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1H A P T E R
Introduction to Liquid
Penetrant Testing
Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been sampling. Sampling (that is, less than 100
defined as comprising those test methods percent testing to draw inferences about
used to examine or inspect a part or the unsampled lots) is nondestructive
material or system without impairing its testing if the tested sample is returned to
future usefulness.1 The term is generally service. If the steel is tested to verify the
applied to nonmedical investigations of alloy in some bolts that can then be
material integrity. returned to service, then the test is
Strictly speaking, this definition of nondestructive. In contrast, even if
nondestructive testing includes spectroscopy used in the chemical testing
noninvasive medical diagnostics. X-rays, of many fluids is inherently
ultrasound and endoscopes are used by nondestructive, the testing is destructive if
both medical and industrial the samples are poured down the drain
nondestructive testing. Medical after testing.
nondestructive testing, however, has come Nondestructive testing is not confined
to be treated by a body of learning so to crack detection. Other discontinuities
separate from industrial nondestructive include porosity, wall thinning from
testing that today most physicians never corrosion and many sorts of disbonds.
use the word nondestructive. Nondestructive material characterization
Nondestructive testing is used to is a growing field concerned with material
investigate specifically the material properties including material
integrity of the test object. A number of identification and microstructural
other technologies — for instance, radio characteristics — such as resin curing, case
astronomy, voltage and amperage hardening and stress — that have a direct
measurement and rheometry (flow influence on the service life of the test
measurement) — are nondestructive but object.
are not used specifically to evaluate Nondestructive testing has also been
material properties. Radar and sonar are defined by listing or classifying the
classified as nondestructive testing when various techniques.1-3 This approach
used to inspect dams, for instance, but conveys a sense of nondestructive testing
not when they are used to chart a river that is a practical sense in that it typically
bottom. highlights methods in use by industry.
Nondestructive testing asks “Is there
something wrong with this material?”
Various performance and proof tests, in
contrast, ask “Does this component Purposes of
work?” This is the reason that it is not Nondestructive Testing
considered nondestructive testing when
an inspector checks a circuit by running Since the 1920s, the art of testing without
electric current through it. Hydrostatic destroying the test object has developed
pressure testing is another form of proof from a laboratory curiosity to an
testing, one that may destroy the test indispensable tool of production. No
object. longer is visual testing of materials, parts
Another gray area that invites various and complete products the principal
interpretations in defining nondestructive means of determining adequate quality.
testing is future usefulness. Some material Nondestructive tests in great variety are in
investigations involve taking a sample of worldwide use to detect variations in
the inspected part for testing that is structure, minute changes in surface
inherently destructive. A noncritical part finish, the presence of cracks or other
of a pressure vessel may be scraped or physical discontinuities, to measure the
shaved to get a sample for electron thickness of materials and coatings and to
microscopy, for example. Although future determine other characteristics of
usefulness of the vessel is not impaired by industrial products. Scientists and
the loss of material, the procedure is engineers of many countries have
inherently destructive and the shaving contributed greatly to nondestructive test
itself — in one sense the true test object — development and applications.
has been removed from service The various nondestructive testing
permanently. methods are covered in detail in the
The idea of future usefulness is relevant literature, but it is always wise to consider
to the quality control practice of objectives before details. How is
Basic Categories
Mechanical-optical color; cracks; dimensions; film thickness; gaging; reflectivity; strain distribution and magnitude; surface
finish; surface flaws; through-cracks
Penetrating radiation cracks; density and chemistry variations; elemental distribution; foreign objects; inclusions; microporosity;
misalignment; missing parts; segregation; service degradation; shrinkage; thickness; voids
Electromagnetic-electronic alloy content; anisotropy; cavities; cold work; local strain, hardness; composition; contamination;
corrosion; cracks; crack depth; crystal structure; electrical and thermal conductivities; flakes; heat
treatment; hot tears; inclusions; ion concentrations; laps; lattice strain; layer thickness; moisture content;
polarization; seams; segregation; shrinkage; state of cure; tensile strength; thickness; disbonds
Sonic-ultrasonic crack initiaion and propagation; cracks, voids; damping factor; degree of cure; degree of impregnation; degree of
sintering; delaminations; density; dimensions; elastic moduli; grain size; inclusions;
mechanical degradation; misalignment; porosity; radiation degradation; structure of composites; surface stress;
tensile, shear and compressive strength; disbonds; wear
Thermal and infrared bonding; composition; emissivity; heat contours; plating thickness; porosity; reflectivity; stress; thermal
conductivity; thickness; voids
Chemical-analytical alloy identification; composition; cracks; elemental analysis and distribution; grain size; inclusions; macrostructure;
porosity; segregation; surface anomalies
Auxiliary Categories
Image generation dimensional variations; dynamic performance; anomaly characterization and definition; anomaly
distribution; anomaly propagation; magnetic field configurations
Signal image analysis data selection, processing and display; anomaly mapping, correlation and identification; image enhancement;
separation of multiple variables; signature analysis
FIGURE 1. Aluminum alloy flat plate by crack length: (a) as machined; (b) after etch; (c) after
proof.
(a)
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 11.4 12.7 14.0 15.2 16.5 17.8 19.1
0 (0.05) (0.10) (0.15) (0.20) (0.25) (0.30) (0.35) (0.40) (0.45) (0.50) (0.55) (0.60) (0.65) (0.70) (0.75)
Actual Crack Length, mm (in.)
(b)
100
90
Probability of Detection (percent)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 11.4 12.7 14.0 15.2 16.5 17.8 19.1
0 (0.05) (0.10) (0.15) (0.20) (0.25) (0.30) (0.35) (0.40) (0.45) (0.50) (0.55) (0.60) (0.65) (0.70) (0.75)
Actual Crack Length, mm (in.)
(c)
100
90
Probability of Detection (percent)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.2 11.4 12.7 14.0 15.2 16.5 17.8 19.1
0 (0.05) (0.10) (0.15) (0.20) (0.25) (0.30) (0.35) (0.40) (0.45) (0.50) (0.55) (0.60) (0.65) (0.70) (0.75)
Actual Crack Length, mm (in.)
Legend
= predicted probability of detection
X = hit data
© Copyright 1999, D&W Enterprises, Littleton, CO.
FIGURE 2. Aluminum alloy flat plate by crack depth: (a) as machined; (b) after etch; (c) after
proof.
(a)
100
90
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
0 (0.05) (0.10) (0.15) (0.20)
Actual Crack Depth, mm (in.)
(b)
100
90
Probability of Detection (percent)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
0 (0.05) (0.10) (0.15) (0.20)
Actual Crack Depth, mm (in.)
(c)
100
90
Probability of Detection (percent)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1
0 (0.05) (0.10) (0.15) (0.20)
Actual Crack Depth, mm (in.)
Legend
= predicted probability of detection
X = hit data
© Copyright 1999, D&W Enterprises, Littleton, CO.
TABLE 3. Probability of detection for fluorescent liquid penetrant testing of aluminum flat
plates (see Figs. 1 and 2). False calls were not documented.
Quantity Threshold for 90 Percent
of Cracks Probability of Detection
Data Set Condition Detected/Present mm (in.)
Crack Length
C1001C (Fig. 1a) as machined 233/311 7.95 mm (0.313 in.)
C1002C (Fig. 1b) after etch 260/311 2.69 mm (0.106 in.)
C1003C (Fig. 1c) after proof testing 280/306 1.50 mm (0.059 in.)
Crack Depth
C1001C (Fig. 2a) as machined 233/311 3.56 mm (0.140 in.)
C1002C (Fig. 2b) after etch 260/311 0.79 mm (0.031 in.)
C1003C (Fig. 2c) after proof testing 280/306 0.38 mm (0.015 in.)
Cascading Dyes
The next significant development was of
cascading dyes, first accomplished by
James Alburger. This became another
Parker effort.27 This approach permitted
another quantum leap in sensitivity.
Parker discovered that sensitivity could be
improved dramatically by combining
several different dyes in the liquid
penetrant. What occurred in this mixture
was a cascading effect or a linking between
the dyes. One dye had its absorption peak
in the ultraviolet range whereas its main
emission peak was in the blue range. The
other dye had its main absorption in the
blue and its main emission in the yellow
or yellow-green range. The cascading effect
had a net efficiency greater than that of a
single dye. A patent was applied for by
Parker and Joseph Switzer, and the process
was incorporated into commercial
products in 1954.32
yotta Y 1024
zetta Z 1021
exa E 1018 SI Units to Express
peta P 1015 Particular Quantities in
tera T 1012 Nondestructive Testing
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103 Pressure
hectoa h 102 The pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per
deka (or deca)a da 10 square meter (1 N·m–2), is used to express
decia d 10–1 pressure, stress etc. It is used in place of
centia c 10–2 units of pound force per square inch
milli m 10–3 (lbf·in.–2), atmosphere, millimeter of
micro µ 10–6 mercury (mm Hg), torr, bar, inch of
mercury (in. Hg), inch of water (H2O) and
nano n 10–9
other units. The text must indicate
pico p 10–12
whether gage, absolute or differential
femto f 10–15 pressure is meant.
atto a 10–18
zepto z 10–21
Volume
yocto y 10–24
The cubic meter (m3) is the only volume
a. Avoid these prefixes (except in dm3 and cm3) for
science and engineering.
measurement unit in SI. It takes the place
of cubic foot, cubic inch, gallon, pint,
barrel and more. In SI, the liter (L) is also
Note that 1 cm3 is not equal to 0.01 m3. approved for use. The liter is a special
Also, in equations, submultiples such as name for cubic decimeter (1 L = 1 dm3 =
centimeter (cm) or decimeter (dm) should 10–3 m3). Only the milli (m) and micro (µ)
be avoided because they disturb the prefixes may be used with liter.
convenient 103 or 10–3 intervals that The fundamental units of time,
make equations easy to manipulate. temperature, pressure and volume are
In SI, the distinction between upper expressed every time movement of a fluid
and lower case letters is meaningful and (liquid or gas) is measured.
Porosity
Porosity is reported as a ratio of volume to
volume and can be expressed as a
percentage. For example, if hydrogen
content in aluminum is measured as
2.5 mm3·g–1, this value reduces to
2.50 mm3·(0.37 cm3)–1 × 1000 mm3·cm–3 =
0.675 or about 0.7 percent. Therefore the
hydrogen content should be reported as
6.75 mm3·cm–3 in volume for a porosity
of 0.7 percent.