DESIGNING AND FABRICATION OF A CURRENT-VOLTAGE CURVE

METER FOR ELECTRICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC

MODULES

MORKO KWEMBUR ISAAC [B.Ed. (Sc)]

REG.NO. I56/20426/2010

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of Master of Science (Electronics and Instrumentation) in the School of Pure and
Applied Sciences of Kenyatta University.

June, 2013
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DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for the award of a degree or
any other university.

Morko Kwembur Isaac Signature Date

Department of physics

Kenyatta University ……………… ......................

P.O BOX 43844 – 00100

NAIROBI

We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate
under our supervision.

Dr. M. K Munji Signature Date

Department of physics

Kenyatta University .......................... .........................

P.O BOX 43844 – 00100

NAIROBI - KENYA

Dr. Patrick M. Karimi Signature Date

Department of physics

Kenyatta University ........................ .........................

P.O BOX 43844 – 00100

NAIROBI - KENYA
 iii

DEDICATION

To my late father Richard kwembur and mother Beatrice Chebokinjo

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to sincerely thank my supervisors Dr. M. K Munji and Dr. P. M. Karimi

for their unwavering support and guidance during the entire research period.

I would like to thank members of the staff of Physics Department lead by Dr. Njoroge

for the support they accorded me during this research. Special thanks to the chief

Technician Mr. Mudimba and Mr.Wataka for the technical assistance accorded.

I would also like to thank Mrs. Mutua in a big way and entire staff of Chuluni Girls for

the goodwill when I started this academic journey special thanks to Kipsang` and Mrs.

Mutemi. Not forgetting the staff of St. Angelas Girls Mutune.

To my family members special thanks for your moral support especially Mr.

Chepkenen and my uncle Tom. Due regards to my classmates Shedrack, Irene,

Kinyua, Eric and Waweru.

Finally, thank you our Almighty God without whom we can do nothing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ v
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. viii
ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... xi

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background to the study................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of research problem ...................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Main objective ....................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives ................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Rationale of the study ................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 6

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Background to photovoltaic characterization ................................................................. 6

CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................................ 10
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ...................................................................................... 10
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 10
3.2 Theory of an I-V Measurement System. ...................................................................... 10
3.3 Fundamentals of photovoltaic energy .......................................................................... 11
3.3.1 The solar cell........................................................................................................ 11
3.3.2 Irradiance limits ................................................................................................... 12
3.4 Types of photovoltaic solar cell modules ..................................................................... 13
3.5 Data acquisition system .............................................................................................. 15
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3.5.1 Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench (LABVIEW) ........... 16

3.6 Computer buses and ports ........................................................................................... 17
3.6.1 Speed of data transfer ........................................................................................... 18
3.6.2 Speeds of buses .................................................................................................... 18
3.6.3 Sustained and burst throughput ............................................................................. 19
3.6.4 Bus protocols ....................................................................................................... 19
3.6.5 Universal Serial Bus (USB) – cable ...................................................................... 19
3.7 Temperature Measurement .......................................................................................... 20
3.8 Application of solar PV system ................................................................................... 22
3.9 Characterization Methods and Models......................................................................... 24
3.9.1 The solar cell model ............................................................................................. 24
3.9.3 Solar cell parameters ............................................................................................ 27
3.9.3.1 Short circuit current ( Isc ) ................................................................................. 27
3.9.3.2 Open circuit voltage (Voc) .................................................................................. 28
3.9.3.3 Fill Factor (FF).................................................................................................. 28
3.7.3.4 The energy-conversion efficiency ...................................................................... 28
3.9.3.5 Ideality factor .................................................................................................... 29
3.9.3.6 Series resistance ................................................................................................ 29
3.9.3.7 Shunt Resistance. .............................................................................................. 30
3.10 Curve analysis .......................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 4 ........................................................................................................................ 33
THE SYSTEM DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ....................................... 33
4.1Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 33
4.2 The software design ........................................................................................................ 33
4.3 The I-V curve measurements .......................................................................................... 34
4.3.1 Power supply as the load .......................................................................................... 34
4.3.2 Resistor as a load ..................................................................................................... 36
4.3.3 Potential divider ....................................................................................................... 37
4.3.4 Thermal couple ........................................................................................................ 38
4.4 Calibration of a module to a pyranometer .................................................................... 38
4.5 Software design .......................................................................................................... 39
4.5 The I-V curve tracer from LabVIEW environment ...................................................... 42
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CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................. 44

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 44
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 44
5.2 Work Place and instrument used ................................................................................. 44
5.3 Dark I-V measurement ................................................................................................ 45
5.4 Light I-V measurements .............................................................................................. 47
5.4.1 Curves for the modules under different irradiance .................................................... 47
5.5 Modules temperature coefficients ................................................................................ 51
5.6 Calibration of sample 4 module to a pyranometer ........................................................ 56
5.7 Correcting the Obtained Values to Standard to Standard Test Condition ...................... 57
5.8. Comparison between manufacture’s data and I-V curve meter results ......................... 60
5.9 System resolution........................................................................................................ 62
5.10 Test conclusion ......................................................................................................... 62

CHAPTER SIX .................................................................................................................... 63

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................. 63
6.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 63
6.2 Recommendations....................................................................................................... 64

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................... 65

Appendix 1: SubVI: The LabVIEW program that was used to read data from text file

and extract solar cell parameters for a single I-V plots.………………………………68

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Photovoltaic cell schemes ....................................................................... 12

Figure 3.2: Solar radiation spectrum ....................................................................... 13

Figure 3.6: The USB - 6009 (manufactured by National Instruments) ....................... 17

Figure 3.7: Model of the type k-thermocouple commonly used in temperature

measurement. .................................................................................................... 21

Figure 3.8: The schematic illustration of one diode equivalent solar cell circuit when

in the dark environment ..................................................................................... 25

Figure 3.9: The schematic illustration one diode equivalent solar cell circuit when

under illumination. ............................................................................................ 26

Figure 3.10: Schematic diagram of I-V curves for dark and under illumination for

solar cells (Lorenzo, 1994)............................................................................... 27

Figure 3.11: A typical current-voltage I-V curve for a solar cell ................................ 31

Figure 3.12: A Typical power-voltage P-V curve for a PV module. .......................... 32

Figure 4.1: The variable power supply as the load. .................................................... 34

Figure 4.2: Experimental set ups of modules under test. ............................................ 35

Figure 4.3: Using the resistor as the load................................................................... 36

Figure 4.4: The potential divider. .............................................................................. 37

Figure 4.5: A module and a pyranometer placed side by side for calibration of module

to a pyranometer at geography department of Kenyatta University..................... 38

Figure 4.5a: SubVI2 ................................................................................................. 41

Figure 4.5b: SubVI3 ................................................................................................. 41

Figure 4.5c.: SubVI4................................................................................................. 42

Fig 4.6: The I-V curve meter..................................................................................... 43

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Figure 5.1: The work station ..................................................................................... 44

Figure 5.2: Dark I-V curve for sample 1, 2, 3 and 4 combined. ................................. 45

Figure 5.3(b): I-V curves at different times of the day for sample 1........................... 47

Figure 5.3(b): P-V curves for sample 1. .................................................................... 48

Figure 5.4(b): P-V curves for sample 2 ..................................................................... 49

Figure 5.5(a): I-V curves for sample 3. ..................................................................... 49

Figure 5.5(b): P-V curves for sample 3. .................................................................... 50

Figure 5.6(a): I-V curves for sample 4. ..................................................................... 50

Figure 5.6(b): P-V curves for sample 4. .................................................................... 51

Figure 5.7(a): V-T for the sample 1 module. ............................................................. 52

Figure 5.7(b): Voltage-temperature graph for sample 2 ............................................. 52

Figure 5.7(c): Voltage-temperature graph for sample 3. ............................................ 53

Figure 5.8(a): Current-temperature graph for sample I. ............................................. 54

Figure 5.8(b): Current-temperature graph for sample 2. ............................................ 54

Figure 5.8 (c): Current-Temperature graph for sample 3. .......................................... 55

Figure 5.9: A graph of irradiance against photo induced current................................ 56

Figure 5.10(a): I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single

sample of data from sample I module................................................................. 57

Figure 5.10(b): I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single

sample of data from sample 2 module. ............................................................... 58

Figure 5.10(c): I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single

sample of data from sample 3 module. ............................................................... 58

Figure 5.10(d): I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single

sample of data from sample 4 module. ............................................................... 59

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1: Summary of shunt and series resistance 50

Table 5.2: Irradiance conversion table 57
Table 5.3: Experimental results of sample 1 60

Table 5.4 Experimental results of sample 2 60

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ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS AND ACRONYMS

BJT Bipolar Function Transistor

FF Fill Factor

I-V Current Vs Voltage

ISC Short Circuit Current

Ia New Corrected Current

Ib Measured Current at any Point

Pmax Maximum Power

RP Shunt Resistance

RS Internal Series Resistance of the Module (Ω)

RSh Shunt resistance of a Module (Ω)

SMS Solar Cell Measurement System

TM Ambient Temperature

VI Virtual Instrument

VOC Open Circuit Voltage

Vb Measured Voltage at a Corresponding Points to Ib

Va New Corrected Voltage

G Measured Irradiance

 Module Temperature Coefficient

 Voltage Temperature Coefficient of The Module (V/oC)

USB Universal Serial Bus

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ABSTRACT

In the recent past the use of renewable energy as an alternative source of energy has
increased considerably. The solar cells modules manufacturing technology is
becoming more reliable and economical. The feasibility of photovoltaic solar energy
as an alternative source of energy has become real. The low efficiency and the
weather condition dependency give room for improvement of this technology to
extract maximum power for different environmental conditions. Therefore, the
current–voltage (I-V) experimental measurement present the electrical parameters of a
photovoltaic device, whose measurement gives relevant information about the design,
degradation and environmental effects on the performance of solar photovoltaic
modules. In these work three categories of modules were tested (namely amorphous,
Polycrystalline and Mono-crystalline solar cell modules). First a dark I-V curve was
obtained, this was done by covering and placing the module under investigation in a
dark enclosure and a variable voltage was fed and the variation in current at fixed
voltage values were recorded. This gave a graph similar to a graph of a single diode. In
the outdoor set up the module under investigation was placed on a flat rack outside the
laboratory. This was motivated by site proximity to the equator (plane of array). A
thermocouple was used to monitor temperature. USB6009 was used to digitally obtain
current and voltage values in less than 20 seconds using LabVIEW signal express
program and the data obtained was saved as text file for further analysis. A 10kῼ
resistor was used as a variable load. Voltage – temperature (V-T) graphs and current –
temperature (I-T) graphs were also plotted. From the V-T and I-T graphs current
temperature and voltage temperature coefficients were obtained. The voltage
temperature coefficient, back of cell temperature and solar irradiance were used to
correct obtained data to STC that is 25oC and 1000W/m2. The corrected I-V data was
used to plot I-V curves LABVIEW program was used to automatically extract all the
solar cell parameters. The performance parameters obtained were compared with
manufacturer`s specification. It was found to fall within 5% margin error. This shows
that the system is reliable in electrically characterising the solar cell modules. The
designed system comprised of USB 6009, personal computer installed with LabVIEW
8 and LabVIEW signal express 2011, a potential divider and variable resistor as the
load.
 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

The sun produces more energy per hour than the world can consume per year, making

photovoltaic industry more viable than any other source. A photovoltaic module

comprise of a multiple of solar cells connected into a single unit. The solar cell is a

device that converts solar energy into electricity. A photovoltaic module may have cell

connected in series or parallel. When connected in series a higher voltage is realised

while solar cell in parallel would give a greater current than a single cell. This source

of energy is environmentally friendly and inexhaustible since its present everywhere

and the conversion process is noise free and emits no pollutants to its surrounding.

Currently there is extensive research taking place aimed at coming up with a more

efficient and cost effective solar cells (Hamdaour et al., 2009). The research goes hand

in hand with testing the quality based on current–voltage (I-V) output measurement;

this study was aimed at outdoor characterization of solar cell modules.

The ever increasing world energy demand and the fast depletion of fossil fuels and the

unpredictable weather pattern have prompted the world to look for alternative source

of energy (Bobvan et al., 2004). Photovoltaic electrical energy is the most favoured

source of electrical energy since it’s environmentally friendly, readily available and

it’s everywhere. There is active research going on in the photovoltaic (PV) industry

(Hamdaour et al., 2009), but the cost of characterization (current-voltage testers)

system currently in the market has been a major setback. Many disadvantaged
 2

institutes and young and upcoming researchers cannot afford to purchase these

expensive systems, thereby limiting research capabilities (Higa et al., 2002).

Many users find themselves buying solar module based on vendors persuasions

without due consideration of their environmental conditions which affect the

performance of the solar cell modules. Some conditions that affect the performance of

solar cells include latitude, ambient temperature of the surroundings and cloud cover

shades etc. This condition lowers the peak power of the solar cell module. It is

possible to obtain a current-voltage plot by hand with ammeter, voltmeter and

adjustable resistor (rheostat). But this would require longer time with a possibility of a

change in solar irradiance at the time of measuring a single plot. This has called for a

more convenient way to display a complete I-V curve in an automated instrument

called I-V curve tracer. Commercial curve tracer is available from various

manufactures as integrated instrument which include the power supplies, switches and

X-Y displays. They are convenient to use but they are very expensive and occupy a

large space on the bench (Hiscocks and Gaston, 2007).

I-V curve tracers are significant in determining the basic characteristics of the PV

modules under natural ambient conditions. I-V curve tracers give the operating

behaviour of a solar cell, which is described by its current–voltage characteristics by

measuring current at certain voltage under ambient conditions. The current functioning

of a solar generator consisting of one or more modules can be demonstrated.

Deviations of the I-V curve characteristics permits to draw conclusion concerning

internal interruption, partial shading, mismatching, scratches on the frame and

excessive or uneven glue marks. Testing of solar cells is required for research, quality

assurance, angle of tilt, inverter efficiency, resistance in the cable, fouling of module

and production (Oliver and Jackson, 2000).

 3

The measurement accuracies speed and parameters may differ in importance across

different levels of industry space and terrestrial use. There are a number of key

parameters that are measured or calculated in any testing environment. They include

open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit currents (Isc), maximum power output of the

cell (Pmax) and conversion efficiency of the device (η). Obtaining these parameters has

been a big problem to the consumers, young and upcoming researchers and

disadvantaged institution. This is due to unavailability of I-V curve tracer or high cost

of acquiring a complete set of I-V testers. In this research an I-V curve meter was

fabricated and used to test I-V characteristics of photovoltaic modules and solar cells

more easily and cheaply.

1.2 Statement of research problem

Different methods have been used to fabricate photovoltaic cells and modules. Many

researchers have tried to use different materials in order to come up with more

efficient photovoltaic modules. Most of them have failed to test the (I-V)

characteristics due to high cost and unavailability of the commercial testers in the

Kenyan market. This research intends to fabricate a cheap, portable and easily made I-

V curve meter. From the I-V curve parameters like the maximum amount of power

generated, short circuit current, open circuit voltage and current and voltage at

maximum power point of the photovoltaic modules can be obtained.

The demand for solar module is on the increase hence need to have a mechanism of

testing their output characteristics to establish if they are suitable to our climatic

conditions, so that solar module users get the value for their money.
 4

In this study an external variable voltage was fed into the photovoltaic module or cell

and the amount of current through the cell at certain voltage was recorded.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 Main objective

To design an outdoor I-V curve meter for characterising photovoltaic modules.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

i. To design a system to measure and collect I-V data of a photovoltaic

module

ii. To calibrate a solar module to measure solar irradiance.

iii. To design a software to implement control.

iv. To correct the obtained values of voltage and current to standard test

condition (STC).

v. To extract solar module parameters from single I-V plots using designed

software control.

1.4 Rationale of the study

Kenya depends on hydroelectric power (HEP), diesel power plants, geothermal

generation (olkaria) and independent power producers (IPP) that rely heavily on

imported fuel for generation of electricity. These energy sources have proved to be

unreliable especially during prolonged drought, effects of global warming and ever

changing prices of fuel in the world market. During such occurrence most oil

importing countries have to rely on generators to cater for power deficit making

electrical energy expensive. This situation has led many researchers to develop solar
 5

cells and modules for use in producing electrical energy. The major setback in their

endeavour has always been how to characterize these solar cells and solar modules.

This research is aimed at fabricating a I-V curve tracer that would give electrical

characteristics of photovoltaic solar cells and modules. This I-V curve tracer would be

used for both indoor and outdoor characterization.

This study went further into testing and verifying the quality of different photovoltaic

modules that we use in Kenya today based on the shape of the I-V curves.
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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Photovoltaic devices have gained wide spread application especially due to it`s ability

to convert directly sun rays to electricity. There is extensive research on fabrication of

cheap and efficient solar cells that need to be electrically characterised to ascertain it`s

power output. This chapter presents some earlier contribution on designing I-V curve

tracers used in characterization of photovoltaic modules.

2.2 Background to photovoltaic characterization

The Fossil fuel has been the main source of energy for more than 100 years. This

source of energy has affected us negatively from sustainable development, pollution

and social economic areas this has been caused by the rate at which fuel consumption

has increased due to population increase. This poses the danger of extinction of fossil

fuel energy before alternative sustainable sources of energy is found. The instability

witnessed in oil producing countries has caused fuel prices to always go up

unpredictably hence need for stable source energy. Solar energy is preferred due to its

abundance in most parts of the World; it has not been fully tapped due to high cost of

solar plants, low efficiency and degradation with time of outdoor exposure that

shortens the life-time of the PV module.

The PV modules need to be tested in their working environments to check if they meet

the performance indicated by the manufacturers. The journey towards coming up with
 7

a system to measure the performance of these photovoltaic modules has been taking

shape.

Robert Callaway and Shirlif Michael of naval postgraduate school 1986 developed a

novel circuit concept to trace an I-V curve (Benson et al., 2004). Their circuit required

one operating amplifier and one bipolar junction transistor (BJT). This was a current

sinking circuit and derived a desired current through the solar cell while measuring the

voltage across the cell. This was done several times until enough points were obtained

to draw a I-V curve. The operating amplifier was configured as voltage follower .the

input voltage ,Vin , was at the base of the BJT and the current through the cell was

related to Vin with base emitter voltage Vbe so that the short circuit current is obtained

as shown in Eq. 2.1 ( Benson et al., 2004).

V IN  V BE
I SC  (2.1)
RE

Using the Callaway circuit as the basis Michael further improved it to use feedback to

control the current (Benson et al., 2004).

Phelps and Solomon developed a solar cell measurement system, SMS, using Michael

circuit and a controller. The SMS consisted of two main parts; the analogue and digital

subsystem, the system controller was used to set voltage on the analogue circuit to

drive a desired current through the cell while measuring the voltage across the solar

cell. The digital part was used to send collected data to computer memory for storage

( Benson et al., 2004).

George R. Steber constructed an I-V curve tracer using three terminal personal

computer, a simple circuit, a widows compatible sound card and a bit of software. To

his knowledge he realised that none of the researchers had used soundcard inputs for
 8

curve tracing without resorting to fancy modulation schemes. This is because the

sound card inputs are A.C coupled that is a capacitor in series with each input that

effectively removes the DC values of the signal (Steber, 2006).

John T Frye used an oscilloscope to the XY mode and adjusted the X and Y position

controls so that the spot is placed at the dead centre of the oscilloscope`s CRT display.

The problem was that data could be displayed but not automatically stored in a

personal computer for future use (Frye, 1975).

Piliougine et al. (2011) developed an outdoor test facility for photovoltaic module

using a four quadrant power supply. This power supply had a capability of delivering

as well as dissipating power; the first quadrant is normally the point of interest for

characterising photovoltaic modules, while the second and fourth quadrant helps in

capturing points around the axes. For data collection Piliougine et al. used a General

Purpose Interface Board (GPIB) board to interface the system with the computer. In

their design two digital multimeter were used to measure voltage across the shunt

resistor and voltage across the photovoltaic module. The advantage of this system was

that several modules could be characterized simultaneously (Piliougine et al., 2011).

Arne Jacobson and others carried out a research in Kenya on the crystalline and

amorphous silicon PV that existed at that time. They found out that most people used

amorphous silicon solar modules since they were generally cheap. The research also

revealed that the performance of crystalline silicon solar module had their

performance consistent as compared to the performance of amorphous solar cell

modules whose performance drop by 25% in the first few months. This was observed

on single junction a–Si modules that were available in Kenya ( Jacobson et al., 1999).
 9

The Kenya Bureau of Standards (KBS) and Kenya Renewable Energy Association

(KEREA) drafted performance standards for solar cells and modules to be used in

Kenya. The standards were adopted but they remained unenforced due to lack of

access to a test equipment and technical capacity to carry out the tests (Kammen and

Jacobson, 2012). Hence this research was aimed at developing a system to measure

and collect outdoor I-V data for a PV module. As opposed to the other characterization

methods, this method presents a simple and cheap way of collecting I-V data and

subsequent analysis to extract solar cell device and performance parameters.

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CHAPTER 3

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 Introduction

The solar modules performance dependents on environmental factors such as

temperature, shades and obstacles, cloud cover, air mass, latitude among others. In this

chapter, theoretical overviews of solar cell parameters are outlined. The chapter

describes temperature measurements and single cell exponential model.

3.2 Theory of an I-V Measurement System.

A general computer based system may comprise of three components, analogue

hardware, digital hardware and driver application level software. In this design there

are two main parts; first the hardware design and the software design. The hardware

will involve designing external circuit so as to measure the current produced by a solar

module at certain voltage levels; this values are the saved automatically into a text file

in LabVIEW signal express software. The integration of the hardware design and the

software development for data acquisition was performed.

Solar cell can be modelled as a diode in parallel with a current source. The

measurement of a solar cell`s I-V behaviour allows for diode characteristics to be

determined a long side other parameters including current and voltage at maximum

power (Imax,Vmax) and maximum power(Pmax).

A typical light I-V measurement system comprises of a source of light (artificial or

natural light from the sun), the device to be tested (photovoltaic module or cell),

temperature sensor or temperature control, solar irradiance measurement, a variable

 11

voltage load and a data acquisition system to measure current and voltage across the

PV module. A typical dark I-V measurement system comprise of the device to be

tested, temperature control or temperature sensors, a variable voltage bias and data

acquisition system to measure current and voltage across the PV module or cell.

3.3 Fundamentals of photovoltaic energy

Photovoltaic effect is the electrical potential developed between two different

materials when their common junction is illuminated by a photon. A solar cell

comprises of semiconductor material, usually silicon or thin films made from

combination of different materials. Light incident on a solar cell excites electrons from

valence band to conduction band. Although silicon presence on earth’s surface is

abundant but the procedure involved is long and complicated making solar cells

expensive both in time and money.

Solar cell modules comprise of several cells combined in series to increase voltage (v)

or combined in parallel to increase current without changing voltage. The current

generated is used directly by changing into A.C by inverters or by storing in batteries

for use at night.

3.3.1 The solar cell

A solar cell is an electrical device that converts light into electrical energy directly by

photoelectric effect. The electrical characteristics of most PV solar cells primarily

depend on the physical properties of the semiconductor materials used in its

manufacture and the industrial process involved.

 12

When a photon is absorbed by semiconductor material, the electrons in the valance

band are excited to jump to the conduction band, resulting into free electrons. This

situation is only possible if the photon has more energy than the band gap energy. As

electrons jump into conduction band electron hole pairs are generated.

In a p-n junction, electron hole pairs are generated when light shine on p-n junction

Fig 3.1. The electrons flow through external circuit

Figure 3.1: Photovoltaic cell schemes

The ions form a potential barrier and a current that is proportional to the incident

radiation is produced.

3.3.2 Irradiance limits

The power output of any PV depends on two main variables: the intensity of incident

light and the wavelength of the incident rays. Every semiconductor material has a

limited absorption of a radiation. A radiation whose energy fall below the band gap

causes no photoelectric effect, the energy of a photon is determined by wavelength.

 13

Increasing intensity increase the photoelectron emission which also depends on the

type of the material.

Figure 3.2: Solar radiation spectrum (Bird et al., 1983)

From Fig 3.2 photons with wavelengths above 1100nm will pass through the cell

module in form of heat while photons of less than 1100nm have more energy than the

energy required to separate the electrons; the excess energy is converted to heat.

Wavelengths outside the visible range generate a lot of heat which lowers the open

circuit voltage. The spectral distribution shows the range within which a certain solar

cell based operate. For silicon it`s between 400nm to 1100nm.

3.4 Types of photovoltaic solar cell modules

There are several types of commercial solar cells available in the market. This section

discusses PV modules that are commonly found in the Kenyan market.

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a. Mono-crystalline silicon is based on a perfectly crystallised silicon bar in one

piece. Their efficiency is above 24% in the laboratory but in reality they have

outdoor efficiency of approximately 17%. They are space efficient since they

occupy less space and long lasting but on contrary, they are more expensive

and fragile to mechanical shocks.

b. Polycrystalline silicon is made from silicon bars that are structured as small

disordered crystals. These cells have a present efficiency of up to 19% in the

laboratory and about 14% in the module market. Their cost is less than mono-

crystalline.

c. Thin-film solar cells (TFSC) are manufactured by placing a thin film

photovoltaic material on a wide surface through any of the following methods

depending on thermal or solubility of the substance and availability of the

equipment. They include evaporation, sputtering, and chemical deposition

among others. These solar cell modules are less efficient and cost less to

produce than mono-crystalline or polycrystalline. Cells in this category are

classified as follows.

i. Amorphous silicon: this category of cells doesn’t follow any crystal

structure. The power outputs of this module reduce over time especially

during the first few months before they become stable. They are best for

small electronic devices. These cells have laboratory efficiency of up to

13%, with commercial modules having efficiency of about 8% (Guha and

yang, 2008).

ii. Cadmium Telluride: it is usually sandwiched with cadmium sulphide to

form a p-n junction photovoltaic solar cell. CdTe cells use a n-i-p structure.

Laboratory efficiency is 16% and 8% efficiency in the field (Zweibel at el.,

1998).
 15

iii. Copper Indium Diselenide: their performance is about 17% in the

laboratory and 9% commercial modules (Lakshmikumar et al., 1994).

iv. Dye –sensitized solar cells: these are based on a semiconductor formed

between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a photo

electrochemical system. They have efficiency of 10.6% (Gratzel, 2003).

v. Gallium Arsenide: one of the most efficient solar cells, consisting of a

mixture of gallium and arsenic. Gallium is a by-product of the smelting of

other metals such as aluminium and zinc. Laboratory performance is at

25.5% and commercial modules have efficiency of 20% ( Mohr et al.,

2007).

vi. Multi-junction or Tandem cells: these are solar cells that contain multiple

p-n junctions. Each union is set to a different wavelength, reducing a major

source of losses and increasing efficiency. Currently, the best examples of

laboratory silicon solar cells have a traditional efficiency of about 25%,

while examples of laboratory multi-junction cells have demonstrated

superior performance of up to 42% (Danzilio, 2007).

3.5 Data acquisition system

Data acquisition systems are products or process used to collect information to

document or analyse a phenomenon. Data acquisition was initially manual where data

was recorded using pen and paper. This method was slow and prone to major errors,

but as technology advances data acquisition has been made simpler and made more

accurate, versatile and reliable through the use of electronic equipment’s. The

electronic equipment used ranges from simpler recorders to more sophisticated

computer systems. Data acquisition is the focal point of any system and includes a
 16

variety of products such as sensors that indicate temperature, flow, level or pressure

etc.

3.5.1 Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench (LABVIEW)

LABVIEW is a platform and development environment for a virtual programming

language invented in 1986 from national instrument (Higa and Lord, 2002). This

programming was used for automating the usage of processing and manufacturing

equipment in the laboratory. LABVIEW programming is a dataflow programming

language (Jeffrey et al., 2006). Execution is determined by the structure of a graphical

block diagram on which the programmer connects different function node by drawing

wires. These wires propagate variables and any node can execute as soon as all its

input data become available. This programming language is capable of parallel

execution, Multi-processing and Multi-threading.

Hardware is automatically exploited by built in scheduler, which multiplexes multiple

operating system threads over the nodes ready for execution. LABVIEW

programming subroutines are called virtual instruments (VIs) of which each has three

components a block diagram, a front cell module and a connector cell module. The

connector cell module represents the VI in the block diagram of front cell module

serving as user interface or dropped as a node onto a block diagram. The front cell

module defines the inputs and outputs for the given node through the connector cell

module, this imply that each VI can be easily tested before being embedded as a

subroutine into a larger program. LABVIEW is a graphical programming approach

that allows non-programmers to build programs by dragging and dropping virtual

representation of a lab equipment with which they are familiar with. The LABVIEW

environment makes it possible to create small application easily since its well
 17

documented and comprise of examples on voltage, pressure among other measurement

demonstration.

3.5.2.1 USB 6009 DAQmx (Data Acquisition Board)

The USB – 6009 data acquisition board provides basic data acquisition functionality

for application which include basic data logging, portable data measurement and

physical experiments. Its affordable and can provide sophisticated measurements

application for Mac OS X for linux users, NI-DAQmx Base drivers software can be

programmed in LabVIEW or C.

The USB-6009 has a resolution of 14 bits and a sample rate of 48kS/s with 8 analog

input and 2 output of 12-bits and 150kS/s. The bus is powered for high mobility and

has a built in signal connectivity. Fig 3.4 show a picture of USB-6009 to the right is

the analog input wheras to the left digital input.

Figure 3.6: The USB - 6009 (Manufactured by National Instruments)

3.6 Computer buses and ports

A bus is a means of getting data from one point to another, i.e from one point to

another or from one device to another or from one device to multiple devices. The bus
 18

include the actual capability to transfer data between devices and all appropriate

signalling information to ensure complete movement of the data from one point to

another. To avoid loss of data a means of control is normally involved to ascertain that

both devices are ready to send or receive the information and finally both ends must

understand the speed with which data is exchanged. A bus should include a port

definition to allow physical interfacing or connecting two or more devices (McDowell

and Seyer, 1994).

3.6.1 Speed of data transfer

A bus transfers data either in serial or parallel fashion. In serial mode, the bits of each

character are transmitted one at a time or one after another. Example with each

character containing 16 bits, the character is sent between device sending the first bit,

then the second bit, third bit and so on until the sixteenth bit is sent.

Parallel transmission on the other hand the bits of a character or data are transferred

simultaneously, making parallel transfer mode faster than serial transfer.

3.6.2 Speeds of buses

The speed of several buses is generally expressed in bits per second (bps), for example

a port may highlight 56-kbps capability, and this means the maximum throughput is

56000 bits per second when this is translated into actual characters or (bytes) second

would need some calculation translating to 5600 characters per second if a character

has 10 bits. Each bus has an overhead to provide for highlighted function of flow

control and addressing the simplicity of the bus dictates the amount of overhead

required.
 19

3.6.3 Sustained and burst throughput

A burst rate is the maximum rate at which data can be sent or burst over a bus. A

sustained rate is the rate at which data can be continuously sent over the bus in a

consistent manner.

3.6.4 Bus protocols

These are set of rules agreed upon by both the bus master and bus slaves as to how

data is to be transferred over the bus. For example flow control is used to control

information flow between the devices. It is also used to ensure that no data is lost.

3.6.5 Universal Serial Bus (USB) – cable

It was developed by a group of seven companies that begun in 1994. With an aim of

making it easier to connect external devices to PC by replacing a multitude of

connectors at the back of PCs, addressing the usability issues of existing interface and

simplifying software configuration of all devices connected to USB. This has

permitted greater data transfer for external devices. Developments on USB to the latest

is as follows

 USB 1.0 specification 1996, had data transfer rate of 1.5 Mbits/S

 USB 2.0 specification 2000, had data transfer rate of 480Mbits/S

 USB 3.0 specification 2008, had data transfer rate of 5Gbits/S

 20

3.7 Temperature Measurement

Temperature is a quantity that describes the state of thermal equilibrium of a body or

object. In photovoltaic industry temperature plays a vital role such that when

environmental temperatures is above room temperature there is significant drop in the

open circuit voltage (Voc) and causing slight increase in current, this calls for an

elaborate mechanism to measure temperature.

Thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature, electronic method of

measuring temperature using thermocouple are preferred since they generate an

electrical signal that can be detected, digitised and measured using a computer based

system.

Resistance temperature detector (RTD) is an example of mostly used thermometer;

they have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance. This implies that as

temperature increases the resistance increases, other class of thermometers include

platinum, tungsten, copper and nickel. This class of thermometers are low in

sensitivity and high cost and their output is quadratic at temperatures above zero as

shown in the Eq 3.1.

R=Ro (1+αT+βT2) (3.1)

Where Ro is the resistance at 0oC, α and β are experimental constants,

Semiconductor resister sensor thermometers have negative temperature coefficient of

resistance that is the order of tens of times higher than platinum and copper. This class

of thermometers have limitation of self-heating and non – linear temperature

characteristic which is exponential and take the form of the Eq 3.2

R=Ro exp [β(T-1-To-1)] (3.2)

 21

Where R is the reference temperature To (Kelvin) and β is the experimentally

determined constants for a given thermostat material.

Thermocouple is another class of electrical method of temperature measurement. A

thermocouple is a temperature transducer that develops an electromotive force

(E.M.F). The E.M.F is a function of temperature between the hot and cold junction.

The relationship of temperature to voltage induced in a thermocouple type k is given

by the relationship in Eq 3.3.

V= aT + bT2 (3.3)

V is the induced voltage, T is the temperature difference between the hot and cold

junction o the thermocouple a and b are constants.

Thermocouple is used widely as temperature sensors and controls because they are:

inexpensive, supplied with standard connectors and measure a wide range of

temperature (-200oC to +600oC). Thermocouples are also self-powered and require no

external excitation ( Burns et al., 1993).

Figure 3.7: Model of the type k-thermocouple commonly used in temperature

measurement.
 22

3.8 Application of solar PV system

Solar cells generate DC current from sunlight. A solar array created by connecting

individual solar cells together, the output of photovoltaic cells depend on solar

insolation, the ambient temperature, the size and configuration of solar array.

The solar PV system can be used to supply DC power to a load or can be connected to

an inverter to supply an AC power to a load.

Some photovoltaic applications include:

1. Remote area power supply

This is an off the grid electricity system for location that are not fitted with electricity

distribution system also referred to as stand- alone systems. Stand-alone systems are of

two types which are direct-coupled system without batteries and direct-coupled system

with batteries.

a) Direct-coupled system without batteries

This model comprise of solar PV connected directly to a DC- load, as there is no

battery bank, this means no energy is stored and is capable of powering common

appliances such as fans, pumps among others that are used during the day. Maximum

power point tracking are used to efficiently utilize the sun`s energy especially for

electrical loads like positive displacement water pumps and impedance matching

b) Direct-couple system with batteries

If PV power supply system are used to produce electrical energy use at night for

lighting or when the solar PV does not meet the power demands of the load then a

battery is introduced for power storage. The battery in this system may play one of the

following three roles

i) To store energy when excess power is available and provide when need
 23

ii) To provide stable current and voltage by eradicating transients

iii) To provide surge currents to load like motor when required

2. Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) system

The introduction of auxiliary equipment to PV such as battery storage increases the

cost of solar PV system. To eliminate this cost the solar PV is directly connected to

utility grid. Such that the equipment is powered by the grid whenever there is

insufficient solar insolation. Solar PV complements the grid in hours of high power

demand of electricity especially during the day, such an arrangement reduce the cost

of increasing the size of the main power plant to meet the load demand. Some

conventional building materials are actively being replaced by solar PV especially

building materials for roofs, skylights and face Cades. Some existing buildings are

being retrofitted with BIPV modules with aim of making buildings energy efficient.

This technology has led to reduced initial cost of materials and labour required to fix

the materials in addition BIPV materials are aesthetically appealing than other

materials

3. Utility Power Production

Production of photovoltaic power plant can generate electricity in order of megawatts

that can supply to many houses.

Solar arrays can be connected into a standard module which consists of many PV

working together; these modules are connected in parallel to generate the power

required. Since PV arrays are easy to install and connect, solar PV plants are build

faster than fossil or nuclear plants as demand for electricity increases over planning.

Due to unequal load demand distribution of electricity PV power can be build where

they are most needed for instance industrial areas or densely populated areas. Given
 24

that PV plants consume no fuel and produce no air or water pollution and silent

production of electricity, these makes PV plants to be located even close to population

without violating any environmental regulation. The PV generated electricity can be

expanded as demand increases this makes PV generated electricity attractive for

utilities that need to cut on fuel cost.

3.9 Characterization Methods and Models

This section describes the design of an I-V curve meter for electrical characterization

at an outdoor set up. A complete description of the setup and function of each

component is given in the sections that follow.

The system was made flexible to allow different experiments to be carried out while

keeping the system simple and portable. The set up comprised of USB6009, a resistor

load, Solar cell modules mounted on a flat rack outside the laboratory at Kenyatta

university – Kenya (1.18oS, 36.93oE), a personal computer with a LabVIEW

programme for solar cell parameter extraction

3.9.1 The solar cell model

Models are developed to describe the electrical properties of a solar cell under

illumination and in the dark. Under illumination photo current (IL) is generated which

is greater than the current being injected into the device and the resultant current will

move in opposite direction to the current in dark condition. In dark condition there is

little or no photo current generation under this condition the PV module behaves as a

diode. The model assumes that there is an abrupt junction between the dark and the

illuminated condition. The photo generated current under illumination act as a direct
 25

current source that injects charge carriers into a p-n junction of the PV module while

in dark condition the PV module operates in a low space charge recombination with

small diffusion currents (Martil Diaz, 1992).

3.9.2 Single exponential model

This model consist of current, a diode, a parallel resistor representing leakage current

and a series resistance representing internal resistance to current flow. In the dark the

diode solar cell is as shown in the diagram below (Foroudastan Dees, 2006).

RS

Rsh Vd V

Figure 3.8: The schematic illustration of one diode equivalent solar cell circuit when
in the dark environment
.

And its I-V characteristics can be represented by the following Eq 3.4

  qV  IRS    V  IRS

I  IO exp   1  (3.4)
  nKT   Rsh

Where IO represents the diode dark saturation current, n is the ideality factor, T is

the p-n junction temperature, K is the Boltzmann constant, V is the applied voltage

and IR S is the voltage measured across the series resistance

When the solar cell is under illumination, its I-V characteristics as expressed in the Eq

3.5
 26

  qVd     Vd 
I  IO exp   1     IL (3.5)
  nKT    Rsh 

Where; IL is photo-induced current with direction opposite to that of the dark current

and Vd is the diode voltage. Since IL is greater than the dark current, the net current

generated by the cell is in the direction of IL . Hence the diode voltage expressed with

respect to measured voltage, V was given as V  IR S and the I-V characteristics can

be written as shown in Eq 3.6

  qV  IRS    V  IRS

I  IL  IO exp   1  (3.6)
  nKT   Rsh

The Eq 3.4 is useful when analysing dark I-V characteristics while Eq 3.6 gives I-V

characteristics that are used to define, calculate and analyse solar cell device and

performance parameters (Kunz and Wagner, 2004). Fig 3.9 shows one diode

equivalent solar cell under illumination.

RS

IL V
Rsh Vd

Figure 3.9: The schematic illustration one diode equivalent solar cell circuit when
under illumination.

Fig 3.10 shows the I-V curve for solar cell under illumination and when in the dark. In

the dark the curve has similar characteristic to the I-V curve for a diode. Under

illumination the curve shifts as shown by IL.

 27

Figure 3.10: Schematic diagram of I-V curves for dark and under illumination for
solar cells (Lorenzo, 1994).

3.9.3 Solar cell parameters

3.9.3.1 Short circuit current ( Isc )

The short circuit current is the current flow when the impendence is low and is

obtained when voltage equals to zero.

I (V  0)  Isc (3.6a)

Short circuit current occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the

maximum current value in the first quadrant. In an ideal solar cell, the maximum

current value is the total current produced in the solar cell when under illumination

(Christian and Stuart., 1981)

I SC  I MAX  Ii (3.6b)
 28

3.9.3.2 Open circuit voltage (Voc)

The Voc occurs when there is no current is passing through the cell. From the

characteristic equation, Voc is found by setting I = 0. V ( I  0)  Voc

nkT  Ip 
V oc  ln   1 (3.7)
q  Io 
Voc is the maximum potential difference across the cell for a forward-bias sweep in the

first quadrant.

3.9.3.3 Fill Factor (FF)

Fill factor is the ratio of the maximum power from the cell to the product of Voc and Isc

and is basically the measure of the quality of the solar cell. Graphically the FF is the

measure of the squareness of the solar cell IV curve (Christian and Stuart, 1981).

PMAX IMPVMP
FF   (3.8)
ISCVOC ISCVOC
Where Pmax is the maximum power output and (IMP, VMP) is the point on the I-V curve

at which PMAX occurred. FF of an ideal PV cell is 1, but losses due to shunt resistance

(Rsh) and series resistance (Rs) decrease the efficiency.

3.7.3.4 The energy-conversion efficiency

This is the ratio of maximum power output to power input of the cell and is given by

I MP V MP
  (3.9)
P in

Where, Pmax is the maximum power (W) while Pin is the power input to the cell

defined as the total radiant energy incident on the surface of the cell. This parameter
 29

measures the performance of the cell. This parameter is also affected by ambient

temperature, the intensity and spectrum of the incident light.

3.9.3.5 Ideality factor

It is the measure of emissivity factor which describes how closely the diodes

behaviour matches that predicated by the theory. This assumes that the p-n junction of

the diode is an infinite plane and no recombination occurs within the space charge

region. A perfect match n=1, but when recombination in the space-charge region

dominate other recombination n=2. An increase in reverse saturation current leads to

increase in ideality factor (Habibe and Kavasoglu, 2007). The effect of increase in

saturation current leads to decrease in the voltage.

3.9.3.6 Series resistance

When the series resistance increases, the voltage drop across the junction voltage and

the thermal voltage becomes greater with the same current. The effect in current

controlled section of the IV curve begins to sag towards the origin (Walf and Hans,

1963). This leads to significant decrease in terminal voltage, V, and slight reduction in

short circuit current. At very high series resistance there is a significant reduction in

Isc and the behaviour of the solar cell resembles that of a resistor. The power losses

caused by Rs can be approximated using the Eq 3.11

 30

P  I 2 Rs (3.11)

From the Eq 3.11 above the power loss increases quadratically with increase in photo

current since the Rs is high at high illumination.

3.9.3.7 Shunt Resistance.

The solar cell works perfectly when the shunt resistance is infinite. When the shunt

resistances decreases the current through the Rsh increases for a given level of

junction voltage, the voltage controlled portion of I-V starts to sag towards the origin

producing significant decrease in the terminal current and a slight reduction in Voc. A

poorly shunted resistor takes the operating characteristics to those of a resistor.

3.10 Curve analysis

Electrical characterization of solar cells and modules are represented through current –

voltage (I-V) and power – voltage (P-V) curves. This section explains the IV curve

and the PV curve of photovoltaic modules.

When the cell module is connected to a resistor as a load the simulator meets the

ohm`s law and the power generated by solar module primarily depends on the

resistance.
 31

Figure 3.11: A typical current-voltage I-V curve for a solar cell

If the resistance is small the solar module would work at point A, to the left of the

maximum power point, behaving like a current source. If the resistance is close to

zero, the module will work on short circuit Isc. The point where power generated is

zero

If resistance is large the module will work at point B to the right of maximum power

point, a point that gives behaviour similar to a voltage source. If resistance approaches

infinity then the module works on an open circuit Voc point where no power is

produced. There is always an optimal resistance point where the module develops

maximum power, which is calculated by the fill factor (FF) Fig 3.11.

The power-voltage curve is the product of voltage and output current. The PV systems

are designed to work near the knee, slightly to the left side Fig 3.12.

Manufactures of inverters for photovoltaic plants design a wide range between the

maximum power point of maximum and minimum (Vppmax, Vppmin), where the
 32

inverter acts properly and has no problem to find the maximum power point where the

cell module is working. In addition, open circuit voltage maximum, open circuit

voltage minimum and where the inverter works well should be pointed out.

Figure 3.12: A Typical power-voltage P-V curve for a PV module.

For practical application the question arises which value of maximum voltage should

an inverter be tested and which interval the standard test condition (STC) of the PV

should be chosen. The simulator can calculate the maximum power point of the

photovoltaic module chosen, with the desired environmental conditions, the inverter

can be connected to power source and analyse the behaviour of the photovoltaic

module.

The performance of a photovoltaic module depends on solar irradiance incident to the

module that is as light power increases there is an increase in power generation. At

greatest possible irradiance there is a slight decrease in power due to increase in back

temperature of the module.

 33

CHAPTER 4

THE SYSTEM DESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

4.1Introduction

This chapter presents a description of the design, which involves software and

hardware design. The LabVIEW signal express that was used to obtain data,

LabVIEW 8 program that was used to extract solar cell performance parameters from

single I-V plots, the potential divider that was used in data collection and the

experimental procedures are presented.

4.2 The software design

LabVIEW (Laboratory of virtual instruments engineering workbench) software was

used to drive the entire process. LabVIEW is a programming platform where the

programmer uses graphical language G and virtual instrument. LabVEIW is a

development environment based on graphical programming which primarily relies on

graphical symbols rather than textual language to describe programming action.

The principle of data flow in which the function executes only after receiving

necessary data governs execution in a straight forward manner. LabVIEW programs

are called virtual instruments (VIs) because their appearance and operations imitate

the actual instrument. However, they are analogous to main programs, functions and

subroutines from the popular languages such as C, Fortran, Pascal etc.

 34

4.3 The I-V curve measurements

Two set ups were used to collect data from the module, power supply as a variable

load and resistor as the load.

4.3.1 Power supply as the load

A rheostat was connected across an 8A and 20V power supply. The rheostat was

varied from maximum voltage to minimum voltage during the experiment. The

positive terminal was fed to the positive terminal of the solar module and similarly to

the negative terminal as shown in Fig 4.1 below. This procedure was done both under

illumination and in the dark. In the dark the solar module was covered by aluminium

foil (to reflect light away) then wrapped with dark polythene before placing it in the

dark enclosure. Under illumination the solar module under test was placed in a rack

outside the Physics Laboratory at Kenyatta University (1.180 S, 36.93 0E).

Solar cell
Variable module V
power
supply

Resistor

Figure 4.1: The variable power supply as the load.

The outdoor set up of solar modules under illumination was as shown in Fig 4.2. Fig

4.2a is the sample 1 solar module that belongs to monocrystalline class of modules.
 35

Fig 4.2b is the sample 2 solar module that belongs to the amorphous class of modules.

Fig 4.2c is the sample 3 solar module that belongs to the polycrystalline class of

modules. Fig 4.2d is the sample 4 module that belongs to the monocrystalline class of

modules. Fig 4.2e is the Voltage bias source 8A and 25V power supply. Fig 4.2f is the

complete data acquisition system placed on a laboratory work bench.

Figure 4.2: Experimental set ups of modules under test.

Motivated by the position of the laboratory (1.180 S, 36.93 0E) the solar module under

test was placed flat so as to receive maximum solar insolation.

 36

4.3.2 Resistor as a load

This system was used to test the modules under illumination only.

V1

Shunt resistor Rs

Variable V2
Solar cell
module under Resistor
test

Figure 4.3: Using the resistor as the load.

The modules were set on a flat rack outside physics laboratory as shown in Fig 4.2a,

4.2b, Fig 4.2c and Fig 4.2d. The values of current and voltage were obtained at varied

interval from 8.00am to 4.00pm of the day for several days.

The system was specifically to measure I-V characteristics of solar cell modules under

illumination. It consist of a 10kῼ variable resistor, a shunt resistor, current and voltage

data acquisition system (USB 6009).

The solar module is connected across a variable resistor and a 10ῼ shunt resistor. The

USB 6009 data acquisition kit records the voltage across the cell and corresponding

current through a 0.0025ῼ shunt, when the resistor is varied. The LabVIEW signal

express was used to digitally acquire values of current, voltage and back temperature.

The irradiance was acquired from a calibrated solar module current reading; irradiance

was taken at start and at the end of each of the measurement. Whenever the irradiance

varied the measurements was discarded. This was to ensure that only I-V readings
 37

measured at stable irradiance were analysed. The programs saves data as text file or in

excel to enable further processing. The curve meters were done on LabVIEW 8.0.

4.3.3 Potential divider

The maximum voltage the USB 6009 can take is below 10V compared to 20V-30V

that the module could output. A potential divider was build to ensure that data

collection is done accurately and within the range. This was done using the Eq 4.1

where R1 is 10000Ω, R2 was 68000Ω, Vo is the voltage output and Vi is the input

voltage. The potential divider was built to ensure that the maximum voltage getting to

the USB 6009 was less than 10V. The output voltage (Vo) was calculated from Eq 4.1.

R1
Vo  Vi
R1  R2 (4.1)

R2

68000Ω
Vi R1 10000Ω Vo

Figure 4.4: The potential divider.

Where; Vi  7.8Vo .

The shunt resistance Rs of Fig 4.3 used was 0.0025ῼ for two reasons, the first was to

ensure that a big shunt resistance does not develop and secondly to minimise

impendence to current flow that would affect the accuracy of the data.
 38

4.3.4 Thermal couple

A thermal couple was set behind the module to record back of the module temperature

during the characterization period. Type K thermal couple was used. The collected

data of Voltage, Current and corresponding temperature readings were used to plot

graphs of voltage against temperature and current against temperature and their

gradients gave the temperature coefficients. Current-temperature coefficient, α, was

found by plotting a graph of current against temperature, while β voltage-temperature

coefficient was found by plotting a graph of voltage against temperature.

4.4 Calibration of a module to a pyranometer

A single crystalline silicon module was calibrated and was used to measure solar

irradiance at different times of the day. This was achieved by mounting the solar

module to be calibrated at the same point and orientation as the pyranometer Fig 4.5.

The calibration was done at the Kenyatta University Geography Department

Metrological Station. The current and solar irradiance from the pyranometer were

taken simultaneously at every 10 minute interval. Fig 4.5a is the single crystalline

module and Fig 4.5b is the pyranometer.

a b

Figure 4.5: A module and a pyranometer placed side by side for calibration of
module to a pyranometer at geography department of Kenyatta University.
 39

4.5 Software design

A LabVIEW program was written to run the analysis of the data that was collected

through the USB 6009. Before data was copied on text file, to be read in LabVIEW,

the data was corrected to Standard Test Condition (STC) in excel using the equation

4.2. Taking the STC, Temperature 25oC and irradiance of 1000W/m2 and using the Eq

4.2 (Simons, 2009; Berman et al., 1993)

I 
I SC   SCR  1000   25  TM    (4.2)
 G 

ISC -Short circuit current

I SCR - Raw data short circuit current

TM -Ambient temperature

 -module temperature coefficient

G -measured irradiance

Each point on the I-V curve was adjusted according to Eq 4.3 (Simons, 2009; Berman
et al., 1993).

  
 1 
I a  I b  I SC    1000   1  25  TM   
 G 
   (4.3)

where Ia -new corrected current

Ib -measured current at any point

G -measured irradiance (it was assumed to be 1000W/m2

Corresponding voltage points were corrected according to STC by Eq 4.4 ( Faiman et

al., 2006).

Va  Vb  RS *  Ia  Ib    * 25  Tm  (4.4)
 40

Va -new corrected voltage

Vb -measured voltage at a corresponding points to Ib

RS -internal series resistance of the module Ω

 -voltage temperature coefficient of the module (V/oC)

Va  Vb   * 25  Tm  (4.5)

This is obtained when Ia  Ib  =0

The  - (Current- Temperature coefficient) was obtained by collecting several values

of current at different temperatures. A graph of current (I) against temperatures (oC),

when plotted gives a straight line with it`s gradient as the coefficient  (I/oC).

Similarly  the voltage temperature coefficient of the module (V/oC) was obtained by

collecting several values of voltages at different temperatures. A graph of voltage (V)

against Temperature T (oC) gives a straight line graph whose gradient is  (V/oC)

( King et al., 1997).

Fig 4.5a shows a LabVIEW program that was used to carry out the analysis. This

section of the program gives the Current at maximum power (Imax), Voltage at

maximum power (Vmax). The product of Vmax and Imax gives the maximum power. Voc

and Isc can be obtained

 41

Figure 4.5a: SubVI2

Fig 4.5b shows the program section that is used to calculate the Fill Factor (FF). Using

the Eq 3.8

Figure 4.5b: SubVI3

Fig 4.5c shows a section of the program that is used to calculate the efficiency of the

module, using Eq 3.9

 42

Figure 4.5c.: SubVI4

SubVI1 (appendix 1) - This program in LabVIEW reads data from the text file and

analyse it to give solar cell parameters needed to characterise a solar module. From

this section we can obtain Rs, Rsh, Isc, Voc, Vmax and Imax. SubVI2 this section of the

program gives the power parameters for example maximum power from V-P graph.

SubVI3 program section gives us fill factor (FF) and SubVI4 program give the

efficiency (η) of the module under test.

4.5 The I-V curve tracer from LabVIEW environment

The I-V curve meter was developed in LabVIEW. To give the solar cell parameters at

once. The interface the Fig 4.6 shows the curve meter that is able to characterise the

module provided the data of I and V are corrected to STC and the area of the solar

module and solar irradiance are known.

 43

Fig 4.6: The I-V curve meter.

The curve meter has capabilities of precisely giving the module parameters listed as

Rs, Rsh, Isc, Voc, Vmax, Imax, FF, and Efficiency which are key in solar cell

characterization.
 44

CHAPTER FIVE

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

The device parameters were determined using origin-8, LabVIEW-8 and LabVIEW

express 2011. The one diode equivalent circuit model was used to fit modelled data to

experimental data in origin-8. The analysis was done both in the light and dark.

Performance parameters such as Isc,Voc, Pmax and η are also presented and discussed in

relation to extracted device parameters.

5.2 Work Place and instrument used

Data collection was primarily done using USB 6009 from (National Instruments) NI,

personal computer and the test of solar cell modules was done at Kenyatta University

Physics Department (1.180 S, 36.93 0E). Fig 5.1 shows the data acquisition and data

analysis experimental set up.

Figure 5.1: The work station

 45

5.3 Dark I-V measurement

Dark I-V characteristics give behaviour of solar module in absence of light. Most solar

modules in the dark behave like a diode admitting large currents in forward bias. The

procedure used in dark I-V measurement involves; placing the solar module in a dark

environment to eliminate light generated currents, using a power supply to bias the module

and measuring current at a particular voltage simultaneously while increasing voltage from

zero to Voc. The resulting current flow is opposite to current flow when the solar module is

under illumination. The electrical configuration of a solar module still result to the solar

module p-n junctions being in forward bias just as it does in a typical operation.

The dark I-V measurement can be used to analyse the electrical characteristics of solar cells.

Although it does not provide information concerning to Isc, Voc, Pmax or η, but can be used to

provide useful information on Rs and Rsh more precisely than light I-V curves (King at el,

1997). Fig 5.2 shows the dark I-V curves with the vertical axis in logarithmic scale.

These curves have three distinct points of importance point a near Voc, b near Vmax and

Imax and c near Isc (Munji et al., 2009).

S am ple 1
D A R K I-V C U R V ES S am ple 2
4
S am ple 3
3 S am ple 4

1
Log (Current) (I)

-1 c

-2 b
a
-3

-4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
V oltage (V )

Figure 5.2: Dark I-V curve for sample 1, 2, 3 and 4 combined.

 46

The deviation from linearity at point (marked c) indicates increasing series resistance

Rs. Similarly the deviation from linearity at point (marked a) indicates the effects of

shunting. An inflection in the curve (marked b) near the midpoint may indicate the

presence of non-ideal carrier recombination losses (King et al., 1997).

A good solar module should exhibit low series resistance and low shunting. But

sample 2 has relatively high series and high shunting this means sample1, sample 3and

sample 4 have relatively low series resistance and low shunting as shown in table 5.1.

The values of shunting and Rs were obtained by getting the gradients of curves in Fig

5.2 at points c and a for Rs and shunting respectively.

Table 5.1: Summary of shunt and series resistance

Module Rs(ῼ) Shunting (ῼ-1)

Sample 1 3.4 1.2

Sample 2 6.3 2.7

Sample 3 3.7 1.4

Sample 4 3.4 1.1

From the dark I-V curves the series and shunt resistance are generally lower than the

respective values obtained from modules under illumination. This is due to non-

uniform distribution of voltage and current flow through few active lines (Bowden et

al., 2007).
 47

5.4 Light I-V measurements

5.4.1 Curves for the modules under different irradiance

I-V curves were done on several days on clear sky at different times of the day

between 8am to 4pm. The global solar irradiance was obtained from the calibrated

solar module at start and end of every current and voltage data sample collection to

ensure that data was taken at uniform solar irradiance (Okullo et al., 2011). Fig 5.3a

and Fig 5.3b provide information regarding in intensity of irradiance to current and

power generated. While the short circuit current increases with increase in intensity as

the day progress. The open circuit voltages remain not affected, at midday the highest

Isc is recorded and a repeat of Isc readings obtain before midday are obtained in the

afternoon due to symmetry in insolation. The highest Isc at midday is due to solar

insolation hitting the solar module surface normally. Fig 5.3a shows I-V curve of

sample 1 at different time of the day while Fig 5.3b shows the P-V curve at

corresponding time of the I-V curve in Fig 5.3a. In both cases (before midday and

after midday) Isc is directly proportional to solar irradiance.

2
8.20am 344.1W/m
2
9.30am 586.8W/m
0.35 10.30am 792.5W/m
2

2
11.00am 908.5W/m
2
11.50 am 945.5W/m
0.30 14.00pm 837.6W/m
2

2
15.20pm 792.45W/m
2
15.30pm 697.8W/m
0.25
Current (A)

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.3b: I-V curves at different times of the day for sample 1
 48

2
8.20am 344.1W/m
2
5 9.30am 586.8W/m
2
9.50am 792.5W/m
2
10.30am 908.5W/m
4
2
11.00am 945.5W/m
2
11.50am 837.6W/m
Power (W)

3 2
2.18pm 697.8W/m

0
0 5 10 15 20 V
oc

Voltage(V)

Figure 5.3b: P-V curves for sample 1.

The Fig 5.4a and Fig 5.4b provide information associated with the relationship

between solar irradiance and power at different time of the day for sample 2. For

sample 1 the Isc obtained in the afternoon was a repeat for Isc obtained before midday.

In sample 2, 3 and 4 data presented is only up to midday. Fig 5.4a shows I-V curve

while Fig 5.4b shows P-V curve for sample 2. In both the curves Isc and max power

increases with increase in irradiance

0.40
Current
0.36 12.00noon 955.5W/m
2

2
0.32 11.10am 920.3W/m
2
10.30am 918.3W/m
0.28 11.50am 945.5W/m
2

2
Current (A)

0.24 11.30am 918.3W/m

2
8.50am 428.6W/m
0.20
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Voltage (V)
Figure 5.4a: I-V curve for sample 2.
 49
2
11.50am 945.5W/m
2
5.0 11.30 am 920.3W/m
2
11.10am 918.3W/m
4.5 2
10.30am 798.8 W/m
4.0 8.50am 428.6W/m
2

3.5
3.0
power (W) 2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Voc
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.4b: P-V curves for sample 2

Fig 5.5a shows I-V curves taken at different times of the day while Fig 5.5b shows

P-V curves for sample 3 solar module obtained from the I-V data. In both the graphs

Isc and maximum power are directly proportional to solar irradiance. Voc remains

constant.

2
8.10am 305.5W/m
2
9.10am 489.6W/m
2
0.6 10.00am 685.2W/m
2
11.00am 908.5W/m
2
0.5 12.05pm 948.6W/m

0.4
Current (I)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.5a: I-V curves for sample 3.

 50

2
8.10am 305.5W/m
2
9.10am 489.6W/m
2
6 10.00am 685.2W/m
2
11.00am908.5W/m
2
5 12.05pm948.6W/m

4
Power (W)

0
0 5 10 15 20
Voc
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.5b: P-V curves for sample 3.

Fig 5.6a shows I-V curves and Fig 5.6b shows P-V curves for sample 4 modules at different

times of the day.

2
8.00am 289.3W/m
2
9.30am 586.8W/m
0.35 2
10.00am 807.5 W /m
2
10.30am 798.8W /m
0.30 2
11.30am 918.6W /m
2
12.05 pm 948.6W /m
0.25
Current (I)

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Voltage (V)

Figure 5.6a: I-V curves for sample 4.

 51

2
8.00am 289.3W/m
2
9.00am 586.8W/m
2
1.5 10.00am 807.5W/m
2
10.30am 798.8W/m
2
11.30am 918.6W/m
2
12.05pm 948.6W/m

1.0
Power (W)

0.5

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Voc
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.6b: P-V curves for sample 4.

I-V graphs show that Isc depends on solar irradiance since the Plane of array (POA) is

horizontal. The irradiance is expected to increase from morning up to a maximum at

midday and a corresponding decrease is expected in the afternoon. The maximum

irradiance at equator occurs some minutes before or after midday. Sample 1 and

sample 2 P-V graphs skew to higher voltage which in return gives a higher Vmax and

hence higher FF and efficiency. Sample 2 has almost asymmetrical P-V curve this

makes this class of modules perform poorly in the field since Vmax is almost half of Voc.

Leading to low maximum power and consequently low FF and efficiency.

5.5 Modules temperature coefficients

The voltage-temperature (V/oC) coefficient  was obtained by plotting voltage

against temperature for samples I, 2 and 3. Fig 5.7a shows Voltage against

Temperature for sample 1 solar module. Sample 4 was not subject to temperature test

since it was calibrated to a pyranometer.

 52

22.0
21.8
voltage (V)
21.6 Linear Fit of voltage
21.4
21.2
voltage (V)

21.0
20.8
20.6
20.4
20.2
20.0
19.8
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
o
Temperature( C)

Figure 5.7(a): V-T for the sample 1 module.

Fig 5.7(b) shows Voltage- temperature graph for sample 2 module

30.6
current (V)
30.4 Linear Fit of current

30.2

30.0
Voltage (V)

29.8

29.6

29.4

29.2

29.0
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
o
Temperature ( C)

Figure 5.7b: Voltage-temperature graph for sample 2

Fig 5.7c shows a graph of voltage against temperature for sample 3 solar modules.
 53

Voltage (V)
20.2 Linear Fit of Voltage

20.0

19.8
Voltage(V)

19.6

19.4

19.2

19.0

18.8
42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62
o
Temperature ( C)

Figure 5.7c: Voltage-temperature graph for sample 3.

The voltage- temperature coefficient,  for sample 1 from Fig 5.3a was found to be

- 0.06912  0.00168 V o . This means that at 100oC the open circuit voltage is
C

expected to drop by about 6.712 volts for modules of type sample 1 representing 0.33

per cent per one oC (David L. et al., 1997), while sample 2 with voltage temperature

coefficient of - 0.08208  0.00182 V o will have its open circuit voltage drop by
C

8.208V at 100oC representing 0.29 per cent per one oC (David L. et al., 1997). And

sample 3 the voltage temperature coefficient is - 0.06947  0.00114 V o at 1000C the

C
o
open circuit voltage will drop by 6.9647V representing 0.32 per cent per one C (David L.

et al., 1997). These coefficients show that sample 2 is well suitable for hot areas while

sample 1 and sample 3 are suited for cold areas.

The current temperature-coefficients were also obtained by plotting graphs of

current against temperature for sample 1, sample 2 and sample 3 solar cell modules.

Sample 4 module was not subjected to this experiment since it was calibrated to a

pyranometer. Fig 5.8a shows a graph of Current against temperature for sample 1

solar module.
 54

0.376 Current (A)

Linear Fit of Current
0.374

0.372

0.370
Current (A)

0.368

0.366

0.364

0.362

0.360
41.0 41.5 42.0 42.5 43.0 43.5 44.0 44.5 45.0 45.5
o
Temperature( C)

Figure 5.8a: Current-temperature graph for sample I.

The current temperature coefficient was found to be positive. This means that as

temperature increases there is a slight increase in current. The coefficient value for

sample 1 was found to be 0.000122  0.00009555 24 A o .

C

Fig 5.8 b shows a graph of Current against temperature for sample 3 solar module

0.356
0.355 Current (A)
0.354 Linear Fit of Current

0.353
0.352
Current (A)

0.351
0.350
0.349
0.348
0.347
0.346
0.345
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
o
Temperature ( C)

Figure 5.8b: Current-temperature graph for sample 2.

 55

The coefficient value for sample 2 was found to be 0.000378  0.000094513 A o .

C

Fig 5.8c shows a current against temperature graph for sample 3 solar module

Current (A)
0.79 Linear Fit of Current (A)

0.78

0.77

0.76
Current (A)

0.75

0.74

0.73

0.72

0.71
32.0 32.5 33.0 33.5 34.0 34.5 35.0 35.5 36.0 36.5 37.0
O
Temperature ( C)

Figure 5.8 c: Current-Temperature graph for sample 3.

The coefficient for sample 3 was found to be 0.000149  0.0000187 A o . The gain in
C

current is quite insignificant and can be ignored. Table 5.2 shows a summary of the

coefficients of sample 1, 2 and 3 modules.

Table 5.2: module coefficients summary

Solar Voltage- Temperature Error Current- Temperature Error

module (V/oC) (A/oC)

Sample 1 -0.06912 0.00168 0.0000122 0.0000956

Sample 2 -0.08208 0.00182 0.000378 0.0000945

Sample 3 -0.06947 0.00114 0.000149 0.0000187

 56

5.6 Calibration of sample 4 module to a pyranometer

The Fig 5.9 is a graph of solar irradiance against current for a single crystalline

module that was calibrated to measure solar irradiance inform of current readings.

Solar irradiance (W/m2)

1100 Linear Fit of Solar irradiance
1000
900
Solar irradiance (W/m2)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Current (A)

Figure 5.9: A graph of irradiance against photo induced current.

The slope of a graph of solar irradiance against current was found to be

2
2876.79739  18.79714 W/m . The module can be used to read irradiance at any
A

part of the country. Table 5.3 shows a sample of currents readings obtained during the

data collection and the equivalence in irradiance. Sample 4 module was used for

irradiance measurement.
 57

Table 5.2: Irradiance conversion table

Current(A) Irradiance (W/m2) Error

0.35 1013.479796 6.578999
0.12 347.4787872 2.2556568
0.285 825.2621196 5.3571849
0.334 967.149291 6.27824476
0.2691 779.2211803 5.05831037
0.2677 775.1672611 5.03199438
0.2476 716.9645643 4.65417186
0.2418 700.1697562 4.54514845
0.21 608.0878776 3.9473994

5.7 Correcting the Obtained Values to Standard to Standard Test Condition

Since the environmental factors like temperature and irradiance are known to affect

both Current and voltage. The obtained values were corrected to standard test

condition of 25oC and 1000W/m2. The Figs 5.10(a,b,c,d) shows both data before

corrections and after correction to STC.

Fig 5.10a shows the raw data and data corrected to STC for sample 1 solar module.

The Voc change by about 6.15 per cent from raw Voc to corrected Voc at STC of sample

1 raw data
0.35 corrected data

0.30

0.25
Current (A)

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 5 10 15 20

Voltage (V)

Figure 5.10a: I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single
sample of data from sample I module.
 58

Fig 5.10b shows raw data and data corrected to STC for sample 2 solar module. The

Voc was found to deviate by about 2.75 percent.

raw data)
corrected data
0.35

0.30

0.25
Current (A)

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-0.05 Voltage (V)

Figure 5.10b: I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single
sample of data from sample 2 module.
Fig 5.10 c shows raw data and data corrected to STC for sample 3 module. The Voc is

found to deviate by 5.0 percent from the raw data.

Raw data
Corrected data
0.6

0.5

0.4
Current (A)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.10c: I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single
sample of data from sample 3 module.

Fig5.10 (d) shows the raw data and corrected data to STC for sample 4 solar module.
 59

corrected data
0.35 raw data

0.30

0.25

0.20
Current (A)

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voltage (V)

Figure 5.10d: I-V curve of raw and corrected graphs on the same grid for a single
sample of data from sample 4 module.

Table 4: shows the percentage deviation in Voc from the raw data and the STC

condition Voc.

Table 5.4: Percentage deviation on Voc

Module sample Percentage deviation

Sample 1 6.15

Sample 2 2.75

Sample 3 5.00

Sample 4 6.20
 60

The temperature is known to affect the Voc greatly than it does for Isc. Temperature

affects monocrystalline modules more than it does on amorphous solar cell modules.

This means that amorphous modules are best suited to hot areas than monocrystalline.

5.8. Comparison between manufacture’s data and I-V curve meter results

The curve meter data was compared with the manufacture`s data to a certain the

percentage deviation from their actual performance. Table 5a shows the data

comparison for sample1 solar module. The results from the I-V curve meter on Isc and

Imax deviated the most since they were not corrected to STC. Similar effect was

transferred to Pmax and FF

Table 5.5a: comparison table for Sample 1

Parameter Manufacturer`s Curve Meter Percentage

Data Results Deviation
Vmpp 17.0 16.55 2.7
Impp 0.28 0.26 7.2
pmax 5.00 4.40 12
Voc 21.20 20.90 1.5
Isc 0.32 0.29 9.4
Efficiency 16.70 16.20 3.0

Table 5.5b shows the compared results from the I-V curve to the manufacture`s data

for module 2. The Isc obtained deviated the most this due high series resistance and

high shunting. This error is replicated in FF and efficiency of the module.

 61

Table 5.5b: comparison table for Sample 2

Parameter Manufacturer`s Curve Meter Percentage

Data Results Deviation
Vmpp 17.0 17.5 3.1
Impp 0.32 0.25 22.3
pmax 5.0 4.36 12.8
Voc 28.0 29.62 5.8
Isc 0.32 0.34 5.6
Efficiency 11.0 10.6 3.3

Table 5.5c shows the compared data from the I-V curve meter and manufacture`s data.

This module registered the highest deviation in all its parameters. This can be

attributed to high Rs and low Rsh. The module also had a very low FF of about 0.475

the low efficiency was due to the use of effective area of the module rather than the

area of each cell.

Table 5.5c: comparison table for Sample 3

Parameter Manufacturer`s Curve Meter Percentage

Data Results Deviation
Vmpp 17.81 12.0 32.7
Impp 0.62 0.5 19.4
pmax 10.0 6.0 40
Voc 20.5 20.1 5.8
Isc 0.64 0.63 5.6
Efficiency 15 9.3 38.0

Table 5.5d shows the parameters extracted from I-V curve meter and manufacture`s

manual. The Vmax deviates more by a big margin due to Rs of about 6.4Ω.

Table 5.5d: comparison table for sample 4

Parameter Manufacturer`s Curve Meter Percentage

Data Results Deviation
Vmpp 6.0 5.4 10
Impp 0.28 0.27 3.6
pmax 1.5 1.3 13.4
Voc 7.0 7.09 1.3
Isc 0.32 0.31 3.2
Efficiency 17 16.1 5.3
 62

From the above analysis sample 1, 2 and 4 closely match the manufacturer’s data

specification, while sample 3 shows a greater deviation and hence need for stability

study on these class solar modules to certain their performance.

5.9 System resolution

The system uses a USB 6009 which is a 32 bit analogue to digital converter and the

highest voltage it can measure is 10V and the smallest signal it can measure is 2.328

nano volts. But there is a challenge of sensing such small voltage the back voltage

caused by induced emf on the conductor from the earths magnetic field which then

cancels such voltage. Hence the system can measure accurately values above a

millivolt. The use of a potential divider enables the system to measure higher voltages.

5.10 Test conclusion

When the irradiance increases and the operating temperature decreases this is possible

when artificial coolant is used, the maximum power that the solar module can deliver

to the load is greater. The accuracy of the modules output characteristics differ little

from the actual output. We analysed the behaviour of the solar cell modules at the

knee of the curve, since it’s the point where the maximum power occurs. It has been

shown that the error obtained is within 5% of the expected value. This means that the

test procedures employed are valid. The errors could have resulted from simplification

of the electric model, since it did not take into account the parallel resistance of the

leakage currents.
 63

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

The I-V curve meter to characterise the photovoltaic modules has been successfully

designed. Using a variable resistor as a load the I-V curves were obtained in

LabVIEW express via USB 6009. The obtained data was then recorded in text file.

The I-V curves obtained varied in shape from one sample to another. Sample 1 and 2

had the best curve with FF of above 0.70, while sample 2 had the poorest curve with

FF of 0.435 and sample 3 had FF of 0.475. The values were obtained after correcting

the obtained data to STC.

The LabVIEW program was then used to extract solar module parameters: short

circuit current, open circuit current, current and voltages at maximum power point, fill

factor, efficiency, shunt and series resistances, device parameters such as shunt and

series resistances, fill factor and efficiency are not given by the manufactures. The

designed I-V curve meter was able to extract these parameters from a single I-V plot

as in Fig 4.6.

The extracted performance parameters from the I-V plots closely matched the

manufactures data specifications at STC except for sample 3. This shows that the

designed system gives valid results. The designed I-V curve estimate cost is about

US$500 while a simple commercial I-V analyzer cost about US$2,995.

 64

6.2 Recommendations

The designed system can be improved by.

i. Implementing full automation of the system by implementing a data

acquisition system, temperature sensor and a pyranometer. And integrating

with the latest version of LabVIEW software

ii. Using a programmable power supply as a load will aid full automation and

increase the capabilities of the system so as to characterise both solar cell and

solar modules.

iii. A high wattage resistor and a well-designed potential divider will enhance

system capabilities to characterise high wattage solar modules.

iv. Sample 3 module gave very poor performance hence need for stability study on

polycrystalline modules performance within this environment

v. The KEBS need to establish such a test facility to characterise every solar

module to be used in Kenyan soil. This will ensure that Kenyans will power

their homes using standalone power from solar and these will restore consumer

confidence.
 65

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Berman D., Faiman D. and Wohlgemuth J. (1993). Outdoor I-V curve verses simulator
measurement for characterization of PV modules. Conference on competitive
assessment of power generation. Israel. 1:1-2.

Bird, R .E, Hulstrom, R. L. and Lewis, L. J. (1983). Terrestral Solar spectral Data Sets.
solar energy , 30(6):563-573.

Bowden S. and Rohatgi A. (2001). Rapid and Accurate Determination of Series

Resistance and fill factor losses in Industrial Silicon Solar Cells. In the procedings of
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Appendix 1

SubVI: The LabVIEW program that was used to read data from text file and

extract solar cell parameters for a single I-V plots.