COMPLEX ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

√−1 = no real solution.

In the set of real numbers, negative numbers do not have square roots. Imaginary
numbers were invented so that negative numbers would have square roots and certain equations
would have solutions.
These numbers were devised using an imaginary unit named i. “j” is also the other symbol
√−1. j = √−𝟏.

The imaginary numbers consist of all numbers bi, where b is a real number and i is the
imaginary unit, with the property that i² = -1.
The first four powers of i establish an important pattern and should be memorized.

i1  i i 2  1 i 3  i i4  1
Given a number, 𝑖 𝑛 , the number can be simplified by using the following chart.

Because the powers of i will CYCLE through 1 ,i, -i, and -1 , this repeating pattern of
four terms can be used to simplify 𝑖 𝑛 .

Divide the exponent by 4

No remainder: answer is 1.
remainder of 1: answer is i.
remainder of 2: answer is –1.
remainder of 3:answer is –i.

Divide the exponent by 4,

If the quotient’s decimal part is
equal to 0: answer is 1.
equal to 0.25: answer is i.
equal to 0.50: answer is –1.
equal to 0.75 :answer is –i.
 NOTE: Because the powers of cycle through 1, ,−i, i and 1, these types of problems can
always be simplified by noting what the remainder is in dividing n by 4 above. In fact,
the problem can be re-written as…

𝒊𝒏 = 𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 (Divide n by 4 and determine the remainder).

The remainder will always be either 0, 1, 2, or 3.

COMPLEX NUMBER – is a quantity of the form 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, where a and b are real numbers, and 𝑗
represents the unit imaginary numbers equal to the positive √−1.

Form of 𝑗 𝑚 where 𝑚 is an integer either odd or even.

𝑚⁄
𝑗 𝑚 = (𝑗 2 ) 2 = ±1 ; where 𝑚 is even powers of 𝑗.

𝑗 = 𝑗 (𝑚−1) 𝑗 = ±𝑗 ; where 𝑚 is odd powers of 𝑗.

THEOREMS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS

1. If (𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚) = 𝟎 , then 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒚 = 𝟎
Example:
Solve for angles Ɵ and α.
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 2Ɵ − sin4 2Ɵ) + j(csc 2 α − 1) = 0
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 2Ɵ − sin4 2Ɵ = 0
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2Ɵ + sin2 2Ɵ)(cos2 2Ɵ − sin2 2Ɵ) = 0
(1)(cos2 2Ɵ − sin2 2Ɵ) = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠4Ɵ = 0 ; 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 α − 1 = 0
4Ɵ = arccos 0 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 α = 1

4Ɵ = 90° csc α = √1
90° 1
Ɵ= 4 sin α
=1

Ɵ = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓° α = arcsin 1
𝛂 = 𝟗𝟎°

2. If (𝒙𝟏 + 𝒋𝒚𝟏 ) = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒋𝒚𝟐 ) , then 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 and 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟐

 Example:
Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦.
(2𝑥 + 𝑗3𝑦)2 — 6 − 𝑗12 = 0
Solution:
(2𝑥 + 𝑗3𝑦)2 = 6 + 𝑗12
4𝑥 2 + 𝑗12𝑥𝑦 + (𝑗3𝑦)2 = 6 + 𝑗12 ; 𝑗 2 = −1 ;
4𝑥 2 + 𝑗12𝑥𝑦 − 9𝑦 2 = 6 + 𝑗12
(4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 ) + 𝑗12𝑥𝑦 = 6 + 𝑗12
4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 = 6 ❶
𝑗12𝑥𝑦 = 𝑗12
12𝑥𝑦 = 12
12
𝑦 = 12𝑥
1
𝑦= ❷
𝑥

Substitute ❷ to ❶:

4𝑥 2 − 9(1⁄𝑥 )2 = 6 ; multiply both sides by 𝑥 2 ;

4𝑥 4 − 9 = 6𝑥 2 ; again reduce to quadratic equation form;
4(𝑥 2 )2 − 6𝑥 2 − 9 = 0 ; using quadratic formula;
6±√(−6)2 −4(4)(−9)
𝑥2 = 2(4)

6±13.416
𝑥2 = 8

6+13.416
𝑥=√
8

𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟖
Substitute the value of 𝑥 to ❷ to solve for 𝑦:
1
𝑦 = 1.558

𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟐

3. If (𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚) = 𝟎, then (𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚) = 𝟎 or (𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚) = 𝟎. Since the product is zero,

therefore the multiplicand and multiplier are also zero.
FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. Rectangular form:
𝑍 = (𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦)
where: 𝑥 = real part or component
𝑗𝑦 = imaginary part or imaginary component
2. Polar (or Steinmetz) form:
𝑍 =< Ɵ
where: 𝑟 = magnitude or amplitude
Ɵ = argument or displacement in degrees
<= read as bar angle
3. Trigonometric form:
𝑍 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ) or 𝑟𝑐𝑗𝑠Ɵ or 𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠Ɵ
4. Exponential form:

𝑍 = 𝑟𝑒 ±𝑗Ɵ
where: Ɵ = argument or displacement in radians
Example:
Convert 𝑧 = −4 + 𝑗7 into polar, trigonometric, and exponential form.
a. Polar
7
𝑟 = √(−4)2 + 72 = √65 ; Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −4 = 119.745°

Therefore, 𝒛 = −𝟒 + 𝒋𝟕 = √𝟔𝟓 < 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟕𝟒𝟓°

b. Trigonometric
7
𝑟 = √(−4)2 + 72 = √65 ; Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 119.745°
−4

Therefore, 𝒛 = −𝟒 + 𝒋𝟕 = √𝟔𝟓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟕𝟒𝟓° + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟕𝟒𝟓° )

c. Exponential
7
𝑟 = √(−4)2 + 72 = √65 ; Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −4 = 119.745°
𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 119.745 × 180°

Ɵ = 2.090 𝑟𝑎𝑑

Therefore, 𝒛 = −𝟒 + 𝒋𝟕 = √𝟔𝟓 𝒆𝒋𝟐.𝟎𝟗𝟎

ARGAND’S DIAGRAM – named after the Swiss mathematician Jean Argand (1762-1822), is the
graphical representation of the complex number field where the real part is measured along the x-axis
and the imaginary part along the y-axis.
Example:
Represent the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram:
a. 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑗2
2
In polar form, 𝑟 = √32 + 22 = √13 ; Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (3) = 33.69°

Therefore, 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑗2 = √13 < 33.69°

𝑧 = 3 + 𝑗2 𝑧 = √13 < 33.69°

b. 𝑧 = √5 < −153.435°

In rectangular form,

𝑥 = √5 cos(−153.435° ) ; 𝑥 = −2

𝑦 = √5 sin(−153.435° ) ; 𝑦 = −1

Therefore, 𝑧 = √5 < −153.435° = −2 − 𝑗

𝑧 = −2 − 𝑗 𝑧 = √5 < −153.435°
 c. z = -5 + j2 d. z = -5 - j2

𝑟 = √52 + 22 = √29 𝑟 = √52 + 22 = √29

2 −2
Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = −21.80 ° Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 21.80 °
−5 −5

In phasor, a = -5 b = 2, thus it is in quadrant II In phasor, a = -5 b = - 2, thus it is in quadrant III

z = -5 + j2
Ɵ = 180 − 21.80 ° = 158. 20°

Ɵ = 21.80 °

Ɵ = 21.80 °
Ɵ = −21.80 °

Ɵ = 21.80 °

Therefore, z = √𝟐𝟗 < 𝟏𝟓𝟖. 𝟐𝟎° z = -5 - j2

Therefore, z = √𝟐𝟗 < 𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟎°

OPERATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

1. Addition and Subtraction
a. For complex numbers in rectangular form, simply add or subtract the real parts of the complex
numbers to determine the real part sum, and add or subtract the imaginary parts of the
complex numbers to determine the imaginary part of the sum:

Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 ; 𝑤 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑

Then, 𝑧 ± 𝑤 = (𝑎 ± 𝑐) ± 𝑗(𝑏 ± 𝑑)

Example:

𝑧 = (8 + 𝑗2) + (3 − 𝑗5) 𝑧 = 𝑗12 − (1 + 𝑗6)

= (8 + 3) + 𝑗(2 − 5) = −1 + 𝑗(12 − 6)
𝒛 = 𝟏𝟑 − 𝒋𝟐 𝒛 = −𝟏 + 𝒋𝟔

b. For complex numbers not in rectangular form, convert first the complex numbers to
rectangular form and add or subtract real part to real part and imaginary part to imaginary
part.
 2. Multiplication

The following are the rules in multiplication of complex numbers.

Rule 1: The product of two or more complex numbers in polar form is equal to the
product of their magnitudes and the sum of their directions.
Z1 x Z2 =(r1 ± θ1) x (r2 ± θ2)

Z1 x Z2 =(r1 r2 )(θ1+θ2)
Note: 𝛉1+𝛉2 = algebraic sum

Example:

Multiply (5 + 𝑗) by (6 < 27° )

𝑟 = √52 + 12 = √26 ; convert (5 + 𝑗) into polar form

1
Ɵ = tan−1 ( ) = 11.310° ; (5 + 𝑗) = √26 < 11.310°
5

Then, 𝑧 = (√26 < 11.310° )(6 < 27° )

= (√26 × 6) < (11.310° ) + (27° )

𝒛 = 𝟔√𝟐𝟔 < 𝟑𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟎°

Rule 2: To find the product of two or more complex numbers in rectangular form, i.e
(𝒙𝟏 + 𝒋𝒚𝟏 )(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒋𝒚𝟐 ) = (𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒋(𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 )

Example:

𝑧 = (4 − 𝑗2)(1 + 𝑗9)
= [(4 × 1) + (2 × 9)] + 𝑗[(4 × 9) − (1 × 2)]

𝒛 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝒋𝟏𝟔 = 𝟐√𝟏𝟖𝟓 < 𝟑𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟕°

Rule 3: Convert all complex numbers to polar and apply rule 1.

3. Division

The following are the rules in the division of complex numbers.

Rule 1: To perform division of complex numbers in polar form, divide their magnitude and get
the difference of their directions.

Z1 / Z2 =(r1 / r2 )(θ1 - θ2)

Example:

Divide (62 < 35° ) by (4 < −75° )

62
= 4
< [35 − (−75)]°

𝒛 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟓 < 𝟏𝟏𝟎°

Rule 2: To divide complex numbers in rectangular form, multiply the number by its
conjugate. To find the conjugate of a complex number, change the sign
between the two terms in the denominator.
3+𝑗2
Divide: 4−𝑗3

3+𝑗2 4+𝑗3
= 4−𝑗3 × 4+𝑗3 ; the conjugate of the denominator is 4 + 𝑗3

12+𝑗9+𝑗8+𝑗 2 6
= 16+𝑗12−𝑗12−𝑗2 9 ; apply FOIL method

12+𝑗9+𝑗8−6
= 16+9
; 𝑗 2 = −1
6+𝑗17
= 25
; apply rules of addition or subtraction

𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟔𝟖

SQUARE ROOT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Rule 1: To evaluate the square root of a given complex number in polar form, simply
take the square root of magnitude and multiply the direction by one-half.
θ
√Z =√(rθ) √Z =(rθ)
𝟏/𝟐
√Z =√r  𝟐

Rule 2: To evaluate the square root of a complex number in rectangular form, such as (𝒙 + 𝒋𝒚),
equate it to √𝒂 + 𝒋𝒃 and square both sides, then simplify. Use theorem 2 of complex numbers.

Example:

Evaluate the square root of (7 + 𝑗3) by two methods.

First method:

Convert (7 + 𝑗3) to polar form and apply rule 1.

3
𝑟 = √72 + 32 = √58 ; Ɵ = tan−1 7 = 23.2°

Then, (7 + 𝑗3) = √58 < 23.2°

Applying rule 1,
1
𝑟 = √√58 = 2.76 ; Ɵ = 2 × 23.2° = 11.6°

Therefore, √√𝟓𝟖 < 𝟐𝟑. 𝟐° = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟔 < 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔°

Second method:

Let 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = √7 + 𝑗3 ; square both sides;

(𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦)2 = (7 + 𝑗3) ; expand the left side;

𝑥 2 + 𝑗2𝑥𝑦 + (𝑗𝑦)2 = 7 + 𝑗3 ; 𝑗 2 = −1;

(𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑗2𝑥𝑦 = 7 + 𝑗3 ; by theorem 2;

𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 7 ❶

2𝑥𝑦 = 3
3
𝑦 = 2𝑥 ❷

Substitute ❷ to ❶; to solve for the values of x

3
𝑥 2 − ( )2 = 7 ; multiply both sides by 𝑥 2 ;
2𝑥
9
𝑥 4 − = 7𝑥 2 ; reduce to quadratic equation form;
4
9
(𝑥 2 )2 − 7𝑥 2 − 4 = 0 ; by factoring;

7+√58 7−√58
(𝑥 2 − 2
) (𝑥 2 − 2
) =0

7+√58
𝑥2 − 2
=0

𝑥 = ±2.703
Substitute the values of 𝑥 obtained to ❷, to solve for 𝑦:
3 3
𝑦 = 2𝑥 = 2(±2.703)

𝑦 = ±0.555
Nth root of a complex number
From the general exponential form and trigonometric form.

𝒛 = 𝒓𝒆 (𝜽+𝟐𝝅𝒌)𝒊 = 𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒔(𝜽 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝒌);

𝜽+𝟐𝝅𝒌
( )𝒊
𝒁𝟏/𝒏 = 𝒓𝟏/𝒏 𝒆 𝒏

𝜽+𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝒌 𝜽+𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝒌
𝒁𝟏/𝒏 = 𝒓𝟏/𝒏 [𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒏
)+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒏
) 𝒊]

𝒏 𝜽+𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝒌 𝜽+𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝒌
𝑾𝒌 = √𝒓 [𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒏
)+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒏
) 𝒊]

𝜽 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎° 𝒌
𝑾𝒌 = √𝒓  (
𝒏
)
𝒏

Where:

k = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n – 1)

W0 is the principal value or root, and "𝜃" must be a positive angle

W1, W2, . . . Wn-1 are auxiliary values or roots.

De Moivre's Theorem
The process of mathematical induction can be used to prove a very important theorem in
mathematics known as De Moivre's theorem.

In mathematics, de Moivre's formula (also known as de Moivre's theorem and de Moivre's

identity), named after Abraham de Moivre, states that for any complex number (and, in particular, for
any real number) x and integer n it holds that

(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)𝒎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒎𝜽) + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝜽

where i is the imaginary unit (i2 = −1). While the formula was named after de Moivre, he never stated it
in his works. The expression cos(x) + i sin(x) is sometimes abbreviated to cis(x).

The formula is important because it connects complex numbers and trigonometry. By expanding
the left hand side and then comparing the real and imaginary parts under the assumption that x is real,
it is possible to derive useful expressions for cos(nx) and sin(nx) in terms of cos(x) and sin(x).

As written, the formula is not valid for non-integer powers n. However, there are generalizations
of this formula valid for other exponents. These can be used to give explicit expressions for the nth roots
of unity, that is, complex numbers z such that zn = 1.
Example: Write (√3 + 𝑖)7 in the form s + bi
First determine the radius:
𝑟 = |√3 + 𝑖|

𝑟 = √√32 + 12

𝑟 = √3 + 1
𝑟=2
√3 1
Since cos 𝑎 = 2
and sin 𝑎 = 2 𝑎, must be in the first quadrant and a= 30°. Therefore,

(√3 + 𝑖) = [2(cos 30° + 𝑖 sin 30°)]

(√3 + 𝑖)7 = 2[cos(7 ∙ 30°) + 𝑖 sin(7 ∙ 30°)]

(√3 + 𝑖)7 = 128(cos 210° + 𝑖 sin 210°)

√3 −1
(√3 + 𝑖)7 = 128 (− + 𝑖)
2 2

√3 1
(√3 + 𝑖)7 = 128 (− − 𝑖)
2 2

(√3 + 𝑖)7 = −64√3 − 64𝑖

Logarithm of Complex Numbers

The natural logarithm of a complex number can be obtained when it is expressed in exponential
form;

𝐥𝐧𝐳 = 𝐥𝐧𝐫 + 𝐣(𝛉 + 𝟐𝛑𝐤)

𝐙 = 𝐞[𝐥𝐧𝐫+𝐣(𝛉+𝟐𝛑𝐤)]
Where
𝑦
𝜃 = arctan ( )
𝑥
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

if k = 0, Z is the principal value.

Example:
Find: ln(3 + 4𝑖)
Convert 3 + 4𝑖 to polar form 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4
4
𝑟 = √32+ 42 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
3
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜃 = 53.13°( 180°
)= 0.9273 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

3 + 4𝑖 = 5∠53.13° = 5𝑒 0.9273𝑖
ln(3 + 4𝑖) = ln(5𝑒 0.9273𝑖 )
= 𝑙𝑛5 + 0.9273𝑖𝑙𝑛𝑒 (but ln 𝑒 = 1)
𝐥𝐧(𝟑 + 𝟒𝒊) = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟕𝟑𝒊

Find: ln(15 ∠60°)

𝜋
ln(15𝑒 𝑗 3 )
𝜋
ln(𝑒 𝑙𝑛15+𝑗 3 )
𝜋
𝑙𝑛15 + 𝑗
3

𝟐. 𝟕𝟎𝟖 + 𝒋𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟕

Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions of Complex Numbers

Definition of hyperbolic sine and cosine:
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 = 2
cosh 𝑥 = 2

There are two equivalent formulas for sine and cosine (Euler’s formulas) but they require some knowledge
of the complex numbers:
𝑒 𝑗𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑗𝑥 𝑒 𝑗𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑗𝑥
sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 =
𝑗2 2

Where 𝑗 = √−1. Substituting 𝑥 with 𝑗𝑥 in these two formulas and keeping in mind that 𝑗 2 = −1. It is
immediate to deduce that cosh 𝑥 = cos 𝑗𝑥 and sinh 𝑥 = −𝑗 sin 𝑗𝑥

From the definition of hyperbolic sine and cosine, we define the other hyperbolic functions in the same
way with trigonometric functions.
sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = coth 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑥
1 1
sech 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 csch 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥
Basic Properties:

sinh(−𝑥) = − sinh 𝑥 coth(−𝑥) = − coth 𝑥

cosh(−𝑥) = cosh 𝑥 sech(−𝑥) = sech 𝑥
tanh(−x) = − tanh 𝑥 csch(−𝑥) = − csch 𝑥

Addition Formulas:

Unlike the case of ordinary addition trigonometric formulas, the two basic addition formulas for
hyperbolic functions can be retrieved immediately from the definition.

sinh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

cosh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
Combining these formulas with sinh(−𝑥) = − sinh 𝑥, we easily derive the following:

sinh(𝑥 − 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

cosh(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
Using the definition of hyperbolic tangent and the equations above, we can derive the addition formula:
tanh 𝑥±tanh 𝑦
tanh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) =
1±tanh 𝑥 tanh 𝑦

INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

The inverse of hyperbolic function can always be written as the logarithm of an algebraic function:

sinh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)

cosh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1)
1 1+𝑥
tanh−1 𝑥 = ln( )
2 1−𝑥

To retrieve these formulas, we rewrite the definition of the hyperbolic function as a degree two
polynomial in 𝑒 𝑥 ; then we solve for 𝑒 𝑥 and invert the exponential. For example:
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 = 2
↔ 𝑒 2𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑒 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ↔ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑦 ± √𝑦 2 + 1

and since the exponential must be positive, we select the positive sign.

Unlike trigonometric functions,

Example: hyperbolic functions are not
Find a closed-form expression for the inverse hyperbolic function 𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥.
periodic!
First we write 𝑥 as a function of 𝑦, i.e.
𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦.
Now, using the definition of tanh 𝑦 and rearranging, we find
𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 +𝑒 −𝑦 → (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 −𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑒 𝑦 .
Thus, it follows that
1+𝑥 1+𝑥
𝑒 2𝑦 = 1−𝑥 → 𝑒 𝑦 = √1−𝑥,
1+𝑥
𝑦 = ln √1−𝑥,
𝟏 𝟏+𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧( ).
𝟐 𝟏−𝒙

Example:
Find a closed-form expression for the inverse hyperbolic function 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥.

First we write 𝑥 as a function of 𝑦, i.e.

𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦.
1 1
Now, since cosh 𝑦 = (𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 ) and sinh 𝑦 = (𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 ),
2 2
𝑒 𝑦 = cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑦
= √1 + sinh2 𝑦 + sinh 𝑦
𝑒 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥,
and hence,
𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧(√𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙).

Example:
𝑑
Evaluate (𝑑𝑥) sinh−1 𝑥 using the logarithmic form of the inverse.

From the above example,

𝑑 𝑑
(sinh−1 𝑥) = [ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 )]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
= (1 + )
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1
1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1
= ( )
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1
𝟏
=
√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION IDENTITIES

 1. cosh2 y − sinh2 y = 1
2. sech2 y + tanh2 y = 1
3. coth2 y − csch2 y = 1

RELATION BETWEEN HYPERBOLIC AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

1. sin 𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗 sinh 𝑥
2. cos 𝑗𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 Remember that the domain of the
3. tan 𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗 tanh 𝑥
inverse is the range of the original
4. sinh 𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗 sin 𝑥
function, and the range of the inverse is
5. cosh 𝑗𝑥 = cos 𝑥
the domain of the original function.
6. tanh 𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗 tan 𝑥

Example:
Solve the hyperbolic equation cosh 𝑥 − 5 sinh 𝑥 − 5 = 0.

Substituting the definitions of the hyperbolic functions we obtain

1 𝑥 5
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) − 5 = 0.
2 2
Rearranging, and then multiplying through by −𝑒 𝑥 , gives in turn
−2𝑒 𝑥 + 3𝑒 −𝑥 − 5 = 0
and
2𝑒 2𝑥 + 5𝑒 𝑥 − 3 = 0.
Now we can factorize and solve:
(2𝑒 𝑥 − 1)(𝑒 𝑥 + 3) = 0.
Thus,
𝟏
𝒆𝒙 = or 𝒆𝒙 = −𝟑. Hence 𝒙 = − 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 or 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧(−𝟑).
𝟐

Example:
𝑑
Verify the relation ( ) cosh 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Using the definition of cosh 𝑥,

1
cosh 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ),
2
and differentiating directly, we find
𝑑 1
(cosh 𝑥) = (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙.