CHAPTER I

PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

The usage of plastic petroleum-based polymers for making packaging in food

industry has become mainstream through its ease to use in multiple purposes and more

importantly, it provides convenience. However, the present chemicals in this kind of packaging

can affect the various components present in food and these are the root of all problems such

as food deterioration and food wastage. The reason behind why these are occurring is because

of inappropriate of food storage, weather conditions, contamination of microorganisms and

the main factor of this problem is improper food packaging (Valdes et al., 2015). In food, it

is important to maintain its organoleptic properties. And through packaging, it serves as a

protection barrier from deterioration, helps prolong the food’s shelf-life, keeps it away from

contaminants, preserve its quality, protects it from impacts during transportation and function

as means for keeping food against heat, oxygen, moisture and other environmental factors.

As mentioned before, non-biodegrable packaging has many disadvantages and its main

example of it is the plastic pollution. According to Plasticseurope & European Association of

Plastics Recycling and Recovery Organisations (2016), packaging was the top of the plastics

demand list, which is 39.9% in 2015. With regards to this situation, another alternative for

packaging that has become the significant study for the past few years are edible films.

Currently, edible films have been acknowledged with substantial consideration since it

is beneficial in comparison to synthetic films. The essential concept is that if products are

packaged with edible films, they can be safely consumed. Edible films can prolong the quality

of foods, especially foods that are perishable. It serves as a barrier that prevents decay,

protects the product from moisture and oxygen in the air, and shields the food from gas

aroma. The primary component and source of edible films is a polysaccharide like starch.

Renewable resources for packaging, from biopolymers such as poly(lactic acid), PLA,

poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), starch and proteins, has been looked into by researchers as

a possible alternative to non-biodegradable polymers. One of these biopolymers is pectin,

which is currently present in the market. Pectin is seen to be a suitable material in creating

edible film due to its biodegradability, edibility, biocompatibility, and versatile chemical and

1
physical properties. The source of pectin can be commonly found on fruits belong in citrus

family such as dalandan (Citrus aurantium).

Dalandan (Citrus aurantium) is a sphere-shaped fruit which is similar to oranges, but

is smaller and has usually green or orange, thin skin. It was found that citrus fruit extracts

and citrus flavonoids exhibit a wide range of potentially promising biological properties due to

their phenolic profile and antioxidant properties. Dalandan is also a promising source of pectin

in producing edible films. However, every fruit belongs to citrus family has different content

of pectin that can be used for the production of edible films. Because of the different amounts

of pectin present in citrus fruits, it results to different rates of tensile strength in the edible

films.

In light with the growing problem related to plastic pollution, the researchers aim

to create an edible film out of the extracted pectin from dalandan peels, and compare its

effectiveness with commercial cling wrap through their tensile strength.

Statement of the Problem

The main problem of this study is to compare the edible film produced from dalandan

(Citrus aurantium) peels with commercial cling wrap in terms with their tensile strength.

Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:

1. What is the amount of pectin yielded from dalandan peels?

2. What is the physical property of the edible film from dalandan peels and

commercial cling wrap in terms of?

a. Thickness; and

b. Tensile Strength

3. Is there a significant difference between the thickness of edible film from

dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

4. Is there a significant difference between the tensile strength of edible film

from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

2
Hypotheses

The main objective of this study is to produce an edible film from dalandan peels to

reduce the rate of food spoilage. It also aims to determine which edible film is the most

effective in reducing the rate of food spoilage. This section presents the null hypotheses of

the study.

Ho: Edible film from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap have no

significant effect with thickness of the films.

Ho: Edible film from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap have no

significant effect with the tensile strength.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant in a way that it contributes on identifying a new organic edible

film that has the capabilities on minimizing the usage of non-biodegrable food packaging.

Furthermore, the following are the benefactors of this study:

Environment. Reducing the use of non-biodegradable synthetic materials for packaging

films can be assumed upon utilization of the organic alternative. This will minimize harmful

effects to the environment because when the film is decomposed, it will break down and

produces non-toxic components, causing less pollution and it is environmental-friendly

material.

Community. Development of a packaging derived from the created film could be used

within the community for practical consumption. Instead of using non-biodegrable packaging,

edible films can be used as an alternative to lessen any environmental impact.

Market. Transportation of food from the source to the market requires a certain

material that will help maintain the food's freshness and its good quality. Most of these are

made primarily with plastics that contain toxic materials. This study will be useful on producing

an edible film that is organic and will maintain the food's quality.

Packaging Industry. Created edible film produced could potentially be adapted by

packaging industries as a new material in creating cheap yet high quality film for packaging.

3
It also reduces the negative environmental impacts caused by the ever-increasing use of

synthetic plastic on food packaging.

Textile Industry. Through the innovation of edible films, there is a necessity for a

transition from good commercial goods to eco-friendly goods that can be used by the masses.

Products shall be utilized through extension of shelf-life with pectin used in the creation of

commercial textile, buttons and boxes.

Food Industry. With the primary innovation leaning towards preservation of food,

edible films will prevent moisture loss and enzymatic browning reactions. Lipid oxidation will

also be minimized while maintaining the quality of the product. Also, perishable goods shall

also have extended shelf-life. Freeze-drying processes will also be effective while using edible

film for prevention of volatile flavor evaporation.

Economy. Edible films are considered to be primary shelf-life extenders. Products,

which are highly perishable, especially vegetables coming from provinces will have extended

shelf-life hence, will provide lesser loss of income due to perished goods.

Future Research. This study will help on supporting other future research about new

organic edible films. Ideas and concepts present in this study may also be used as reference

or for validity purposes of other related findings. It will also serve as guide for gathering data

and information about innovation of edible films.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The main focus of the study is to design an edible film made out of dalandan (citrus

aurantium) peels. The study is experimental because it aims to create a prototype of an edible

film. A sample from Citrus family, dalandan (Citrus aurantium) peels will be used as raw

materials in this research. The fruit peels will be collected from the local market. The study

will be using pectin, a heteropolysaccharide that is found at the cell wall of citrus fruits as the

main component in creating the edible film because of its gelling properties. The researchers

will be conducting an experiment which aims to extract pectin from dalandan peels and use

it as a component in creating an edible film. The method to be used in extracting pectin from

4
the peels will be adapted from Kanmani et. al (2014), while the creation of edible film will

follow the method of Silva et. al (2009) with few modifications. All the materials needed shall

be provided by the researchers. The tensile strength of the edible film will be determined and

a commercial cling wrap will be used as its standard reference.

The study only includes fruits that have a considerable pectin composition. The

researchers chose dalandan because it came from the citrus family, a group of fruits which is

known to have an ample amount of pectin. Any fruits aside from dalandan are beyond the

scope of the study. Other tests and experimental methods aside from what is stated are

beyond the scope of the study. The research will be conducted from July 2019 to March 2020.

Definition of Terms

This section presents the operational definition of different terminologies used in this

study. The following terms are defined within the context of how it is applied in this study:

Antimicrobial. It is terminating the development of pathogenic microorganisms that

can be damaging and cause disease. It also inhibits organisms from developing bacteria.

Bacteria. It is a type of biological cell and the plural form of bacterium. These big

groups of microorganisms are single-celled and can be damaging as they can

cause infection or become useful as in the fermentation.

Biopolymer. It is a polymer’s monomeric unit that has a molecular structure comprised

of a large number of identical units bonded together. It is the organic synthetic materials that

are applied to plastics and resins.

Cell Wall. This is the rigid layer of polysaccharides found on the outside of the cells. It

primarily relates to the outermost layer of cells in plants, bacteria, fungi, and many algae that

provide shape to the cell and preserve it from infection.

Citrus. This is a tree that contains citron, lemon, lime, orange, and grapefruit. This is

local to Asia and often nurtured for its fruit especially in hot countries which harvests lush

flesh and pulpy rind.

Cling Wrap. Also known as “food wrap”, and “saran wrap”, is a thin plastic film

commonly used for sealing and securing food items in containers to keep fresh. Food Plastic

5
wrap is sold in individual rolls or more typically sold with a roll in a box that has a cutting

edge on it.

Dalandan. Also known as “sweet orange” in English and is very popular and native to

the Philippines. It is a variation of orange in which the flesh is orange while the skin is green,

its scientific name is Citrus aurantium.

Edible film. It is a thin covering of a material which can be consumed and is placed

between food components. It acts as a barrier that prohibits decay and protects the product

from moisture and oxygen in the atmosphere.

Gelling agent. It is any substance that is added to a food item to provide a gel texture.

Such as food additives that are used to thicken and sustain various foods.

Pectin. It is any varying water-soluble substance that is attached in cell walls of the

plant tissues that provide a gel that is the key to fruit jellies. It is visible in ripe fruit and is

removed for making in fruit jams and jellies.

pH level. It is the scale that is applicable on measuring the acidity or alkalinity of

water-soluble substances and pH means potential of Hydrogen. The scale runs from 1 to 14

and a pH of less than 7 is considered acidic, and a pH of more than 7 is alkaline or basic.

Plasticizers. These are chemicals that are specifically added on rubbers to provide

flexibility. The added gel is used to develop plasticity and to diminish the brittleness of certain

products.

Polysaccharide. This is a carbohydrate whose molecules consist of a number of sugar

molecules that are attached together. The large molecule includes

many smaller monosaccharides that are simple sugars such as glucose.

Thickening agent. This is a substance that can enhance the viscosity of a liquid

without adjusting its other characteristics. It may also increase the suspension of another

ingredient that raises the product's stability.

6
 -
Dalandan Edible film
Peel -
-
(Citrus aurantium)
- Pectin -

Tensile
strength

Figure 1. Simulacrum of the study

7
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents a discussion of the literatures and studies which have a

significant bearing on this study. This also includes different literatures and studies published

by researchers and corporation. The content of this chapter will give significant ideas and

details from previous studies that are connected to the study.

Edible Film

According to California Against Waste (2016) plastic, even though it has many uses, it

caused different problems to the environment. Different plastic films such as candy wrappers

and plastic bags plays a big role to this problem. Example a plastic bag breaks down in the

ocean and they are consumed by marine animals and soak up its toxins. 1It was stated from

Waste 360 (2014) that 12.2% of plastic waste generated by the world is made up of plastic

films.2 Debeaufort, F., Quezada-Gallo, J. & Voilley, A. (1998) states that in reducing the

damage of this kind of films, natural made films or organic films such as the edible films are

being considered as an alternative film for plastic film. Edible films are made up of thin layers

or sheets that is consumable and biodegradable.3 In addition to that Wittaya, T. (2012)

indicated that Films like this are most likely used as a food packaging where it acts as a

boundary separating each food component.4

Edible films can prolong the quality of foods, especially foods that are perishable. It serves as

a barrier that prevents decay, protects the product from moisture and oxygen in the air, and

shields the food from gas aroma. The creation of edible films has different natural sources.

First it can be derived from hydrocolloids (proteins, polysaccharides and alginate), lipids

(waxes and acyglycerol), and composites.5The primary component of edible films is

polysaccharide like starch and it is often used as source.6These are produced from ingredients

1
Californians Against Waste. (2016 Dec 1). The problem with plastic bags. 11 March 2017. Retrieved on July 22,
2019, from http://www.cawrecycles.org/the-problem-of-plastic-bags/
2
Waste 360. (2014 Oct 1). Profiles in garbage: plastic film. 11 March 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.waste360.com/paper-glass-plastic-aluminum/profiles-garbage-plastic-film.
3
Debeaufort, F., Quezada-Gallo, J. & Voilley, A. (1998). Edible films and coatings: tomorrow’s packaging:
a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science, 38(4), 299-313. Retrieved on July 22, 2019, from
doi.org/10.1080/10408699891274219.
4
Wittaya, T. (2012). Structure and function of food engineering. Japan:InTech.
5
Bourtoom, T. (2008). Review article: Edible films and coatings: characteristics and properties. International Food
Research Journal, 15(3), 237-248.
6
DW. (2016 April 6). Edible film: the future of eco-friendly packaging? March 11 2017. Retrieved on July 22,
2019, from http://www.dw.com/en/edible-film-the-future-of-eco-friendly-packaging/a-19165362.

8
derived from food and are processed by wet and dry manufacturing process. Solution casting

is done where a solution is spread onto leveled plates before drying the film under controlled

conditions.7According to Falguera et al.(2011) as stated by Guilbert, Gontard, &Gorris, 1996;

Rojas-Grau, Soliva-Fortuny, & Martın-Belloso, (2009) Development and improvements for the

quality of edible films can be done easily because of its versatility. Some additives like

plasticizers, emulsifiers, cross-linking agents, anti-oxidants and anti-microbial solutions are

added making the film a better alternative to synthetic plastic films which only acts as a

wrapper to avoid spoilage.8The film was made from edible and biodegradable materials

therefore it will not cause any damage to the body when it is accidentally consumed and it

will degrade faster than polymeric materials that take years when disposed. In this way, the

usage of plastic film can be lessened and the environment will be protected.14

Applications of Edible Films

Edible films can be used with more functional characteristics such as: volatile aroma

encapsulation, vitamins, flavoring agents, antimicrobials and antioxidants. They can also

enhance the quality of food products by preserving them from physical, chemical and

microbiological deterioration such as loss of moisture, enzymatic browning reactions,

microbial spoilage and lipid oxidation. Edible coatings have been used as a barrier to minimize

water loss, delaying the natural senescence of coated fruits and vegetables through selective

gas permeability. They increase the shelf-life of minimally processed fruits and vegetables by

decreasing rates of humidity and solute migration, gas exchange, respiration, and oxidative

response. They can also suppress physiological disorders, delay modifications in textural

properties and enhance mechanical integrity or features of food handling. They give extra

advantages in commercial use, such as biocompatibility, non-toxicity, non-polluting features

and low price. Another essential application of edible coating is the decrease of oil intake in

deep fried products. Excess fat in the diet has been associated with coronary heart disease,

thus coatings added to food before frying can assist to reduce health issues associated with

overconsumption of fat. Cellulose derivatives, including methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl-

methylcellulose, which display thermal gelation, may be used to decrease oil absorption

7
Šuput, D., Lazić, V., Popović, S. & Hromiš, N. (2015). Edible films and coatings - sources, properties and
application. Food and Feed Research, 42 (1), 11-22. doi:10.5937/FFR1501011S.
8
Falguera, V., Quintero J.B., Alberto, J., Muñoz, J.A. & Ibarz, A. (2011). Edible films and coatings: structures,
active functions and trends in their use. Trends in Food Science & Technology 22 292-
303.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2011.02.004.

9
through film formation. A major benefit of using edible films and coatings is that several active

ingredients can be added into the matrix and eaten with the food, enhancing safety and

sensory characteristics; the tendency is to use edible coatings as carriers of functional

components by integrating antimicrobials, antibrownings and nutraceuticals to improve the

quality of fruits and vegetables.9

Tensile strength

Tensile strength is the capacity of a material to resist an applied force. Materials with

high tensile strength properties have higher resistance against force and therefore, stronger

than the one with lower tensile strength properties. Some materials break easily when a great

deal of force is applied while some get elongated or physically deformed.

Materials that can withstand a great deal of stress while being pulled or stretched

before breaking. ‘Ultimate tensile strength’ (UTS) is used to refer to the maximum stress that

a material can handle before becoming elongated, stretched or pulled.10

Pectin

Pectin is a naturally occurring complex mixture of polysaccharides that makes up about

one third of the cell wall of dry substance or non-woody plant tissues.11Flutto (2003) defines

pectin as a range of polymers that differ depending on their molecular weight, chemical

configuration and neutral sugar content, and distinct plant kinds generate pectin with distinct

functional characteristics. The word ‘pectin’ originated from the Greek word pektos which

means firm and hard, reflecting pectin’s ability to form gels.12The highest concentration of

pectin is located in the middle lamella of cell wall and will gradually decrease as one passes

through the primary wall toward the plasma membrane (Sriamornsak, 2003).17According to

Kulkulani et al. (2006) as cited by Kanmani et al. (2014), pectin is commonly obtained from

9
Erkmen, O., & Barazi, A. O. (2018, February 5). General Characteristics of Edible Films. Insight Medical
Publishing. Retrieved on July 22, 2019, from http://www.imedpub.com/articles/general-characteristics-
of-edible-films.php?aid=22339
10
The editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Tensile strength. Retrieved October 8, 2019, from
Britannica.com:https://www.britannica.com/science/tensile-strength
11
Sriamornsak, P. (2003). Chemistry of pectin and its pharmaceutical uses: A review. Retrieved on July 5, 2019,
from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215872059_Chemistry_of_pectin_and_its_
pharmaceutical_uses_A_review
12
Flutto, L. (2003). Pectin properties and definition. Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 4440-4449.
10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00901-9.Retrieved on July 24, 2019, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B012227055X009019

10
the peels of citrus fruit peels or apple pomace however, citrus fruit peels contains higher 20-

30% of pectin as compared to apple pomace.13

Fig. 2. (a) A repeating segment of pectin molecule and functional groups; (b) carboxyl; (c)

ester; (d) amide in pectin chain

Pectin, consist mainly of D-galacturonic acid (GalA) units, joined in chains by means of á-

(1-4) glycosidic linkage. As shown on figure 1, these uronic acids contain carboxyl groups,

some of which are naturally present as methyl esters and others which are commercially

treated with ammonia to produce carboxamide groups (Mukhiddinov et al., 2000).14According

to Joye and Luziob (2000), the degree of esterification (DE) widely influence the possible uses

of pectin for in concludes its gelling nature. High methyl ester (HM) pectin have a DE

percentage above 50% while those below 50% are classified as low methyl ester (LM)

pectin.15The ability of pectin to form gel depends on the molecular size and DE hence, owing

to differences in these parameters; pectin from distinct sources does not have the same

gelling capacity. Pectins are used in a broad variety of food and pharmaceutical products. It

is commercially produced in the form of white to light brown powder. Based on the study of

Sriamornsak (2003), pectin is extracted by treating the raw material with hot dilute mineral

acid at pH about 2. Afterwards, the hot pectin extract will be separated from the solid residue

wherein the solids are now soft and at liquid phase. The extract will be then filtered through

a filter aid to remove impurities and the clarified extract will be subjected under vacuum. The

pectin is separated as a stringy gelatinous mass which is dried, pressed and grounded to a

13
Kanmani, P., Dhivya, E., Aravind, J. and Kumaresan, K. (2014). Extraction and analysis of pectin from citrus peels:
Augmenting the yield from Citrus limon using statistical experimental design. Iranica Journal of Energy and
Environment, 5 (3), p. 303-312. Retrieved on July 5, 2019, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273144860_Extraction_and_Analysis_of_Pectin_from_Citrus_Peels
_Augmenting_the_Yield_from_Citrus_limon_Using_Statistical_Experimental_Design
14
Mukhiddinov, Z.K. (2000). Isolation and structural characterization of a pectin homo and ramnogalacturonan.
Talanta.53, 171-176. Retrieved on July 16, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18968102
15
Joye, D.D., & Luzio, G.A. (2000). Process for selective extraction of pectins from plant material by different pH.
Carbohydrate Polymer, 43, 337-342. Retrieved on July 16, 2019, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0144861700001910

11
powder. The process yields pectin with approximately 70% esterification. The solubility and

viscosity of pectin solutions are directly proportional to the molecular weight, DE and

concentration of the pectin.17These properties of pectin are a function of their structure. Pectin

has many applications in the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industry. It is used as a

thickening agent, gelling agent and colloidal stabiliser in the food and beverage industry for

many years (Sriamornsak, 2003). According to Kanmani et al. (2014), several studies

revealed pectin’s novel usages in biodegradable water-soluble films, bulking agents, coating

agents, chelators, emulsifiers, and viscosity modifiers.

Fig. 3 Pectin manufacture flow chart

In the pharmaceutical industry, pectin has the ability to help reduce blood cholesterol.

Sriamornsak (2001) as cited by Sriamornsak (2003) reviewed the influences of pectin in

reducing the cholesterol levels in blood.It is concluded that consumption of 6 grams per day

of pectin is necessary to have a significant effect in cholesterol reduction. Pectin also acts as

a natural prophylactic substance against poisoning with toxic cations. It has been shown to

be efficient in removing Lead and Mercury from the gastrointestinal and respiratory organs

(Kohn, 1982 as cited by Sriamornsak, 2003). It also shortens the coagulation time thus being

useful in controlling haemorrhage or local bleeding. Because of its different potential uses in

the pharmaceutical industry, pectin can be a carrier of a wide range of drugs for controlled

release applications. Many methods were used in the production of pectin-based distribution

systems,particularly inotropic gelation and gel coating. These simple techniques, together

12
with the very secure toxicity profile, make pectin a promising excipient for current and future

application for the pharmaceutical and biotechnological industry.17

Citrus Aurantium (Dalandan)

Citrus Aurantiumis a sphere-shaped fruit which is similar to oranges, but is smaller and

has usually green or orange, thin skin. It belongs to the family of Rutaceae, where it is

sometimes regarded as Citrus x Sinensis. It is a sour fruit, although its health advantages

render it highly in demand. Its other names are Seville orange, bitter orange and sour orange.

It has been used by individuals since prehistoric times to cure many illnesses, including

insomnia, ulcers, headaches, and even cancer. It is believed that the fruit originated in

Southeast Asian jungles for centuries, although it is not evident whether the indigenous

consumed it for any intent. Historians believed that it also originated in Africa as well, although

reports and evidences are not solid. Citrus Aurantium was believed to cultivate in Fiji and

Samoa, where it developed in the tropical landscape of Polynesia. Arabs carried it back to

their country in the 9th century, where they learned to plant and use it for culinary and

medicinal purposes. After some time, it reached Europe as well. Native Italians grew sour

oranges as early as 1002 A.D., with accounts of its development reiterated in the 12th century

Spanish writings. It was named “Seville Orange” because it first grew abundantly in Seville,

Spain. When the Spaniards colonized America, they also carried it to share with the indigenous

population of Florida, where it grew abundantly. By 1763, Floridians started to cultivate

considerable amount of it that was shipped to England as an exotic delicacy. Not long after

its abundant growth in America, Citrus Aurantium became a worldwide commodity.16

Varieties of Citrus Aurantium

There are various forms of the sour orange. In the period 1818-1822, 23 varieties

were identified in Europe. A prominent type is the Bergamot orange, (Citrus aurantium,

var.bergamia Wight &Arn.,) grown in the Mediterranean area since the 16th Century but

commercially sold only in Italy. Trees grown in California and Florida under this name are

16
Camacho A. et, al. (2018). Phytochemical Screening of Dalandan (SN: Citrus aurantium; FN: Rutaceae) Peel
Ethanolic Extract and Evaluation of the Formulated Tea as A Potential Antioxidant and Source of Ascorbic
Acid. Retrieved 2019, fromreaserchgate.net/326776695_Phytochemical_Screening_of_
Dalandan_SN_Citrus_aurantium_FN_ Rutaceae_Peel_Ethanolic_Extract_and_Evaluation_of
_the_Formulated_Tea_As A_Potential_Antioxidant_and_Source_of_Ascorbic_Acid

13
actually varieties of sour orange. The flowers of the Bergamot are small and fragrant while

the fruits are round or pear-shaped, with strongly aromatic peel and acid pulp. C. aurantium,

var. myrtifoli, is a compact shrub or tree with small leaves and no thorns. It was found on

trunks of old sour orange trees in Florida. It is propagated and grown only on the French and

Italian Riviera for its small fruits which are preserved in brine and exported for candying.

Aside from these special types, there are several groups of sour oranges: Normal group are

large, seedy fruits which originated in the United States. It has large fruits rich in pectin and

is used for marmalade. 'Daidai', or 'Taitai' is popular in Japan and China. Its fruits are large

with thick peel, acidic pulp, and many seeds. The tree is small without thorns; immune to

citrus parasites in the Philippines. It is known for its flower buds which are dried and mixed

with tea for their scent. 'Goleta' has medium-large fruits with juicy, medium-sour pulp and

very few seeds. The tree is medium size and lacked thorns. 'Bouquet' has small, deep-orange

fruits, acid, with few seeds. Bittersweet group includes any sweet-acid forms of the sour

orange introduced by Spaniards and was formerly grown in the Indian River region of Florida.

These oranges are found in states of the West Indies. The peel is orange-red, the pulp is

darker than that of the normal sour orange. These fruits contain considerable amount of

seeds. 'Paraguay' came from Paraguay in 1911. Its fruit is of medium size, with sweet pulp

and moderate number of seeds. 'Vermilion Globe' has round fruits containing 30 to 40 seeds.

'Leather-head' has small, round, rough fruits with 20 seeds. In the ancient times, the normal

types of sour orange are usually too sour to be enjoyed out-of-hand. In Mexico, however,

sour oranges are cut in half, salted, coated with a paste of hot chili peppers, and eaten. Sour

oranges are mostly used as marmalade. They are largely exported to England and Scotland

for making marmalade. Today, sour oranges are found almost everywhere, most especially

in tropical countries where it is eaten raw or salted.17

Potential Components of Citrus aurantium

According to Middleton and Kandaswami, (1994), Montanari et al., (1998), Samman

et al., (1996) as cited by Jabri (2013), Citrus Aurantium (Citrus x Sinensis from Rutaceae) is

one of the most popular fruit crops which contains active phytochemicals that is beneficial to

17
Morton, J. F. (1987). Sour Orange (Citrus Aurantium). Retrieved 2019, from Horticulture and Landscape
Architecture (Fruits of Warm Climates): https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/sour_orange.html

14
health improvement. In addition to this, it provides a generous supply of vitamin C, folic acid,

potassium and pectin. It was found that citrus fruits, citrus fruit extracts and citrus flavonoids

exhibit a wide range of potentially promising biological properties due to their phenolic profile

and antioxidant properties.

Citrus fruits are highly consumed worldwide as fresh product, juice. Citrus peels, which

are often thrown away as waste contains a wide variety of secondary components and

important antioxidant activity compared to other parts of the fruit (Manthey and Grohmann,

2001 as cited by Jabri, 2013). Citrus aurantium peel, the primary waste, is a good source of

molasses, pectin and limonene and is usually dried, mixed with dried pulps and sold as cattle

feed (Bocco et al., 1998 as cited by Jabri, 2013). Citrus peels are subdivided into two (2)

layers, the epicarp which is the colored surface and mesocarp which is the white soft middle

layer. Different studies discovered the presence of polyphenols, vitamins, minerals, dietary

fibers, essential oils and carotenoids content which makes citrus aurantium a health-beneficial

fruit. Citrus aurantium is also known for its medicinal properties in traditional medicine. It is

traditionally used in fresh and processed form. In traditional Indian Ayurvedic system of

medicine, it is said to carry six basic tastes together namely, sweet, sour, salty, bitter,

pungent, and astringent.18 In general, citrus aurantium and other citrus fruits contain sugar,

pectin, vitamins (A, B1, and C), and carotenoid pigments; organic acids such as citric acid

and ascorbic acid, minerals and a number of active phytochemicals such as coumarins, and

flavonoids as naringin, naringenin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, rutin, hesperetin, nairutin, and

tangeretin. Citrus peels are known to have high levels of phenolics with strong antioxidant

capability (Bocco, et. al 1998). In some parts of the world, C. aurantium is consumed as a

food and in other parts it is used as medicine to cure fungal and bacterial infections, human

colon and breast cancer by alternative therapists (Poulose, Harrism, &Patil, 2005 as cited by

Divya, 2016).19Due to its sour taste, it is less often consumed, but is widely used as a

medicinal or dietary supplement (He, Lian, Lin, & Bernart, 1997 as cited by Hosseini, Kodaiyan

and Yarmand, 2016).20 Daidai (taitai) variety is widely known in the Philippines as Dalandan.

18
Jabri I., (2013, June 13). Characterization of bioactive compounds in Tunisian bitter orange (Citrus aurantium
L.) peel and juice and determination of their antioxidant activities. Retrieved 2019, from Pubmed.gov (US
National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health):
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23841062
19
Divya, P. L. (2016). Antioxidant properties of fresh and processed Citrus aurantium fruit. Retrieved 2019, from
Cogent Food & Agriculture (Taylor & Francis Online):
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2016.1184119
20
Hosseini S., Khodaiyan F., &Yarmand M. (2016). Optimization of microwave assisted extraction of pectin from
sour orange peel and its physicochemical properties. Retrieved july 24, 2019, from ScienceDirect.com:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0144861715012291

15
It is found throughout the Philippines and is also native in Southeast Asia. The fruit is round,

oblate and rough-surfaced, with a fairly thick, aromatic, bitter peel becoming bright

greenish/yellowish orange on maturity. There are 10 to 12 segments with bitter walls

containing strongly acid pulp and from a few to numerous seeds. The center becomes hollow

when the fruit is full grown, its partitions and juice sacks are yellowish. When it is overripe, it

is unusually sweet but, on its maturity, it is slightly sour. Dalandan is indigenous and can be

found throughout the Philippines, almost always cultivated. It can also be found in almost all

tropical countries. Dalandan has been called “sweet orange” or “sour orange” in English.

Another Tagalog name for this fruit is kahel, from the Spanish cajel (naranjazajarí), a variety

of orange.21The Visayans refer to dalandan as tamisan or tamamisan or talamisan. The fruit

is peeled and eaten, usually with a bit of rock salt if it is sour. Dalandan is highly available in

Benguet in Northern Philippines, Cebu in Central Philippines, Bukidnon in Southern Philippines,

national Capital Region, Region IV, Region VII, Region X and Region XI. Top producers are

the Cordillera Region and Mindanao (Davao City, Davao del Sur, Compostela Valley, Bukidnon

and Misamis Oriental) supplying Manila, Southern Luzon and the Visayas. Dalandan contains

Citric acid, stachydrine (alkaloid); hesperidin; fatty oil; carotene; pectin, 6%; vitamins A, B,

and C; enzymes andsugar.29

Edible films are efficient in preventing food spoilage. When a sterile food is wrapped

into it, it serves as a barrier to prevent growth of different microorganisms thus, prolonging

the shelf life of the food. Polysaccharide, the main component of edible film is present in

pectin, which is found at the peels of different citrus fruits that are often neglected and thrown

away. Dalandan (citrus aurantium) belongs to the family of Rutaceae (citrus) which means it

contains various amount of pectin necessary for production of edible films. Edible films are

efficient in preventing food spoilage. When a sterile food is wrapped into it, it serves as a

barrier to prevent growth of different microorganisms thus, prolonging the shelf life of the

food. The purpose of this study is to produce an edible film from dalandan peels and determine

its physical properties such as tensile strength and thickness. Dalandan peels are commonly

seen in the market and are often considered as waste, but beyond this, it is said to contain

various amount of pectin necessary for production of edible films. The production of edible

film will not only benefit the food industry in preventing food spoilage, but also the

21
Philippine Medicinal Plants: Dalandan. Retrieved on July 22, 2019. from
http://www.stuartxchange.org/Dalandan

16
environment for it will help lessen the amount of organic waste in the local market and in the

community.

17
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the details on the experimental study of dalandan (Citrus

aurantium) peels as an effective edible film. It is comprised of research design, subject of the

study, research instrument, data gathering procedures and statistical treatment.

Research Design

In this study, the researchers used an experimental research design to identify the

characteristics of the edible film by performing tests to create edible films made from dalandan

(Citrus aurantium) peels. According to Mitchell, O. (2015) experimental research is centrally

concerned with constructing research that is high in causal (or internal) validity. Causal

validity concerns the accuracy of statements regarding cause and effect relationships.

Experimental research design involves the testing of the dependent and independent

variable to distinguish if the variable has a significant effect or not. The aforementioned

research designed includes hypothesis testing by collecting data on dissimilar organisms,

events or characteristics. Also, it consists of data gathering within different conditions such

as temperature and pH level. With the application of experimental research design, the

measurement of the effectiveness of the variable, the dalandan (Citrus aurantium) peels as

an edible film was determined. The researchers examined the edible film produced and

identified if the edible film has the characteristics to be an effective edible film. With this

research design, it contributes validity and credibility to the researchers’ project.

Subject of the Study

The researchers used the following materials throughout the study:

Dalandan peels. The peels from this fruit are the raw materials used, which was

bought from a local market.

Blender. This was used to ground the peels into fine powder.

Micron sieve. This was used after grinding, the peels were sieved in order to collect

the fine particles.

18
 Polyethylene bags. Obtained particles are stored in these bags in preparation for the

pectin extraction.

Weighing scale. This equipment was used to measure 10 g of fruit peel powder

(dalandan).

180 ml of distilled water, 0.1 N citric acid and 4.5. 50 ml of MCaCl2.This was

added on the ready mixture of fruit peel powder.

Low methoxyl (LM) pectin 0.6 g glycerol/g biopolymer. This is a biopolymer that

was prepared along with distilled water at room temperature to immobilize water molecules,

reduce the rigidness of the film and attain a gel-like texture.

Magnetic stirrer. This was used to stir the mixture.

Petri dish. This was contained the film-forming solution to be dried in an oven.

50 ml of aqueous calcium chloride (CaCl2) (3% w/v) containing glycerol of

varying concentrations. This was used as a firming agent due to its ability to bind cell wall

polymers, reduce the water solubility of pectin substances and form calcium pectate.

Increasing levels of glycerol concentrations will result to increasing firmness of the film.

Research Instrument

The instruments that the researchers used in conducting the research are tests and

experimentations. The researchers determined if the edible films and commercial cling wrap

have no significant difference with thickness of the films. As well as if the edible film and

commercial cling wrap have no significant difference with the tensile strength. The amount of

pectin yielded was also determined.

The researchers observed the physical properties of the edible film from dalandan

peels such as its tensile strength and thickness. The researchers used different formula in

analyzing the data.

To conduct the experimentation of the physical property of the edible film created from

dalandan peels, the materials that the researchers utilized are accurately selected based on

the researchers’ findings and related studies. The researchers conducted three trials to test

the physical property of the edible film made from dalandan peels based on their tensile

19
strength and be compared to the tensile strength of a commercial cling wrap. Also, the

researchers tested if there is a significant difference between the physical property of an

edible film made from dalandan peels and a commercial cling wrap.

Validation of the Study

The thickness of the film was measured using a Standard Test Method for Determining

Plastic Film Thickness and Thickness Variability Using a Non-Contact Capacitance Thickness

Gauge. This test is also known as ASTM D8136 – 17. The thickness of the film was measured

in micrometer.

Tensile strength or the ability to resist breakage under tensile stress is one of the most

important and commonly tested properties of an edible film. This test is also known as ASTM

D412 wherein plastic samples are either machined from stock shapes or injection molded. The

tensile testing machine pulls the sample from both ends and measures the force required to

pull the specimen apart and how much the sample stretches before breaking. Both of the

tests were conducted at Department of Science and Technology at Bicutan, Taguig City.

20
Data Gathering Procedure

Flowchart of the Procedure

Sample Preparation

Extraction of Pectin

Creation of Edible
Film from Dalandan
Peels

Determination of the Physical

Properties of the Edible Film

(Thickness and Tensile strength)

Data Analysis

Figure 4. Flowchart of procedure

Sample Preparation. Five hundred (500) grams of dalandan peels were collected

from the local market. The collected dalandan peels were washed thoroughly using distilled

water to remove dirt and impurities. The washed peels were cut into small pieces and sundried

for 48 hours. Subsequently, the dalandan peels were grounded using a blender to turn the

peels into powder. After grinding, the powdered dalandan peels were sieved using a strainer

in order to collect finer particles. The collected particles were packed in a polyethylene bags,

sealed and stored at a room temperature.

Extraction of Pectin. The researchers adapted the method of Kanmani et al. (2014)

with minor changes in extracting pectin from dalandan peels. 50 grams of dalandan peels

powder were extracted by adding 450 mL of distilled water and 100 mL of Citric acid at a pH

level of 3.3. The mixture was heated at 70°C and stirred continuously for 1 hour. The hot acid

extract has undergone centrifugation using a centrifuge at 6000 rpm for 10 minutes. After

being subjected to centrifugation, the pectin extract was filtered using a Whatman No. 1 filter

21
paper. The filtrate was coagulated using a 95% ethanol and was left until gelatinous

flocculants form on the surface. The gelatinous pectin flocculants were washed and filtered

again with ethyl alcohol to remove any remaining impurities. Finally, the pectin precipitate

was left inside a refrigerator.

Creation of Edible Film. The production of edible film was adapted from Dash (2019).

5 g of pectin (w/w) will be used in the creation of edible film. For the plasticizers 30 g of

glycerol at 30% level (w/v) of the aqueous solution was transferred to a beaker. The solution

was stirred at 350 rpm at 90°C for 30 minutes. It was then cooled to 50°C and maintained

for 60 minutes. After cooling, the solution was poured into a petri dish and dried in a

temperature humidity control chamber at 50°C.

Data Analysis. Data was gathered by computing the yield of pectin and determining

the tensile strength. To get the amount of pectin yielded, divide the amount of extracted

pectin in grams to the initial amount of fruit peel powder. Then, multiply it by 100. Tensile

strength was determined by multiplying the maximum force of rupture and cross-section area

of the films. The yield of the pectin and tensile strength was determined using the following

formula:

Amount of pectin yielded

The effects of pH and Temperature on the yield of pectin from different

citrus peels were studied by varying one-factor-at-a-time, while keeping the other one

constant. The optimum conditions giving a good yield from each source were ascertained in

this study. Percentage yield was calculated using this equation:

𝑃
Ypec(%) = ∗ 100
𝐵𝑖

where:

Ypec is the yield of pectin in (%)

P is the amount of extracted pectin in grams

B iis the initial amount of fruit peel powder

Thickness of the film

22
 The thickness of the film was measured using a Standard Test Method

for Determining Plastic Film Thickness and Thickness Variability Using a Non-Contact

Capacitance Thickness Gauge or ASTM D8136 – 17. The method provides precise dimensions

necessary for the calculation of properties expressed in physical units. It covers the thickness

of the film ranging from 2.5 to 250 µm, with a non-contact thickness gauge that uses

capacitance-based technology. The thickness of the film was measured in micrometer (µm).

Tensile Strength

Measurements for tensile strength of the film was done with the use of

a test known as ASTM D412. The test was conducted at Department of Science and

Technology at Bicutan, Taguig City. Multiplying the maximum force of rupture (F) and the

cross-section area of the films (A) will result to the value of TS shown by the equation below:

Tensile Strength = F/A

where:

F is the maximum force of rupture

A is the cross-section area of the films

Statistical Treatment

This study aims to extract pectin from dalandan peels to produce an edible film. It

aims to determine the thickness and the tensile strength of the dalandan pectin film. To obtain

conclusion based on the gathered data, T-test was used by the researchers.

T-test

A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant

difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features. The

t-test produces two values as its output: t-value and degrees of freedom. The t-value is a

23
ratio of the difference between the mean of the two sample sets and the difference that exists

within the sample sets. The degrees of freedom are also essential in assessing the importance

validity of the null hypothesis. In relation to this study, t-test was used by the researchers to

analyze the difference between Edible film from dalandan and commercial cling wrap.

Below mentioned formula represents t-test statistics:

𝑥̅ 1 − 𝑥̅ 2
𝑡 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝑡) =
𝑆12 𝑆2
√ + 𝑁2
𝑁1 2
where:

𝑥̅1= mean of sample 1

𝑥̅ 2= mean of sample 2

𝑆12 = variance of sample 1

𝑆22 = variance of sample 2

𝑁1 = number of records in sample 1

𝑁2 = number of records in sample 2

𝑆2 𝑆22
(𝑁1 + )2
1 𝑁2
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑚 (𝑑𝑓) = 2 𝑆 2
𝑆
( 1 )2 ( 1 )2
𝑁1 𝑁2
+
𝑁1 −1 𝑁2 −1
where:

𝑆12 = variance of sample 1

𝑆22 = variance of sample 2

𝑁1 = number of records in sample 1

𝑁2 = number of records in sample 2

24
 CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

This section includes the presentation of the data in the form of table and graph, the

interpretation and analysis. The findings that are exhibited in this chapter are in logical flow

based on the research problems regarding Synthesis and characterization of pectin-based

edible film made from dalandan (Citrus aurantium) peels. Within this part, it is often

considered as the critical part of the study. Through the information gathered, it functions as

a support to the research to arrive at a significant and accurate conclusion.

1. What is the amount of pectin yielded from dalandan peels?

Amount of extracted Initial amount of dalandan Total amount of pectin

dalandan pectin (g) peel powder (g) yielded (%)

6.00 50.0 12.0

Figure 5. Total amounts of pectin yielded

As presented on the table above, the amount of pectin extracted from dalandan

peels is 6.00 grams while the initial amount of powdered dalandan peels is 50.0 grams.

To calculate the percentage yield of pectin (Ypec in %), the amount of pectin extracted in

grams (P) is divided to the initial amount of dalandan peels powder (B i) and multiplied to

100. Based on the equation, Ypec(%) is 12.0%.

Based on the data provided above, the researchers have obtained 6.00 grams of

pectin on 50.0 grams of powdered peels. Ypec(%) obtained is lower than 100% because

the actual yield which is the amount of pectin extracted from the peels is less than the

theoretical yield which is the initial amount of powdered dalandan peels.

2. What is the physical property of the edible film from dalandan peels and

commercial cling wrap in terms of:

a. Thickness; and

b. Tensile Strength

25
 70

60

50

40
Commercial Cling Wrap
30 Dalandan Pectin Film
20

10

0
Thickness (µm) Tensile Strength (Mpa)

Figure 6. Bar graph representation of the average thickness and tensile strength of

Commercial Cling Wrap and Dalandan Pectin Film

Sample THICKNESS (µm)

TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3 AVERAGE

Commercial Plastic Wrap 57.05 56.50 56.85 56.80

(Controlled)

Dalandan Pectin Film 57.25 57.45 58.05 57.58

(Experimental)

Figure 6. Thickness of the commercial plastic wrap and dalandan pectin film

26
 Sample TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3 AVERAGE

Commercial Plastic
35.42 35.40 35.05 35.29
Wrap (Controlled)

Dalandan Pectin Film

36.00 35.87 35.80 35.89
(Experimental)

Figure 7. Tensile strength of the commercial plastic wrap and dalandan pectin film.

Figure 6 shows the thickness of the commercial plastic wrap and dalandan pectin film.

Commercial plastic wrap has a thickness of 57.05 µm, 56.50 µm, and 56.85 µm for Trial 1, 2

and 3, respectively. Whereas the dalandan pectin film has a thickness of 57.25 µm for Trial

1, 57.45 µm for Trial 2, and 58.05 µm for Trial 3. The commercial plastic wrap has an average

thickness of 56.80 µm while the dalandan pectin film has an average thickness of 57.58 µm.

Figure 7 on the other hand shows the tensile strength of the film samples. The data

suggest that on Trial 1, the tensile strength of the commercial plastic wrap is 35.42 MPa,

35.40 MPa on Trial 2, and 35.05 MPa on Trial 3. However, the tensile strength from the three

trials of the dalandan pectin film are: 36.00 MPa, 35.87 MPa, 35.80 MPa, respectively. The

commercial plastic wrap has an average tensile strength of 35.29 MPa while the dalandan

pectin film has an average tensile strength of 35.89 MPa.

As shown in Figure 5, the average thickness of the commercial cling wrap and dalandan

pectin film is 56.80 µm and 57.58 µm, respectively. On the other hand, the average tensile

strength of the commercial cling wrap is 35.29 MPa and 35.89 MPa for the dalandan pectin

film.

Based on the data, the thickness of the dalandan pectin film is higher than that of

commercial cling wrap. This conformed to the standard thickness value of a plastic film wrap

set by the MatWEb Material Property Data (n.d) which is 12.7 µm. The produced dalandan

27
 pectin film has a thickness of 57.58 µm; therefore, it has met the standard value of plastic

wrap thickness.

Based on the data, the tensile strength of the dalandan pectin film is 35.89 MPa which is

higher than that of commercial cling wrap which is only 35.29 MPa. The data gathered by the

researchers also conformed with the standard value of the tensile strength of edible films set

which is 10.0 kgf/cm2 or 0.98 MPa. With this, it can be deduced that the produced dalandan

pectin film has met the standard since it has a tensile strength of 35.89 MPa or 365.98

kgf/cm2. This implied that the produced dalandan pectin film is comparable to commercial

cling wrap in terms of its ability to resist stress. High tensile strength films are used for

products requiring high protection, while edible film with low tensile strength can be used for

food products. Given that the dalandan pectin film has a high tensile strength, it can be

concluded that it is capable of being used for products requiring high protection, thus, it can

be used as a substitute for commercial cling wrap.

3. Is there a significant difference between the tensile strength of edible film

from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

TWO-SAMPLE T-TEST FOR TENSILE STRENGTH

95% Confidence
STD. Interval of the T- Sig.
MEAN P- DF
DEVIATION Difference statistic level
VALUE
Lower Upper

Tensile
Sample strength of
35.29 0.2080865
1 commercial
cling wrap
0.01092 -0.971117 -0.228883 -4.4888 4 .05
Tensile
Sample strength of
35.89 0.101489
2 dalandan
pectin film

Figure 8. Two-sample t-test for the tensile strength of the commercial plastic wrap

and dalandan pectin film.

Based on the results in R (Statistical software), the mean of the tensile strength from

the commercial plastic wrap is 35.29 MPa with a standard deviation of 0.2080865 MPa.

28
 Meanwhile, the mean of the tensile strength from the edible dalandan pectin film is 35.89 MPa

with a standard deviation of 0.101489 MPa.

The p-value is 0.01 which is less than 0.05, therefore the researchers reject the null

hypothesis. At 5% level of significance, we have sufficient evidence to say that the tensile

strength of edible dalandan pectin film is significantly different from the commercial plastic

wrap.

4. Is there a significant difference between the thickness of edible film from

dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

TWO-SAMPLE T-TEST FOR THICKNESS

95% Confidence
STD. Interval of the T- Sig.
MEAN P- Difference DF
DEVIATION statistic level
VALUE
Lower Upper

Thickness
Sample of
56.8 0.2783882
1 commercial
cling wrap -
0.05359 1.586158 0.019492 -2.709 4 .05
Thickness 57.5833 0.4163332 7
Sample of 3
2 dalandan
pectin film

Figure 9. Two-sample t-test for the thickness of the commercial plastic wrap and dalandan

pectin film.

Based on the results in R (Statistical software), the mean of the thickness of the

commercial plastic wrap is 56.8 with a standard deviation of 0.2783882. Meanwhile, the mean

of the thickness of the edible dalandan pectin film is 57.58333 with a standard deviation of

0.4163332.

The p-value is 0.05 is equal to the significance level which is 0.05, therefore the

researchers fail to reject the null hypothesis. At 5% level of significance, the researchers do

not have sufficient evidence to say that the thickness of edible dalandan pectin film is

significantly different from the commercial plastic wrap.

29
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter will cover the summary, conclusion and recommendation of the findings

and interpretation of the previous section. The results of the study with brief information is

written on the summary. Other inferences and the generalization can be seen at the

conclusion while on this chapter, the researchers’ suggestion for the beneficiaries of this study

can also be seen.

Summary

1. What is the amount of pectin yielded from dalandan peels?

The researchers have yielded 12.0 % pectin out of 50. 0 grams of raw dalandan peels.

The actual amount of pectin is 6.00 grams, which is divided to the amount of raw dalandan

peels. The result was multiplied to 100 in order to obtain the percentage yield of pectin.

2. What is the physical property of the edible film from dalandan peels and

commercial cling wrap in terms of:

a. Thickness; and

b. Tensile Strength

The researchers have performed three trials and verified that the thickness and the

tensile strength of the dalandan pectin film is higher than the commercial cling wrap. Based

on the findings, the produced dalandan pectin film has a thickness of 57.58 µm; therefore, it

has met the standard value of plastic wrap thickness which is 56.80 µm. Also, the tensile

strength of the dalandan pectin film is 35.89 MPa which is higher than that of commercial

cling wrap that is only 35.29 MPa. Therefore, the dalandan pectin film can be used as a

substitute for commercial cling wrap.

3. Is there a significant difference between the tensile strength of edible film

from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

30
 The researchers used the two-sample t-test to determine if there is difference between

edible dalandan pectin film and commercial cling wrap. Based on the results, the mean of

tensile strength from commercial plastic wrap is 35.29 Mpa with a standard deviation of

0.2080865 Mpa. While the mean of tensile strength from the edible dalandan pectin film is

35.89 Mpa with a standard deviation of 0.101489. The p-value is 0.01 which is lower than

0.05, therefore the null hypothesis was rejected.

4. Is there a significant difference between the thickness of edible film from

dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

The researchers used two- sample t- test with equal variances. Based on the results

in R, the mean of the thickness of the commercial plastic wrap is 56.8 with a standard

deviation of 0.2783882. Meanwhile, the mean of the thickness of the edible dalandan pectin

film is 57.58333 with a standard deviation of 0.4163332. The p-value is 0.05 which is equal

to the significance level, therefore the researchers fail to reject the null hypothesis.

Conclusion

1. What is the amount of pectin yielded from dalandan peels?

The actual yield, which is the amount of pectin obtained from the peels was lower than

the theoretical yield which is the amount of dalandan peels. As a result, the percentage yield

is lower than 100%. Due to this outcome, the researchers concluded that the amount of pectin

and the peels obtained must be equal in order to achieve 100% pectin percentage yield.

However, this is not possible because the amount of pectin present in dalandan peels is

relatively small.

2. What is the physical property of the edible film from dalandan peels and

commercial cling wrap in terms of thickness and tensile strength?

The researchers have determined the thickness and tensile strength of both the

commercial plastic wrap and dalandan pectin film wherein the researchers gathered the

needed data by performing three trials. From the data, the researchers can conclude that the

31
the average thickness of dalandan pectin film is higher than the commercial cling wrap. On

the other hand, the average tensile strength of the dalandan pectin film is 35.89 MPa which

is higher than the 35.29 MPa tensile strength of commercial cling wrap. Given this data, it can

be concluded that the dalandan pectin film is capable of being used for products requiring

high protection, thus, it can be used as a substitute for commercial cling wrap.

3. Is there a significant difference between the tensile strength of edible film

from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

The tensile strength of edible film from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap has

a p-value of 0.01092 which is less than 0.05 or the significance level. With this, the

researchers can conclude that the tensile strength of edible dalandan pectin film is

significantly different from the tensile strength of commercial cling wrap.

4. Is there a significant difference between the thickness of edible film from

dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap?

The thickness of edible film from dalandan peels and commercial cling wrap has a p-

value of 0.05 which is equal to the significance level. Therefore, the researchers conclude that

the thickness of edible film from dalandan peels has no significant difference to the thickness

of edible film from commercial cling wrap.

Recommendation

1. The researchers recommend pectin not only as a component for the creation of an

edible cling wrap but also to be used in other edible products such as marmalades.

2. The researchers recommend to use other fruits other than those from the citrus family

as a primary source of pectin in creating edible film.

3. The researchers suggest using varying amount or concentration of glycerol to further

increase the tensile strength and thickness of the film.

4. Determine and compare the moisture content of produced edible film and commercial

cling wrap

5. Determine the water solubility of the produced edible film to test the film’s edibility.

32
6. To further develop a more effective film that meets the standards set by different

manufacturing industry, the researchers suggest to use a film with high percentage of

thickness to have a stronger tensile strength for the resulting edible film.

7. The researchers recommend to use the produced edible film in preventing food

spoilage.

8. Use the two sample of F- test to compare two equal variances. It is easy to determine

and compare the model that the researchers have calculated to the overall mean of

the data.

33
 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Research Instrument (Validated)

Tensile Properties of Dalandan Pectin Film

Film Samples Thickness (µm) Tensile Strength (MPa)

Control (commercial)

Dalandan Pectin Film

34
APPENDIX B

35
APPENDIX C

36
 APPENDIX D

Manila Tytana Colleges

Senior High School Department
76 Diosdado Macapagal Boulevard
Pasay, Metro Manila 1302

Letter of Request

September 17, 2019,

Ms. Melody A. Salvador

Teacher

Dear Ms. Salvador:

Greetings!

The undersigned are Grade 12 STEM students of Manila Tytana Colleges and currently
proposing a study that is entitled “A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF POMELO (CITRUS
MAXIMA) AND DALANDAN (CITRUS AURANTIUM) PEELS AS AN EFFECTIVE EDIBLE
FILM IN PREVENTING FOOD SPOILAGE”.

Through your expertise, they are humbly asking your consent to validate the tables attached
to this letter for the study that we are conducting regarding our research instrument.

They are eager to receive your kind feedback for your favorable action on this regard.

Thank you very much for your cooperation.

Respectfully yours,

The Researchers

37
 APPENDIX E

Manila Tytana Colleges

Senior High School Department
76 Diosdado Macapagal Boulevard
Pasay, Metro Manila 1302

Certificate of Validation

This is to certify that I have edited this research instruments entitled “A COMPARATIVE
STUDY OF POMELO (CITRUS MAXIMA) AND DALANDAN (CITRUS AURANTIUM)
PEELS AS AN EFFECTIVE EDIBLE FILM IN PREVENTING FOOD SPOILAGE” prepared by

KYLE HENDRICK C. SIGAYA

FREXIE S. CONIENDO
WENDY J. CORCORO
VENICE MARIEL DEVELOS
NICOLE STEFI MABUTOT
MA. KRIZANDRA J. ROSGA
JOMEL TRAQUIÑA
LAWRENCE B. VALERIO
JULES ROANN VILLARIN

and have found it thorough and acceptable with expect of grammar and composition with
these researchers may conduct their study.

MS. MELODY A. SALVADOR

September 24, 2019

38
 APPENDIX F

Prof. Ofelia Mallabo-Mutas

Principal
Manila Tytana Colleges-SHSD

Thru: Dr. Evelyn P. Antonio

Assistant Principal for Students

Warmest Greetings!

In partial fulfillment of our requirements in Inquiries, Investigation and Immersion, we, the
Grade 12 STEM students of section Plata, will be conducting an experimental research entitled
Synthesis and Characterization of pectin-based Edible Film made from Dalandan (Citrus
aurantium) Peels. The purpose of this study is to compare edible film made from Dalandan
peels and commercial cling wrap in terms of their thickness and tensile strength.

With regards to this matter, we hereby ask for your permission to let us enter the campus to
conduct this research and perform various experiments on Saturday, February 8, 2020 at the
science laboratory of our school, to be supervised by Mr. Marc Lancer Santos. Rest assured
that all the procedures to be done inside the school will be strictly used for research purposes
only.

We are hoping for your positive response for this matter. Your approval to conduct this study
will be highly appreciated. Thank you.

Respectfully yours,

Kyle Hendrick Sigaya

Research Representative

Noted by: Approved by:

Mr. Marc Lancer Santos Prof. Ofelia Mallabo-Mutas

Chemistry Teacher. Principal

Ms. Abigail Batuto

Research Adviser

39
 APPENDIX G

February 6, 2020

Dr. Lorna D. Tamboong

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences
Manila Tytana Colleges

Dear Dean Tamboong:

Greetings of peace!

I, Kyle Hendrick C. Sigaya, a Senior High School student from STEM 12 – Plata together
with my groupmates are formally requesting to borrow the Chemistry Laboratory on
February 8, 2020 to conduct our research experiment namely Synthesis and
Characterization of pectin-based Edible Film made from Dalandan (Citrus aurantium) Peels
in line with our partial fulfillment of our requirements for the subject Inquiries,
Investigation, and Immersion under Ms. Abigail B. Batuto.

Along with this, I am also humbly requesting to borrow some of the laboratory equipment
such as:

• Centrifuge
• 2 Petri Dish
• Beaker
• Graduated Cylinder
• Distilled water
• pH meter
• Whatman no. 1 filter paper
• Ethanol
• Oven
• Gycerol
• Magnetic Stirrer
• Calcium Chloride
• Calcium Sulfate
• Digital Balance
• Dropper

Rest assured that all the borrowed equipment will be handled with utmost care and make
compensation according to the cost in case of any damages to such equipment.

Your approval will be a great contribution to our research’s success. Thank you and May the
mighty Omnipotence be with you always!

Sincerely,

KYLE HENDRICK C. SIGAYA

Research Group Leader

Endorsed by: Approved by:

MS. ABIGAIL B. BATUTO DR. LORNA D. TAMBOONG

Research adviser

MR. MARC LANCER SANTOS

Laboratory facilitator

40
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44
 CURRICULUM VITAE

FREXIE SARVIDA CONIENDO

Address: P24-04, 12th-9th St., Villamor Air Base, Pasay City

Contact Number: +639457142860

E-mail Address:frxcnnd@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Rex

BIRTHDAY: August 31, 2003

AGE:16 years old

HEIGHT:5’2

WEIGHT:50 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Cresenciano E. Coniendo Jr.

MOTHER’S NAME: Lewa Amorlina S. Coniendo

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: Villamor Air Base Elementary School

(2008-2014)

SECONDARY: Pasay City South High School

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

45
 CURRICULUM VITAE

WENDY JORNADAL CORCORO

Address: # 16 9th St. Zone 1, North Signal, Taguig City

Contact Number: +639662263822

E-mail Address: wendycorcoro23@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Wendy

BIRTHDAY: March 23, 2002

AGE: 17 years old

HEIGHT: 5’4

WEIGHT: 56 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Nestor B. Corcoro

MOTHER’S NAME: Eloisa J. Corcoro

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: Kapt. Eddie T. Reyes Integrated School

(2008-2014)

SECONDARY: Army’s Angel Integrated School

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

46
 CURRICULUM VITAE

VENICE MARIEL TABLANG DEVELOS

Address: 2022 Delas Alas St., Pasay City

Contact Number: +639353123058

E-mail Address: venicemarieldevelos@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Venice / Veyns / Mariel

BIRTHDAY: April 15, 2001

AGE: 17 years old

HEIGHT: 5’0

WEIGHT: 49 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Vicentico D. Develos

MOTHER’S NAME: Elnora T. Develos

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: Padre Burgos Elementary School

(2008-2014)

SECONDARY: Pasay City West High School - STE

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

47
 CURRICULUM VITAE

NICOLE STEFI SANTOS MABUTOT

Address: Block 5 Lot 38 Columbia Street, Better Living Subd.

Sec 2, Brgy. Don Bosco, Parañaque City

Contact Number: +639156183110

E-mail Address: nckstfsnts@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Stefi

BIRTHDAY: September 23, 2000

AGE:19 years old

HEIGHT:5”

WEIGHT:47 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Emerlito L. Mabutot

MOTHER’S NAME: Delia Marie S. Mabutot

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: San Juan Nepomuceno School

(2007-2010)

Nicolites Montessori

(2010-2011)

Christian Academy of Makati

(2011-2013)

SECONDARY: Christian Academy of Makati

(2013-2014)

APEC Schools

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

48
 CURRICULUM VITAE

MA. KRIZANDRA JOYA ROSGA

Address: Block 1 Lot 7 Camachile 1, City of General Trias, Cavite

Contact Number: +639277985132

E-mail Address: mariarosga@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Makaye

BIRTHDAY: March 20, 2002

AGE:17 years old

HEIGHT:5’3

WEIGHT:45 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Crisanto P. Rosga

MOTHER’S NAME: Jellina J. Rosga

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: San Francisco de Malabon Parochial School

(2008-2009)

Colegio de San Francisco

(2009-2014)

SECONDARY: Cavite National High School

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

49
 CURRICULUM VITAE

KYLE HENDRICK CASTILLO SIGAYA

Address: P32-01, 12TH 11TH St., Villamor Air Base, Pasay City

Contact Number: +639560812723

E-mail Address: kylesigaya01@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Kyle / Kylosaur / Kylo

BIRTHDAY: March 25, 2002

AGE:17 years old

HEIGHT: 5’6

WEIGHT:55 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Jose Rodney D. Sigaya

MOTHER’S NAME: Ma. Theresa C. Sigaya

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: Villamor Air Base Elementary School

(2008-2014)

SECONDARY: Pasay City South High School

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

50
 CURRICULUM VITAE

JOMEL LIM TRAQUIÑA

Address: 244 C. Jose St. Malibay, Pasay City

Contact Number: +639201102317

E-mail Address: kyrie.jomel23@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Jomel

BIRTHDAY: July 23, 2001

AGE:17 years old

HEIGHT:5’7

WEIGHT:63 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Orlando A. Traquiña

MOTHER’S NAME: Dinah L. Traquiña

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: San Nepomuceno Parish Church

(2008-2009)

Apelo Cruz Elementary School

(2009-2014)

SECONDARY: Pasay City East High School

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

51
 CURRICULUM VITAE

LAWRENCE BUENAVISTA VALERIO

Address: 1854 R. Tankian St. Brgy. 4, Pasay City

Contact Number: +639193757949

E-mail Address: valeriolawrence16@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: Rence / Val

BIRTHDAY: December 16, 2001

AGE:17 years old

HEIGHT:5”2

WEIGHT:49 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Antolin A. Valerio

MOTHER’S NAME: Janet B. Valerio

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: Aurora A. Quezon Elementary School

(2008-2014)

SECONDARY: Araullo High School

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

52
 CURRICULUM VITAE

JULES ROANN TAN VILLARIN

Address: 161 Mambog St., Bacoor City, Cavite

Contact Number: +639561489840

E-mail Address: jrtvcerberusxx@gmail.com

PERSONAL INFORMATION

NICKNAME: JULES

BIRTHDAY: JULY 24, 2001

AGE:18 years old

HEIGHT:5’5

WEIGHT:60 kg

FATHER’S NAME: Rommel Garcia Villarin

MOTHER’S NAME: Annaliza Tan Villarin

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

PRIMARY: Child Development and Guidance Center

(2008-2014)

SECONDARY: Bacoor National Highschool – Salinas Annex

(2014-2018)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: Manila Tytana Colleges

(2018-Present)

53