Pe

U rs
se o
n
W al
IS u
EL se
Y on
!!! ly
.
Reactions in Aqueous Solution
 A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more
substances

The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the

.
!!! ly
smaller amount(s)

Y on
EL se
The solvent is the substance present in the larger

IS u
amount
W al
n
se o
Solution Solvent Solute
U rs
Pe

Soft drink (l) H2O Sugar, CO2

Air (g) N2 O2, Ar, CH4
Soft Solder (s) Pb Sn

4.1
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,

.
!!! ly
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

4.1
 Conduct electricity in solution?

Cations (+) and Anions (-)

.
!!! ly
Y on
Strong Electrolyte – 100% dissociation

EL se
H2O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs

Weak Electrolyte – not completely dissociated

Pe

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

4.1
 Ionization of acetic acid

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
A reversible reaction. The reaction can

IS u
W al
occur in both directions.
n
se o
U rs
Pe

Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte because its

ionization in water is incomplete.

4.1
Hydration is the process in which an ion is surrounded
by water molecules arranged in a specific manner.

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs

δ−
Pe

δ+
H2O 4.1
Nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity?

No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution

.
!!! ly
H2O
C6H12O6 (s) C6H12O6 (aq)

Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.1
 Precipitation Reactions
Precipitate – insoluble solid that separates from solution

.
precipitate

!!! ly
Y on
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

EL se
molecular equation

IS u
W al
Pb2+ + 2NO3- + 2Na+ + 2I-
n PbI2 (s) + 2Na+ + 2NO3-
se o
U rs

ionic equation
Pe

Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

PbI2
net ionic equation
Na+ and NO3- are spectator ions
4.2
 Precipitation of Lead Iodide
Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2 (s)

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

PbI2

4.2
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve
in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature.

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.2
 Writing Net Ionic Equations
1. Write the balanced molecular equation.
2. Write the ionic equation showing the strong electrolytes
completely dissociated into cations and anions.

.
!!! ly
3. Cancel the spectator ions on both sides of the ionic equation

Y on
4. Check that charges and number of atoms are balanced in the

EL se
net ionic equation

IS u
W al
Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of silver
n
nitrate with sodium chloride.
se o
U rs
Pe

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Ag+ + NO3- + Na+ + Cl- AgCl (s) + Na+ + NO3-

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl (s) 4.2

 Chemistry In Action:
An Undesirable Precipitation Reaction

Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO-3 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l)

.
!!! ly
CO2 (aq) CO2 (g)

Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.2
 Acids

Have a sour taste. Vinegar owes its taste to acetic acid. Citrus

.
!!! ly
fruits contain citric acid.

Y on
Cause color changes in plant dyes.

EL se
IS u
React with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas.

W al
2HCl (aq) + Mg (s)
n MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
se o
U rs

React with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce carbon

Pe

dioxide gas

2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity.

4.3
 Bases
Have a bitter taste.

.
!!! ly
Feel slippery. Many soaps contain bases.

Y on
Cause color changes in plant dyes.

EL se
IS u
Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.3
Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces H+ (H3O+) in water

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
Arrhenius base is a substance that produces OH- in water
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.3
Hydronium ion, hydrated proton, H3O+

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.3
 A Brønsted acid is a proton donor
A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
base acid acid base
U rs
Pe

A Brønsted acid must contain at least one

ionizable proton!

4.3
Monoprotic acids
HCl H+ + Cl- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HNO3 H+ + NO3- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

.
!!! ly
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

Y on
EL se
Diprotic acids

IS u
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4- Strong electrolyte, strong acid

HSO4- W al
H+ + SO42-
n Weak electrolyte, weak acid
se o
U rs

Triprotic acids
Pe

H3PO4 H+ + H2PO4- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

H2PO4- H+ + HPO42- Weak electrolyte, weak acid
HPO42- H+ + PO43- Weak electrolyte, weak acid

4.3
 Identify each of the following species as a Brønsted acid,
base, or both. (a) HI, (b) CH3COO-, (c) H2PO4-

.
!!! ly
Y on
HI (aq) H+ (aq) + I- (aq) Brønsted acid

EL se
IS u
CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq) CH3COOH (aq) Brønsted base
W al
n
se o
H2PO4- (aq) H+ (aq) + HPO42- (aq) Brønsted acid
U rs
Pe

H2PO4- (aq) + H+ (aq) H3PO4 (aq) Brønsted base

4.3
 Neutralization Reaction

.
!!! ly
acid + base salt + water

Y on
EL se
IS u
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O
W al
n
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- Na+ + Cl- + H2O
se o
U rs
Pe

H+ + OH- H2O

4.3
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
(electron transfer reactions)

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

2Mg 2Mg2+ + 4e- Oxidation half-reaction (lose e-)

O2 + 4e- 2O2- Reduction half-reaction (gain e-)
2Mg + O2 + 4e- 2Mg2+ + 2O2- + 4e-
2Mg + O2 2MgO 4.4
 Pe
U rs
se o
n
W al
IS u
EL se
Y on
!!! ly
.
4.4
 Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Zn Zn2+ + 2e- Zn is oxidized Zn is the reducing agent

.
!!! ly
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu Cu2+ is reduced Cu2+ is the oxidizing agent

Y on
EL se
IS u
Copper wire reacts with silver nitrate to form silver metal.

W al
What is the oxidizing agent in the reaction?
n
se o
U rs

Cu (s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag (s)

Pe

Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
Ag+ + 1e- Ag Ag+ is reduced Ag+ is the oxidizing agent

4.4
 Oxidation number
The charge the atom would have in a molecule (or an
ionic compound) if electrons were completely transferred.

.
!!! ly
Y on
1. Free elements (uncombined state) have an oxidation

EL se
number of zero.

IS u
Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0
W al
n
2. In monatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to
se o
U rs

the charge on the ion.

Pe

Li+, Li = +1; Fe3+, Fe = +3; O2-, O = -2

3. The oxidation number of oxygen is usually –2. In H2O2
and O22- it is –1.
4.4
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when
it is bonded to metals in binary compounds. In these
cases, its oxidation number is –1.
5. Group IA metals are +1, IIA metals are +2 and fluorine

.
!!! ly
is always –1.

Y on
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in
a molecule or ion is equal to the charge on the

EL se
molecule or ion.

IS u
7. Oxidation numbers do not have to be integers.

O2-, is -½.
W al
Oxidation number of oxygen in the superoxide ion,
n
se o
HCO3 -
U rs
Pe

Oxidation numbers of all O = -2 H = +1

the elements in HCO3- ?
3x(-2) + 1 + ? = -1
C = +4
4.4
The oxidation numbers of elements in their compounds

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.4
 IF7
Oxidation numbers of all
the elements in the F = -1
following ?

.
!!! ly
7x(-1) + ? = 0

Y on
I = +7

EL se
IS u
NaIO3 W al
n K2Cr2O7
se o
U rs

Na = +1 O = -2 O = -2 K = +1
Pe

3x(-2) + 1 + ? = 0 7x(-2) + 2x(+1) + 2x(?) = 0

I = +5 Cr = +6
4.4
Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

.
Combination Reaction

!!! ly
Y on
A+B C

EL se
0 0 +3 -1
2Al + 3Br2 2AlBr3

IS u
W al
n
Decomposition Reaction
se o
U rs

C A+B
Pe

+1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
4.4
Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Combustion Reaction

.
!!! ly
Y on
A + O2 B

EL se
0 0 +4 -2

IS u
S + O2 SO2
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

0 0 +2 -2
2Mg + O2 2MgO

4.4
 Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

.
Displacement Reaction

!!! ly
Y on
A + BC AC + B

EL se
0 +1 +2 0

IS u
Sr + 2H2O Sr(OH)2 + H2 Hydrogen Displacement
+4 0 W al
0
n +2
se o
TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + 2MgCl2 Metal Displacement
U rs
Pe

0 -1 -1 0
Cl2 + 2KBr 2KCl + Br2 Halogen Displacement

4.4
The Activity Series for Metals

.
Hydrogen Displacement Reaction

!!! ly
Y on
M + BC AC + B

EL se
M is metal

IS u
BC is acid or H2O
W al
n B is H2
se o
U rs

Ca + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
Pe

Pb + 2H2O Pb(OH)2 + H2

4.4
The Activity Series for Halogens
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

.
!!! ly
Y on
Halogen Displacement Reaction

EL se
0 -1 -1 0

IS u
Cl2 + 2KBr 2KCl + Br2
W al
n
se o
U rs

I2 + 2KBr 2KI + Br2

Pe

4.4
 Types of Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Disproportionation Reaction

.
!!! ly
Element is simultaneously oxidized and reduced.

Y on
0 +1 -1

EL se
Cl2 + 2OH- ClO- + Cl- + H2O

IS u
W al
n
Chlorine Chemistry
se o
U rs
Pe

4.4
 Classify the following reactions.

.
!!! ly
Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3 Precipitation

Y on
EL se
NH3 + H+ NH4+ Acid-Base

IS u
Zn + 2HCl W al
ZnCl2 + H2
n Redox (H2 Displacement)
se o
U rs

Ca + F2 CaF2 Redox (Combination)

Pe

4.4
Chemistry in Action: Breath Analyzer
+6
3CH3CH2OH + 2K2Cr2O7 + 8H2SO4

.
!!! ly
Y on
+3
3CH3COOH + 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 11H2O

EL se
IS u
W al
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.4
 Solution Stoichiometry
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.

.
!!! ly
Y on
moles of solute
M = molarity =

EL se
liters of solution

IS u
W al
What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of
n
se o
a 2.80 M KI solution?
U rs

M KI M KI
Pe

volume of KI solution moles KI grams KI

1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI

500. mL x x x = 232 g KI
1000 mL 1 L soln 1 mol KI
4.5
 Pe
U rs
se o
n
W al
IS u
EL se
Y on
!!! ly
.
4.5
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.

.
!!! ly
Y on
EL se
Dilution

IS u
W al
n Add Solvent
se o
U rs
Pe

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf
4.5
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.200 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

.
!!! ly
MiVi = MfVf

Y on
EL se
Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 0.06 L Vi = ? L

IS u
Vi =
MfVfW al
n
=
0.200 x 0.06
= 0.003 L = 3 mL
se o
U rs

Mi 4.00
Pe

3 mL of acid + 57 mL of water = 60 mL of solution

4.5
 Gravimetric Analysis
1. Dissolve unknown substance in water
2. React unknown with known substance to form a precipitate

.
!!! ly
Y on
3. Filter and dry precipitate
4. Weigh precipitate

EL se
IS u
5. Use chemical formula and mass of precipitate to determine

W al
amount of unknown ion
n
se o
U rs
Pe

4.6
 Titrations
In a titration a solution of accurately known concentration is
added gradually added to another solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between the two

.
!!! ly
solutions is complete.

Y on
Equivalence point – the point at which the reaction is complete

EL se
IS u
Indicator – substance that changes color at (or near) the
W al
equivalence point
n
se o
U rs

Slowly add base

Pe

to unknown acid
UNTIL
the indicator
changes color
4.7
 What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is
Required to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4
solution?

.
!!! ly
Y on
WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!

EL se
IS u
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4
M
W al
n
rx M
se o
volume acid moles acid moles base volume base
U rs

acid coef. base

Pe

4.50 mol H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 1000 ml soln

25.00 mL x x x = 158 mL
1000 mL soln 1 mol H2SO4 1.420 mol NaOH

4.7
 Chemistry in Action: Metals from the Sea
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH - (aq)

.
!!! ly
Y on
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH -(aq) Mg(OH)2 (s)

EL se
Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

IS u
W al
n
se o
Mg2+ + 2e- Mg
U rs
Pe

2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-

MgCl2 (aq) Mg (s) + Cl2 (g)