READING AND WRITING

READING AS A SKILL
 According to Fisher and Frey (2008)
Students of the 21st century must be able to locate, understand, evaluate, and use written information in their
personal and academic lives. Their ability to do will profoundly affect the trajectory of their adult lives. In an age where digital,
academic, political, and social words are driven by written information, their capacity to make use of multiple literacies will be a
determinant in how they live… their future depend on it.
You become a strategic reader if you establish a connection between the written texts across text types to your own
knowledge and experience.
 In high school, reading is an important component to succeed as a student. One has to read effectively in order to
tackle requirements and pass the subject.
 First – reading is a decoding process – the breaking down of written codes
 Second – reading is seen as a comprehension process
 Reading is a cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from a text.
 It is always an interaction between the text and the reader.
 We read to gain and share information and ideas, whether for academic, personal, or professional purposes.
Reading is a skill that can be improved through consistent practice. In order to comprehend the text, we apply many skills
simultaneously while we read. What are those skills?
Some strategies that we can use to help us become better readers.
 Identifying the author’s purpose
 Grasping the main idea of the text
 Locating important details using context clues to understand unfamiliar words
 Answering specific questions
 Analyzing the text’s points
 Critiquing the text

Reading as a Process
 Reading is an activity which takes on stages or levels.
 According to woods (2006), it has three stages: pre-reading, during reading, and post reading.
PRE-READING
 During the pre-reading stage, the purpose for reading is set, the old knowledge of the reader is activated, and the
meaning of unfamiliar words are deciphered.
DURING READING
 It is during the reading that the reader grasp the meaning of the reading material by connecting it to his old
knowledge or schema.
POST READING
 The post-reading stage enables the reader to establish a connection between what they learned with what they
know.
 It is also during this stage when the reader processes the learned information.
 He predicts, guesses, evaluates, and analyses the information whether to accept or reject it.
TECHNIQUES IN READING
 in order to read effectively, you need to use reading techniques. The technique that you will use depends on your
purpose in reading. it is a requirement that you have to identify first your purpose in reading.
Consider the following in your interest to read effectively:
1. SKIMMING – THIS IS A STRATEGY USED TO GET ONLY THE MAIN IDEAS OF A WRITTEN TEXT IN ORDER TO
KNOW WHAT THE MATERIAL IS ALL ABOUT. THERE ARE THREE (3) STYLES FOR THIS.
 1.1 PREVIEWING – THIS INVOLVES GIVING Material a general look in order to know what the material
contains.
 1.2 overviewing – this makes use of taking a look at the title, chapter, or heading.
 1.3 surveying – this involves giving the text a rundown from first section to the last section.
 2. scanning – this is used to search only for a specific information
 3. comprehensive – this technique requires processing of the text for full understanding of the material.
 4. critical – it is a technique which involves an analysis of the claims presented in the text.
USING CONTEXTUAL CLUES
 In reading a material, it is common to come across unfamiliar words. Instead of inconveniently using a dictionary to
search for the meaning of the words, it is better to use contextual clues in the sentence.
CONEXT CLUES
 Are the words, phrases and sentences that would help you to decipher the meaning of difficult words in the selection.
Apart from knowledge in the sentence structure, context clues also require activation of the reader’s prior knowledge
or past meaning in connection to the unfamiliar word.
Use of synonyms as context clues
 Words having the same meaning or nearly the same meaning are called synonyms. They are easily recognized on
the manner they appear in a sentence.
Synonyms appear in a sentence in the following ways:
A. by dashes
Example: she finds solace-comfort-in the country-side.
b. By commas to separate appositive
Example: the advocates, supporter, of anti-mining formed a picket outside the building
c. By reinstatement or expression of the word in a more familiar term.
Example: the smiles of these little children are guileless. They show innocence and no deception.

Use of Antonym as a context clues

 Antonyms are words having opposite meaning. They do not give the definition but provide an idea about the
unfamiliar word.
 Antonyms are recognized in a sentence through any word which presents opposite meanings like but, although,
despite, instead, in contrast, unlike, however, even though, on the contrary, conversely, etc.
Examples:
1. His siblings are generous and giving but she is so stingy.
a. Generous is the antonym of stingy.
b. Stingy, then, means unwillingness to share to others.
2. As an optimist, Lara looks for a brighter future. However, there are times due to problems she cannot help but to become a
pessimist.
a. Optimist is the antonym of pessimist.
b. Pessimist means a person who expects the worse in everything.
Use of examples as context clues
 Examples are list of illustrations which make the unfamiliar word clearer. In order to derive the meaning of the word,
you have to analyze the examples given and find common trait or characteristic.
Examples:
1. Lyn is on a diet. However, she still ate a portion of everything served like a small piece of meat, a small piece of
bread, and a small piece of cake.
a. Portion – anything of small serving
2. Nutritious food, such as fruits and vegetables, help our bodies grow.
a. Nutritious – any food that makes the body healthy.
Use comparison as context clues
 Comparison involves identifying the similarities and differences of two or more things, places, or events. It is
indicated by words such as:
like similar to as (good) as similarly likewise too
while the same as in comparison to both alike also so is but
Examples:
1. Laura gets easily perplexed by the brain teasers but Kim figures them out easily.
2. Manuel is determined to prove his innocence. His mother is resolute as well.
Use of Derivation or Structural Analysis as Context Clues
 This technique looks into the root word, affixes, or inflectional endings of an unfamiliar word.
 The root word is the base form of the word.
 An affix is a letter, sound, or a syllable added to the initial (prefix) or last (suffix) part of the word to form another
word.

 An inflectional ending is also added to a word but only at the end.

Use of Sense of Sentence as Context Clues

 In getting the meaning of an unfamiliar term, you have to consider the meaning, nature, or significance of the whole
sentence.
Example:
1. The weak group will be out of the game, leaving only relatively robust group in the game.

1. It is important to clean the colon by eating fruits and vegetables to rid the body of toxins.

TEXT AS CONNECTED DISCOURSE

 According to Vaughn and Linan-Thompson (2004):
“Reading comprehension is the active process of constructing meaning from text.”
 Reading is viewed as a connected discourse between the reader and the text. It is a process which involves the use
of knowledge, experience, and thinking in getting meaning from the print.
 There has to be a connectedness among the three (3) components – the author, the reader and text.
TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION
BRAINSTORMING
- is a process of writing down specific topics gathered from different sources. It involves documenting and coming up with a list
of topics. These topics, you may find out that not all of them will be useful for you. Nonetheless, it is still a valuable tool to
organize your idea.
• Brainstorming list
- Is composed of major points with sub-details for each. The sublist may be a short explanation or example of the major point.
GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
• This technique in organizing information involves the use of visual symbols.
• These symbols represent the knowledge, concepts, thoughts or ideas, and the relationship between.
• Are valuable tool in coming up with a structured representation of the specific topic needed for your purpose.
• By using a graphic organizer, it helps you to establish between and among the topics that you included.
• By merely looking at the visual representation, you are able to establish a clear train of thought which makes it easy
for you to grasp the entire topic.
EXAMPLES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
• Venn diagram
- Write details that tell how the subjects are different in the outer circles. Write details that tell how the subjects are
alike where the circles overlap.

• Concept map
-Used as a learning and teaching technique, concept mapping visually illustrates the relationships between concepts
and ideas.

- Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to show how that main idea can be broken
down into specific topics.

• Story map
- Using a story map helps to identify key elements in a story such as characters or events.

• Time line
- A timeline is a type of graphic organizer that shows specific events in sequence, usually with dates, in a linear
fashion. Timelines are particularly useful for studying or reviewing history, because the timeline will visually
display major events over a period of time.

• KWS chart
- is a graphic organizer that can be used in multiple curricular areas and allows students to organize prior
knowledge by identifying what they know, what they want to know, and possible sources for answering their
questions.

• Sandwich chart

OUTLINE
PRINICPLES IN STRUCTURING AN OUTLINE
1. PARALLELISM
- is the similarity of structure in a series of related phrases, words, and clauses
2. COORDINATION
- Enables the write or speaker to maintain a consistent and coherent document. To follow this principle, you must
arrange ideas according to their importance or significance. Those items with equal value should have comparable
letter or number designation (Coordinates).
3. SUBORDINATION
- Is a principle in which ideas are arranged according to their level of significance. To indicate such order, the outline
uses major and minor headings. This requires a clear articulation between the major ideas and the component part.
4. DIVISION
- Is separating or partitioning ideas into groups. To observe this principle, you must be consistent in using just one
basis on how you will divide your ideas. For example, the first basis of division is on the type of sports, the second is
on examples of such sports

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING

Narration
Narration is a basic strategy used by writers in presenting action: It is used by writer for a variety of purposes:
1. To illustrate and support ideas with anecdotes,
2. To entertain the readers with stories,
3. To predict what will happen with scenarios, and
4. To explain how something happens (or should happen) with process narratives.

Narration tells a story or explain a sequence of events. It can be fiction or nonfiction.

Examples: Novels, fables, screenplays, biographies, history books, accident reports.
It can be objective or subjective.
1. Objective narration present facts to create an accurate time line of events. Doctors use objective narration to document a
patient’s history. Police officers write objective narratives to relate the details of a crime or record the testimony of the
eyewitness.

2. Subjective narration conveys the impressions, feelings, insights, or point of view. A student’s personal essay which details
his four-year pleasant experiences in the school is an example of a subjective narration.

The goal of narration is not only to retell everything that happened but rather to screen and present only the details which
explain the significance of the event.

Effective narratives have a single, clear purpose.

Below are the important tips in presenting the points in a narration.

1. Guide your narrative by focusing on the most important thing you want the reader to know.
2. Delete minor details that do not support your main point.
3. Focus on conflict or contrast to create tension or drama.
4. Organize details to create strong impressions.
5. Use specific words rather than abstract terms to provide dramatic but accurate depiction of events.
6. Avoid shifting point of view unless there is a clear change in focus.
7. Use tense shifts to show logical changes between past and ongoing or current events.

Cause and Effect

Cause and effect as a writing strategy states or explain reasons why things happen or explains the results or certain
phenomena.

In writing a cause and effect paragraph, it is important to identify the most important factors among several causes. This will
become the focus of discussion in the written text.

For example, what causes the increasing rate of school dropout?

Family problems?
Poor performance of students?
Poor performance of teachers?

It has the same case with effects paragraph. The writer has to single out what could likely be the future outcomes of a certain
phenomenon.

For example, what will be the effect of social networking sites?

Will it destroy the personal social relationships?
Or will it promote creation of additional friendships?

Read and analyze the sample cause and effect paragraph:

Topic The cause of this phenomenon is very simple.

Millions of home.
Sentence and small businesses contain wireless security cams Small cameras

Cause broadcast a signal to a monitor elsewhere in the building. A mother can

Keep her eye on a child sleeping upstairs while preparing a meal in the
Kitchen. Business owners can check on employees and customers in the front stores without leaving their desks in the back
office. Although short range, the signals are strong enough to penetrate the walls of homes and most commercial buildings.
Anyone outside with a similar monitor can pick up the signal and observe what is going on inside.

Writing Cause and Effect Paragraph and Critical Thinking

Below are strategies on how to use critical thinking in writing:

1. Look beyond first impression and assumptions.

Make sure to properly state conclusions based on reliable and valid evidences.

2. Distinguish between primary and contributing causes and effects. It is important to identify the most important cause
or effect in given instances. There are cases when causes or effects are overlapping.
Example: The poor attendance in work may have contributed to the employee’s termination but it is not the sole cause.

3. Do not mistake a coincidence with cause and effects.

Example : A student cannot attribute the agruments with the professor during discussion in his failing the subjects.
4. Do not confuse an association with a cause. For years some experts claim that by watching violent programs on
television, a child becomes violent. It was later on established that it could be prevented with proper parental supervision in
child’s viewing time.

5. Consider unintended consequences.

Example : NFA rice is sold in a lower price. Landlords of farming lands of high quality rice stopped hiring farmers since
demand is less.

6. Do not mistake an effects for a cause.

Example: When a child reads poorly and watches informative programs on television too much, it might be mistaken that
television causes his poor reading ability. But it can be an effect rather than a cause. He prefer television programs for
information rather than in books and magazines because he has reading disability.

7. Do not assume that past performance can predict the future.

Example : Since gold’s price has been increasing throught the years does not mean that it will continue to rise in the next
years to come. –Get Writing: Paragraph and Essays by Mark Connelly

WRITING A CAUSE AND EFFECTS IN PARAGRAPH

1. Study your topic and use critical thinking by asking key question:
a. Am I going to explain cause, effects, or both?
b. What is the most important cause or effects I want readers to know?
c. Are there any terms I need to defense?
d. Do readers need background information?
e. What evidence such as facts, examples, or quotations can support my ideas?
f. Do I avoid mistaking associations or time relationship for causes?
2. Develop a topic sentence that clearly state your controlling idea.
3. Review your list of causes or effects, and delete minor or confusing details.
4. Read your paragraph aloud, and consider these questions:
a. Does my paragraph have a clear topic sentence?
b. Are causes or effects clearly stated and supported by facts, example, and other evidence.

PROBLEM-SOLUTION
It is a writing strategy which arranges the ideas from the discussion of the problem of concern to the outlining of the solution.
Oftentimes, the problem-solution strategy is used in persuasive speeches that advocate a new policy or a specific course of
action:

Problem – Solution
Problem
The financing health care in the Philippines is inadequate.
Solution
The Philhealth national health care insurance would provide medical care to all citizens.

Solution – Problem
Solution
The Philhealth national health care insurance would provide medical care to all citizens.
Problem
The financing health care in the Philippines is inadequate.

PERSUASION
Persuasion is a writing strategy which involves presenting a position or standpoint which is a product of careful research and
supported with valid claims in order to change the attitudes or behavior of others.

In persuasive paragraph, the writer has to provide the readers with motives of believing by making an appeal to their basic
needs or desires and to satisfy these.

PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

For a text to be well-written, one must keep in mind these four properties
 ORGANIZATION
 COHERENCE AND COHESION
 LANGUAGE USE
 MECHANICS
ORGANIZATION
 It is said that ideas are well-developed when there is a clear statement of purpose, position, facts, examples, specific
details, definitions, explanations, justifications, or opposing viewpoints.
 Organization is achieved when these ideas are logically and accurately arranged.
Coherence and Cohesion
Cohesion
 Is the connection of the sentences and ideas in your text. For example, words, phrases used in one statement must
stick together or lead to the flow of ideas in the succeeding statements.
 When a text is cohesive, the sentences appear as single unit, not just as random sequences of sentences or
thoughts.
 Good cohesion leads to coherence
Coherence
 Is the overall understandability of what you say or write. It refers to the logic of ideas and how such ideas are
presented, rather than the language used to explain or express them. It makes sure that each phrase, sentence, and
paragraph contribute to the overall meaning of an entire piece.
Coherence and Cohesion
Arrangement of details according to…
 Chronological Order
 Spatial Order
 Emphatic Order

LANGUAGE USE
 A well-written text uses an appropriate language and words in delivering the message. It has to be appropriate to the
topic.
 The choice of the language also should be suited to the reader.
 appropriateness of word / vocabulary usage
 This also covers the writer’s tone of writing: subjective or objective.
SUBJECTIVE TONE
 Uses writer’s personal biases and judgement.
OBJECTIVE TONE
 Uses factual information and arguments.
The writer has to decide the language and tone of writing depending on the purpose in writing.

MECHANICS
 Is the over-all characteristics of the written text.
 focuses on the technicalities of the structure.
It determines errors on:
 subject-verb agreement
 prepositions
 tenses
 grammar
 spelling
 capitalization
 abbreviations and acronyms
 the use of numbers as part of the statement
 punctuation marks