of runner(er) and exit of
draft tube (ed) yields

/ /
Per / δ =Pa δ – [h + (C²er − C² ed 2g) – hf]

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Where h is height between turbine exit and tailrace. Hf is the head loss
between turbine and draft tube exit pa is the atmospheric pressure exerting on the
tailrace, per is the pressure of water at the exit of runner, Cer and Ced are the water
velocities at the exit of runner and draft tube respectively.
2.7.1 Cavitations Factor.
Prof. D. thaws of Germany suggested a cavitations factor to determine the
zone where the turbines can work without any danger of cavitations. The critical
value of cavitations factor is given by
σc = (Ha− Hv) /H
Where Ha =atmospheric pressure head (m), Hv = vapour pressure (m) at
water temperature, H = working head of turbine (m) h =high of turbine outlet
above tailrace level (m) the values of σ c depend upon specific speed and
turbine which are given in table (2.1) below explained values of σc for various
of Ns and Different turbine [6].
Francis turbine Kaplan turbine
Ns σc Ns σc
50 0.04 300-450 0.45-0.4
100 0.05 450-500 0.4-0.45
150 0.07 550-600 0.46-0.6
200 0.1 650-700 0.85
250 0.14 700-800 1.05
300 0.2
350 0.27
Table (2.2) The value of σc:
Advantage Disadvantage
NO
1 Pollution free, therefore no Comparatively high investments.
pollutants
2 No consumption of natural Frequently large distance between
resources favorable water power locations and
consumer centers
3 Small delivery of warmth Energy production is inconsistent
with wave power stations in open sea
4 High efficiency (about 90%) Over congestion of otherwise usable
surfaces and ecologically valuation

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

habitat.
5 Long life spam of a plant Sociological effects due to resetting
6 Simple and proven technology Interruption and restriction of the
habitat for moving fish
7 Low operating cost due to Disturbance of the water regime in
small requirement at the environment
maintenance and operation
8 Speed of employing and Reduction of the velocity of flow
turning a plant off which leads demolition of the area
above the water thus retaining
structure to deposits and below to the
erosion
9 Advantage during general- Disturbance the habitat of many
purpose use(irrigation animals species living in water and
navigation flood protection plant types
water supply)
10 Energy storage possibility Water changes occur how: oxygen
poverty temperature change, change
of the flow conditions and increase
in nutrients too inadvertent growth
11 Elevation of the ground-water No flooding- no fertile mud
level distribution and disturbance of the
biological equilibrium
Table (2.3) Advantage and disadvantage of the hydraulic power plant[6].

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Fig (2.5) The pump-fed power station:

Facts:
Head: up to 800 meters
Achievement: up to 750 MW
Efficiency: up to 90% [7].
Power (kW) = Head (meters) x Flow (m3/second) x Gravity (9, 81) x Efficiency
(0, 6)
Head = Net head = Gross head -losses (m)
Here the overall efficiency was set at 60%.

2.8 Hydroelectric Power Plant Technology

In hydro power plants the kinetic energy of falling water is captured to
generate electricity. A turbine and a generator convert the energy from the water
to mechanical and then electrical energy. The turbines and generators are
installed either in or adjacent to dams, or use pipelines (penstocks) to carry the
pressured water below the dam or diversion structure to the powerhouse. The
power capacity of a hydropower plant is primarily the function of two variables:
(1) flow rate expressed in cubic meters per second (m3/s), and (2) the hydraulic

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

head, which is the elevation difference the water falls in passing through the
plant. Plant design may concentrate on either of these variables or both.

Fig (2.6) connection turbine and generator by control:

From the energy conversion point of view, hydro power is a technology
with very high efficiencies, in most cases more than doubles that of
conventional thermal power plants. This is due to the fact that a volume
of water that can be made to fall a vertical distance represents kinetic energy
which can more easily be converted into the mechanical rotary power needed to
generate electricity, than caloric energies. Equipment associated with
hydropower is well developed, relatively simple, and very reliable. Because
no heat (as e.g. in combustion) is involved, equipment has a long life and
malfunctioning is rare. The service life of a hydroelectric plant is well In excess
of 50 years. Many plants built in the twenties - the first heyday of hydroelectric
power - are still in operation.
Since all essential operating conditions can be remotely monitored and
adjusted by a central control facility, few operating personnel are required on
site. Experience is considerable with the operation of hydropower plants in
output ranges from less than one kW up to hundreds of MW for a single unit.

Fig (2.7) Explained in this chart power production

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Fig (2.8) The relation between Flow and head

In the fig (2.8) load factor and reducing the cycling of its base load units.
In most cases, pumped storage plants run a full cycle every 24 hours.

2.9 stages of velocity triangles

The flow geometry at the entry and exit of a turbomachine stage is
described by the velocity triangles at these stations. A minimum number of data
on velocity vectors and their directions are required to draw a complete set of
velocity triangles.
All type of turbo machines has a finite cross-section at the entry and exit.
Therefore, the magnitudes of velocity vectors and their directions vary over
these sections. Because of this, an infinite number of velocity triangles would be
required to fully describe the flow. This is obviously not possible. On the other
hand, a single pair of velocity triangles will only represent a one-dimensional
flow through the stage. In view of this, mean values of velocity vectors and their
directions are defined for blade roes of given geometries and flow conditions.
These values make it possible to draw the mean velocity triangles for a
turbomachine contain, besides the peripheral velocity (u) of the rotor blades
both the absolute (c) and relative (w) fluid velocity vectors. These velocities are
related by the following well known vector equation:

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

Absolute velocity vector = peripheral velocity vector + relative velocity

vector
C=u+w
This simple relation is frequently used and is very useful in drawing the
velocity triangles for turbomachines. For instance, velocity triangles have been
drawing using this relation. The angles are from the axial direction (the
reference direction). For axial machines u1= u2 = u3 = constant.

2.10 Design conditions

Like other machine, turbo machines are also designed for some prescribed
running conditions at which they should have high or maximum efficiency.
The design conditions among other things fix the geometry of the flow; at
the design point operation of a turbomachine there is some correspondence
between the blade angles and the mean fluid angles. The ratio of the peripheral
velocity of the rotor to some fluid velocity is also fixed by design conditions.
Aerodynamic or aerothermodynamics design conditions should fully take into
account the strength considerations ease in manufacture material and economic
aspects [9].

2.11 General Layout of a Hydro-Electric Power Plan

Fig (2.10) shows a general lay-out of a hydro-electric power plant which
consists of:

Fig (2.9) General layout of hydro-electric power plant

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

(i) A dam constructed across a river to store water.

(ii) Pipes of large diameters called penstocks, which carry water under pressure
from the storage reservoir to the turbines. These pipes are made of steel or
reinforced concrete.
(iii) Turbine having different types of vanes fitted to the wheels.
(iv) Tail race, which is a channel which carries water away from the turbines
after the water has worked on the turbines. The surface of water in the tail race
is also known as tail race.
2.12 Radial Flow Reaction Turbines:
Radial flow turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in the
radial direction. The water may flow radially from outwards to inward (i.e.,
towards the axis of rotation) or from inwards to outwards. If the water flows
from outwards through the runner, the turbine is known as inward radial flow
turbine. And if the water flows from inward to outwards the turbine is known as
outward radial flow turbine.
Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possesses
kinetic energy as well as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner
apart of pressure energy goes on changing into kinetic energy. Thus the water
trough the runner is under pressure. The runner is completely enclosed in an air-
tight casing and casing and the runner is always full of water.
2.12.1 Main parts of a radial flow reaction turbine.
The main parts of a radial flow reaction turbine are:
1-casing 3- runner and
2- Guide 4- draft tube.
1- Casing:
As mentioned above that in case of reaction turbine casing and runner are
always full of water. The water from the penstocks enters the casing which
is of spiral shape in which area of cross-section of the casing goes on
decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the
turbine. The casing as shown in fig below is made of spiral shape so that
the water may enter the runner at constant velocity through out the
circumference of the runner. The casing is made of concrete, cast steel or
plate steel.
2- Guide Mechanism:
It consists of a stationary circular wheel all round the runner of the turbine.
The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock
at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement the width between two adjacent
vanes of guide mechanism can be altered so that the amount of water
striking the runner can be varied.

Fig (2.10) Main parts of radial reaction turbines.

3- Runner:
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved are fixed. The
surface of the vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so
shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner without shock. The
runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. They are keyed to
the shaft.
4- Draft tube:
The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally
less than atmospheric pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly
discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This
tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
2.12.2 Inward radial flow turbine.

Fig (2.11) Inward radial flow turbine.

Fig (2.11) shows inward radial flow turbine, in which case the water from
the casing enters the stationary guiding wheel. The guiding wheel consists of
guide vanes which direct the water to enter the runner which consists of moving
vanes. The water flows over the moving vanes in the inward radial direction and
is discharged at the inner diameter of the runner. The outer diameter of the
runner is the inlet and the inner diameter is the outlet.
2.13 Velocity Triangles and work done by water on runner
We have discussed in detail the force exerted by the water on the radial
curved vanes fixed on a wheel. From the force exerted on the vanes the work
done by water, the horse power given by the water to the vanes and efficiency
of the vanes can be obtained. Also we have drawn velocity triangles at inlet and
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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

outlet of the moving radial vanes from the velocity triangles the work done by
the water on the runners, horse power and efficiency of the turbine can be
obtained.
The work done per second on the runner by water is given by equation as

= ρa V1 [Vw1u1 ± Vw2u2]
= ρQ [Vw1u1 ±Vw2u2] (a v1 = Q )

Where Vw1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet,

Vw2 = velocity of whirl at outlet,
U1 = Tangential velocity of wheel at inlet

= πD1×N 60 /
Where D1 = Outer dia. Of runner,
µ2 = Tangential velocity of wheel at outlet

= πD2×N 60 /
Where D2 = Inner dia. Of runner= speed of the turbine in. r.p.m.
The work done per second per unit weight of water per second.

= work done per second / Weight of water striking per second

= ρ Q[ Vw1µ1 ± Vw2µ2] / ρQ × g
= 1/g [Vw1µ1 ± Vw2µ]

The equation above represents the energy transfer per unit weight / s to the
runner. This equation is known by Euler’s equation of hydrodynamics
machines. This also known as fundamental equation of hydrodynamic
machines. This equation was given by Swiss scientist l. Euler.
In equation above +ve sign is taken if angle β is an acute angle. If β is an
obtuse angle then – ve sign is taken. If β = 90° ,then Vw2 = 0 and work done per
second per unit weight of water striking / s become as
= 1/g Vw1µ1
Hydraulic efficiency is obtained from equation ηh = R.P. / W.P. as

ηh = R.P. / W.P. = W/1000g [Vw1µ1 ± Vw2µ2] / W×H/1000

= (Vw1µ1 ± Vw2µ) /gH
Where R.P. = Runner power i.e., power delivered by water to the runner
W.P. = water power if the discharge is radial at outlet, then Vw2=0
ηh = Vw1µ1 / gH.

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 CHAPTER 2. Basic Concepts of Water Francis Turbine

2.14 Cost
Hydro power plants are very attractive for the investors. This is due to the
relative low investment costs and competitive price of electricity produced.
Moreover the life span hydro facilities are considerably longer than for
conventional fossil power plants. There are hydro power plants which run for
almost 100 years [8].

Fig (2.12) Explained in this chart power production

31