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Class Notes On Pressure Vessel PDF
Class Notes On Pressure Vessel PDF
The main focus of equipment design in chemical plant is the design of vessel. But while
designing the pressure vessel, chemical engineer alone will not usually be called on to undertake
the detailed design of a pressure vessel. The mechanical engineer who is familiar with the current
design codes, standard methods & various stresses theory. However the chemical engineer will
be liable for developing and specifying the basic design information for a particular vessel and
needs to have a general appreciation of pressure vessel design to work efficiently with the
specialist designer.
Chemical engineering involves the application of the sciences to the process industries
and converting raw material into finished products by using physical & chemical processes.
While performing this, handling and storing of large quantities of materials in containers of
varied construction, depending upon the nature of materials, physical and chemical properties
and the required operations which are to be performed. And for handling & storing of such a
large container is called as “vessel”. When the vessel which operates at under pressure or in
which pressure is more than atmospheric pressure is called as pressure vessel. If we take a simple
example in case of pressure cooker which was invented by Denis Papin, a French physicist, in
1679. An early pressure cooker, called a steam digester. It is also acts as a pressure vessel.
Several types of such equipment are used in chemical industry and are categorized into
two groups i.e. Fired & Unfired pressure vessel. The fired pressure vessel includes boiler. While
unfired pressure vessel includes heat exchanger, digesters, storage vessels, kettles, distillation
column, evaporators, autoclaves etc.
When the pressure is to be maintained inside the vessel then it is called as vessel
subjected to internal pressure while when the pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure and
is to be maintained inside the vessel it is termed as vessel subjected to external pressure or vessel
operating under vacuum. Most of the process equipment’s may be considered to be vessels with
various modifications to perform certain required functions. For example, heat exchanger may be
considered to be a pressure vessel as it has suitable provision of transferring heat through
appropriate tubes operated at a certain temperature and pressure.
Apart from of the nature of the application of the vessel, a number of factors usually must
be considered in designing the units. The basic data needed by the specialist engineer will be
1. Vessel function
2. Type of fluid being handled & processed
3. Operating parameters i.e. temperature & pressure
4. Availability of different materials of construction and their cost data
5. Geometry & type of the vessel required
6. Type of service required (whether continuous, intermittent, fluctuating)
7. Influence of environment, including corrosion from chemical attack of fluid contained
and of the atmosphere. Also effects of erosion caused by high velocity of fluid flow
8. External loadings such as wind, snow etc. Also piping system attached to vessel for
subjected to internal pressure.
9. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
10. Specification of internal fittings
The most important consideration while designing any equipment the first step is the
selection of the type of vessel that performs the requisite service to satisfy the given
condition. Thus the most common type of vessel may be classified as follows
In past decades, the non hazardous liquids such as brine and other aqueous solutions,
may be stored in ponds if it’s having very low value. Or they may use open steel,
wooden or concrete tanks if it’s have greater value. If the fluid is toxic, combustible
or gaseous in the storage condition and if the pressure is more than atmospheric then
it is necessary to use closed vessel. For storage of fluids at atmospheric pressure,
cylindrical tanks with flat bottoms and conical roofs are commonly used.
It has been important while operating steel at high temperature services, the presence
of some particular bases like H2 in the environment can cause the hydrogen
embrittlement at high temperature and pressure. For such hydrogen services,
austenitic stainless steel is used.
Similarly if in the gaseous environment containing Sulphur & Sulphur containing
compounds are also affected to austenitic stainless steels at high temperature. In such
1
environment specially has been seen in refineries processesing sour crude, 5Cr- Mo
2
steel provides good corrosion resistance in addition to high temperature strength. For
more severe conditions, 9Cr-1Mo steel provides better protection.
ii) Low temperature services-: Many chemical processes are operated at sub-zero
temperatures (below 0 0C),
Vessels subjected to internal Pressure
i) The cylinder may be failure along the longitudinal direction i.e. circumferential stress
breaking the cylinder into two troughs, as shown in fig a
ii) The cylinder may be failure along the transverse i.e. longitudinal stress breaking the
cylinder into two cylindrical shells, as shown in fig b
Consider a thin cylindrical shells subjected to internal pressure as shown in fig. a & b. A
tensile stress acting in a direction tangential to the circumference is called circumferential or
hoop stress.
=P×D×L
L = length of shell
Force
Therefore Circumferential/ Hoop stress =
Area
pDL
=
2tL
pD
ft1 =
2t
pD
or t =
2f t1 ……………(1)
While constructing a pressure vessel like steam boiler, reaction vessel, heat exchanger etc are
joined either by riveted joint or welded joint which are used in joining together the ends of steel
plates, then the wall thickness of the cylinder along with the corrosion allowance is
pD
t C
2f t1 J …………….. (2)
In case of internal diameter (Di) & outer diameter (Do) of shell is given by
Therefore
Di Do
D
2
Di Di 2t
D
2
2 D 2 D i 2t
D D i t
p ( Di t )
t
2 fJ
2 fJt p Di p t
(2 fJ p) t p Di
p Di
t
(2 fJ p)
pDi
t C
2 fJ p …………..… (3)
Therefore
Di Do
D
2
Do 2t Do
D
2
2 D 2 D o 2t
D D o t
p ( Do t )
t
2 fJ
2 fJt p Do p t
(2 fJ p ) t p Do
p Do
t
(2 fJ p)
pDo
t C
2 fJ p …………..… (3)
And
pDo
t C
2 fJ p ……………….. (4)
Longitudinal Stress-: Consider a closed thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure as
shown in fig. c & d. Tensile stress acting in the direction of axis is called as longitudinal stress.
D 2
=P×
4
= ×D×t
Force
Therefore Longitudinal stress =
Area
p D2
=
4Dt
pD
ft2 = ……………….(5)
4t
Or
pD
t=
4f t2 ……………… (6)
While constructing a pressure vessel like steam boiler, reaction vessel, heat exchanger etc are
joined either by riveted joint or welded joint which are used in joining together the ends of steel
plates, then the wall thickness of the cylinder along with the corrosion allowance is
pD
t = 4f t2 J + C ……………. (7)
In case of internal diameter (Di) & outer diameter (Do) of shell is given by
pDi
t C
4 fJ p ……….…… (7)
And
pDo
t C
4 fJ p …………….. (8)
p r 2i
w
Et …………………….(9)
Vessel subjected to internal pressure:- In this case both stresses are equal to longitudinal stress
are as follows
pDo
t C
4 fJ p ……………(4)
And
pDi
t C
, 4 fJ p ………………(9)
Given: D = 500 mm
t = 20 mm
i) Hoop Stress
pD
ft1 =
2t
2.2 × 500
ft1 =
2 × 20
pD
ft2 =
4t
2 .2 × 500
ft2 =
4 × 20
iii) We know that according to maximum shear stress theory, the maximum shear
stress theory is half of the algebraic difference of the maximum & minimum
principal stress i.e. circumferential & longitudinal stress resp.
f t1 f t 2
fs
2
27.5 13.75
fs
2
H = 3.8 m
P = 12 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
C = 1 mm 1× 10-1 = 0.1 cm
iii) Percentage of metal saving by welding a strip along the longitudinal joint
pDo
t C
2 fJ p
13.2 130
t 0.1
2 1020 0.85 13.2
t = 1.082cm …………..Ans
13.2 130
t 0.1
2 1020 0.70 13.2
t = 1.2906cm …………..Ans
13.2 130
t 0.1
2 1020 0.50 13.2
t = 1.7608cm …………..Ans
13.2 130
t 0.1
2 1020 1 13.2
t = 0.9357cm …………..Ans
1.082 0.9357
J = 0.85 100 = 13.52% …………Ans
1.082
1.2906 0.9357
J = 0.70 100 = 27.49%................Ans
1.2906
1.7608 0.9357
J = 0.50 100 = 46.85% …………Ans
1.7608
Problem 3(D-3): A cylindrical pressure vessel 1.8 m in diameter and 5 m in height is subjected
to an internal pressure of 8 kg/cm2. Corrosion allowance is 2 mm.
If a strip of suitable size is welded all along the longitudinal joint, (joint efficiency = 1.0), what
will be the thickness of the vessel and how much percentage saving in the material can be
achieved?
H=5m
P = 8 kg/cm2
f = 1400 kg/cm2
iii) Percentage of metal saving by welding a strip along the longitudinal joint
pDo
t C
2 fJ p
8.8 180
t 0.2
2 1400 0.85 8.8
t = 0.8630cm …………..Ans
8.8 180
t 0.2
2 1400 0.70 8.8
t = 1.004cm …………..Ans
8.8 180
t 0.2
2 1400 0.50 8.8
t = 1.3243cm …………..Ans
8.8 180
t 0.2
2 1400 1 8.8
t = 0.7639cm …………..Ans
0.8630 0.7639
J = 0.85 100 = 11.48%.............Ans
0.8630
1.004 0.7639
J = 0.70 100 = 23.91%...............Ans
1.004
1.3243 0.7639
J = 0.50 100 = 42.31%..............Ans
1.3243
Problem 4(unsolved D-7): A cylindrical shell has an inside diameter of 25 cm and an outside
diameter of 37.5 cm. The maximum allowable tensile stress is 1400 kg/cm2. Calculate the
maximum internal pressure that can be exerted in the vessel.
Given: Di = 25 cm
Do = 37.5 cm
f = 1400 kg/cm2
To find-: i) P =………..kg/cm2
Do = Di + 2t
DO D I
t
2
37.5 25
t
2
t = 6.25 cm
pD
ft1 = where D = Diameter of vessel = outside diameter of vessel=Do
2t
2tf t1
p
D0
2 6.25 1400
p
37.5
P = 200 kg/cm2
f = 1600 kg/cm2
J = 1.0
To find-: i) t = …… cm
i) Thickness of vessel
pDo
t
2 fJ p
220 500
t
2 1600 1.0 220
t = 32.16 cm …………..Ans
Problem (D-2)-: A cylindrical shell of a vessel has an inside diameter 2 m and is subjected to an
internal pressure 5 kg/cm2. Calculate the required thickness and corresponding deflection.
Allowable tensile stress of the material is 1020 kg/cm2.
P = 5 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
µ = 0.3
E = 2.09×106 kg/cm2
To find-: i) W = …… cm
pDi
t
2 fJ p
5.5 200
t
2 1020 1.0 5.5
t = 0.5407cm …………..Ans
p r 2i
w
Et
5.5 100 2
w
2.09 10 6 0.5407
w = 0.0487 cm ………………….Ans
Problem (D-4)- : A vessel having 1.6 m outside diameter is to operate at a pressure of 5 kg/cm2. The
permissible stress of the material used for fabrication is 1020 kg/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 85%.
Calculate the thickness required for a cylindrical vessel and a spherical vessel ? Which vessel should be
selected for operation.
P = 5 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
pDo
t
2 fJ p
5.5 160
t
2 1020 0.85 5.5 (5.5 must be added)
t = 0.5091cm …………..Ans
pDo
t
4 fJ p
5.5 160
t
4 1020 0.85 5.5 (5.5 must be added)
t = 0.2542cm …………..Ans
It can be seen that the thickness required for spherical vessel is 50% of the thickness required for
cylindrical vessel. Spherical vessel offers uniform stress distribution but the cost of fabrication is
too high. Therefore for economic reasons, cylindrical pressure vessel with 0.6 cm approximate
thickness has to be used.
If the vessel is fabricated in the spherical form, what maximum pressure will it be able to
withstand? (10 marks)
P = 4 kgf/cm2
f = 960 kgf/cm2
J = 0.85
pDo
t (Di is taken into consideration)
2 fJ p
4.4 200
t
2 960 0.85 4.4
t = .5407 cm …………..Ans
pDi
t
4 fJ p
4 fJt pt pDi
p( Di t ) 4 fJt
4 fJt
p
( Di t )
p = 8.80 kgf/cm2………………………..Ans
Problem (D-5)-: A cylindrical pressure vessel 2 m internal diameter is to be operates at a
pressure of 4 kg/cm2. The permissible stress of the material is 960 kg/cm2. Welded joint
efficiency is 85%. Calculate the thickness required for the vessel. If this vessel is fabricated in
spherical vessel what maximum pressure will it be able to withstand?
P = 4 kg/cm2
f = 960 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
pDi
t
2 fJ p
4.4 200
t
2 960 0.85 4.4
t = 0.5407cm …………..Ans
pDi
t
4 fJ p
4 fJt pt pDi
p( Di t ) 4 fJt
4 fJt
p
( Di t )
p = 8.80 kg/cm2………………………..Ans
Problem (D-11)- : The inside diameter of cylinder is 25 cm and is subjected to an internal pressure of 600
kg/cm2. Allowable tensile stress of the material is 1400 kg/cm2. What should be the maximum thickness
of the vessel?
Given: Di = 25 cm
P = 600 kg/cm2
f = 1400 kg/cm2
J = 1.0 (Consider)
pDi
t
2 fJ p
660 25
t
2 1400 1.0 660
t = 7.7103 cm……………….Ans
Problem (D-17) : A cylindrical shell of a vessel has an inside diameter 2.5 m and is subjected to
an internal pressure of 5 kg/cm2. Calculate the required thickness and corresponding deflection.
If the permissible stress is 1060 kg/cm2.
P = 5 kg/cm2
f = 1060 kg/cm2
µ = 0.33
E = 2×106 kg/cm2
To find-: i) t = …… cm
ii) W = ………cm
pDi
t
2 fJ p
5.5 250
t
2 1060 1.0 5.5
t = 0.6503 cm …………..Ans
p r 2i
w
Et
5.5 1252
w
2 10 6 0.6503
w = 0.0661 cm ………………….Ans
Stresses induced in vessel or design of vessel subjected to combined loadings
Vessels are the part of process equipments which are arranged in either series or parallel.
They are connected to each other by pipelines for entering & excluding feed. If the vessels are
located in an open, wind load acts over the vessel. Therefore, while designing the vessel, the
thickness is estimated by taking into consideration with d ifferent stresses induced in vessel.
These stresses are as follows:
i) Pressure
ii) Weight of the vessel & its content
iii) Wind
iv) Pipelines are attached to the vessel
v) Earthquake
Due to internal pressure & external pressure, the circumferential stresses & longitudinal stresses
are induced & is given by
p ( Di t)
f t1 …………..Circumferential stress ……….. (9)
2t
p ( Di t )
ft 2 ……………Longitudinal stress ………….. (10)
4t
Weight of the empty vessel and weight of its content in the vessel induce direct stresses. These
stresses either tensile (positive) for points below the plane of the vessel supports, or compressive
(negative) for points above the supports, see Figure (fig no.) as shown in below.
Weight of the vessel contents depend upon the process requirement and the weight per unit
volume (kg/m3) of the content. Weight of the empty vessel depends upon the dimensions of the
vessel and its thickness is dependent upon the internal pressure exerted in the vessel.
W
fw …………………… (11)
t ( Di t )
Where W is the total weight of the vessel.
Bending stresses resulting from the bending moment because of wind forces acting over the
vessel. Wind loading will only be important on tall columns installed in the open. Columns and
chimney-stacks are usually free standing, mounted on skirt supports, and not attached to
structural steel work.
M
f bm ……………………… (12)
Z
Total stresses induces in the vessel along in the longitudinal direction is given by
f t = f t 2 + fw + f bm ............................. (13)
Any horizontal force acting on the vessel by additional equipment will produce a torque on the
vessel. Such loads can arise through wind pressure on piping attached to the vessel for inlet and
outlet of heat ing, cooling medium, drain pipes, vent pipes etc.
2T
fs ………………….. (14)
Di t ( Di t )
On the basis of shear strain energy theory the equivalent resultant stress induced in the vessel
subjected due to all the stresses can be calculated as follow
1
f R [ f 2
t1 f t1 f t f t 3 f ] …………….. (16)
2
s
2 2
The equivalent resultant stress should be less than the permissible stress of the material.
Compressive stress induced in the vessel should be below the safe compressive stress value of
the material.
1 E t
fc …………………. (17)
12 3(1 ) ( Do / 2)
2
f R (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
f t (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
f t (Compressive) ≤ f c (permissible)
If these conditions are not satisfied, the thickness t will have to be increased by employing the
trial & error method. The final thickness should be determined by addition of corrosion
allowance.
P = 10 kg/cm2
f = 980 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
T = 55 kg-cm
W = 6500 kg
pDi
t
2 fJ p (why C is not taken)
11 125
t
2 980 0.85 11
t = 0.831 cm……………(i)
i) We know that, For longitudinal stress
p ( Di t )
ft 2
4t
11 ( 125 0.831)
ft 2
4 0.831
f t 2 = 416.408 kg/cm2……………………….Ans
p ( Di t)
f t1
2t
11 ( 125 0.831)
f t1
2 0.831
f t1 = 832.816 kg/cm2
W
fw
t ( Di t )
6500
fw
0.831(125 0.831)
f w = 19.79 kg/cm2…………………(2)
Stresses induced due to bending moment are zero, as bending moment is negligible in
this case.
f bm 0
...................................... (3)
iii) Total stresses induces in the vessel along in the longitudinal direction is given
by
f t = f t 2 + fw + f bm
ft
= 416.408 + 19.79 + 0
ft
= 436.198 kg/cm2……………………Ans
2T
fs
Di t ( Di t )
2 55
fs
125 0.831(125 0.831)
f s = 0.00268 kg/cm2………………………(4)
IV) On the basis of all these induced stresses, the equivalent stress can be estimated as
1
f R [ f 2
t1 f t1 f t f t 3 f ]
2
s
2 2
1
f R [(832.816) 2 (832.816 436.198) (436.198) 2 3(0.00268) 2 ] 2
f R = 721.511 kg/cm2……………………………..Ans
f R (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
f t (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
Problem (3763-174): A stainless steel pressure vessel with elliptical head is to be designed for an
internal design pressure of 0.5 N/mm2. The vessel has an internal diameter of 1500 mm. If the
weight of the vessel and its contents is 3000 kg and torque due to offset piping is 200 Nm. Find
the stresses due to combined loading and explain whether the design is safe or unsafe.
Permissible stress of stainless steel is 100 N/mm2, J = 1 (Wind loading and corrosion allowance
are not required to be considered) (8 marks)
P = 0.5 N/mm2
f = 100 N/mm2
J = 1.0
T = 200 Nm
W = 3000 kg
0.5 1500
t
2 1200 1.0 0.5
p ( Di t )
ft 2
4t
p ( Di t)
f t1
2t
f t1 = 1199.866 N/mm2
W
fw
t ( Di t )
3000
fw
0.0003126(1.5 0.0003126)
Stresses induced due to bending moment are zero, as bending moment is negligible in
this case.
f bm 0
...................................... (3)
iii) Total stresses induces in the vessel along in the longitudinal direction is given
by
f t = f t 2 + fw + f bm
ft
= 599.933 + 19.967+ 0
ft
= 619.9 N/mm2 ……..Ans
2T
fs
Di t ( Di t )
2 200
fs
1.5 0.0003126(1.5 0.0003126)
IV) On the basis of all these induced stresses, the equivalent stress can be estimated as
1
f R [ f 2 t1 f t1 f t f t 2 3 f s2 ] 2
1
f R [(1199.866) (1199.866 619.9) (619.9) 3(0.1816) ]
2 2 2 2
f R = 1039.306 N/mm2……………………………..Ans
f R (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
f t (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
Problem (3363-174): A pressure vessel is to be designed for an internal diameter of 0.3 N/mm2.
The vessel has nominal diameter of 1.2 m. The vessel is made up of stainless steel with
permissible stress of 130 N/mm2. No corrosion allowance is necessary. If the weight of the
vessel and contents is 3200 kg and torque due to offset piping is 500 Nm. Find the stresses due to
combined loading. Calculate the thickness for various heads and suggest suitable head. (12
marks)
P = 0.3 N/mm2
f = 130 N/mm2
T = 500 Nm
W = 3200 kg
0.3 1200
t
2 130 0.85 0.3
p ( Di t )
ft 2
4t
f t 2 = 55.2491 N/mm2……………………….Ans
p ( Di t)
f t1
2t
W
fw
t ( Di t )
3200
fw
0.0016312(1.2 0.0016312)
Stresses induced due to bending moment are zero, as bending moment is negligible in
this case.
f bm 0
...................................... (3)
iii) Total stresses induces in the vessel along in the longitudinal direction is given
by
f t = f t 2 + fw + f bm
ft
= 55.2491 + 5.0961528+ 0
ft
= 60.3453 N/mm2 ……..Ans
2T
fs
Di t ( Di t )
2 500
fs
1.2 0.0016312(1.2 0.0016312)
1
f R [ f 2
t1 f t1 f t f t 3 f ]
2
s
2 2
1
f R [(110.4982) 2 (110.4982 60.3453) (60.3453) 2 3(0.1353) 2 ] 2
f R (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
f t (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
Also
P = 0.3 N/mm2
f = 130 N/mm2
J = 0.85
To find-: i) t s (Torispherical (100-6) head) = …… cm
Solution- :
i) We know that
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1.2
C 3
4 0.07
C = 1.78
pDC
ts
2 fj
t s = 2.8995 mm………………………….Ans
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
pD
th
4 fj
0.3 1200
th
4 130 0.85
t h = 0.8145 mm ………………………..Ans
It can be seen that the maximum thickness is required for (100-6) torishperical head and minimum
thickness is required for hemispherical head.
2.8995 1.6289
i) (2:1) Elliptical head = 100
2.8995
2.8995 0.8145
ii) Hemispherical head = 100
2.8995
= 71.90%
Pressure vessels can be either of cylindrical or spherical in shape. The cylindrical pressure
vessel is easy to fabricate as compared to spherical pressure vessels. But for uniform pressure, it
required a minimum surface area and minimum thickness per unit volume for storing or
processing a fluid is most economical method. In such condition, spherical vessels are used.
The cost of a fabricated vessel depends upon the weight of the vessel and the material
selected for construction. Before design pressure vessel, the proportion of height to diameter
must be established. There is no general rule for selection of the height to diameter ratio because
this ratio is often a function of the processing requirements and phisico-chemical properties of
the fluid being processed, available land area, and height limitations. In normal operation liquid
height to diameter ration is around unity. In processes where there is evolution of gas/ vapours,
more space has to be provided over the liquid surface. In processes where the gas is bubbling or
sparging is necessary, liquid height is maintained more than the column diameter and some space
above the liquid surface for the separation of bubbling gas and entrained liquid droplets. In case
of distillation column, L/D ratio is dependent upon the purity of the product, system
characteristics and the plate spacing.
So it is difficult to determine the actual optimum proportion of the vessel. Here is general
outline for the determination of the optimum proportions of a vessel operating under pressure
vessel and are influenced by the cost of foundations and cost of the land in the tank area that is
chargeable to the tank as well as by the cost of bottom , shell and roof.
D 2
= H
4
4V
H
D 2
D 2
A2 = area of the bottom & roof of the vessel =
4
C = A1 C1 + A2 (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)
D 2
C = π DH C1 + (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)
4
4V D 2
C=πD + (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)
D 2 4
4V D 2
C= C 1+ (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)……………………………. (18)
D 4
For reasons of elastic instability, the minimum shell thickness is limited to 3/16” for smaller
tanks and 1/4” for larger diameters. Therefore tanks having shell thickness of 1/4” or less may be
considered as shell thickness is independent of D & H.
Thus if D (H-1) equal to or less than 1720 or 1515 for either butt or lap welded shells, then the
shell thickness is independent of D & H.
The stress in the shell is function of both diameter and height of the tank. Considering the
cost of the vessel depends upon the diameter of shell.
4V D 2
C= C 1+ (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)…
D 4
dC 4VC D
21 (C 2 + C 3 + C 4 + C 5 )
dD D 2
dC
Assume zero
dD
4VC1 D
2
= (C 2 + C 3 + C 4 + C 5 )
D 2
8V C1
D3
C 2 C3 C 4 C5
D 2
Substitute the value of V = H
4
8 D 2 C1
D3 = H
4 C 2 C3 C 4 C5
C1
D = 2 H
C 2 C3 C 4 C5 ………………………………….(19)
The tanks having height and diameter such that the quantity of D (H-1) exceeds 1720 for butt-
welded shells are considered as shell thickness is dependent upon D & H. The cost of shell per
unit area C1 is function of D and H and for purposes of propotinating may be assumed to be
directly proportional to the shell thickness as follows.
C1 = C6 (H-1) D
C1
C6
( H 1) D
4V D 2
C= C1 + (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)
D 4
4VC 6 (H - 1) D D 2
C= + (C2 + C3 +C4+C5)
D 4
4V D 2
C = 4VC6 2
4VC6 (C2 + C3 + C4 + C5)
D 4
dC 32C 6V 2 2D
0 (C 2 + C 3 + C 4 +C 5 )
dD D 3
4
D 32C6V 2
(C 2 + C 3 + C 4 + C 5 ) =
2 D 3
Consider (H-1) = H
D (C 2 + C 3 + C 4 + C 5 ) = 4C1πH
C1
D = 4 H
C 2 C3 C 4 C5 ……………………………. (20)
Thickness of shell is t m
D 2 D
V 2 t 2 Lt
4 2
D 2
V t DLt
2
D2
V DL t
2
pD
t C
2 fJ
D2 pD
V DL C
2 2 fJ
D 2
If V L
4
4V
L
D 2
D2 4V pD
V D 2
C
2 D 2 fJ
D 2 4V pD
V C
2 D 2 fJ
Differentiating the total volume V w.r.t. diameter of the vessel D is given by (Ist ×Der. IInd +
IInd×Der. Ist)
dV D 2 4V p pD 4V
C D 2
dD 2 D 2 fJ 2 fJ D
dV
Consider Zero
dD
3 pD 2 4C D 2 D 2
CD 2 L 0 V L
4 fJ D 4 4
3 pD 2
CD CL 0
4 fJ
3 pD 2
C D L 0
4 fJ
3 pD 2
C ( L D)
4 fJ
3 pD 2
( L D)
4 CfJ
3 pD 2
DL
4 CfJ
3 pD 2
LD
4 CfJ
3 pD
L D 1
4 CfJ
3
L D 1 Dx ………………………………….. (21)
4
p
Where x =
CfJ
Now
D 2
V L
4
D 2 3
V D 1 Dx
4 4
D 3
1 Dx ……………….. (22)
3
V
4 4
Problem D-31: A pressure vessel is required to have a capacity of 20 m3. The vessel has an
operating pressure 6 kg/cm2 and the material used for fabrication have an allowable stress of
1090 kg/cm2.
Welded joint efficiency is 85% ; Corrosion allowance is 2 mm.
P = 6 kg/cm2
f = 1090 kg/cm2
C = 2 mm 2× 10-1 = 0.2 cm
J = 0.85
To find-: i) D = …… cm
ii) L = ……cm
i) We know that
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
But
p
x =
CfJ
x =
6.6
0.2 1090 0.85
x = 0.03562 cm …………..Ans
D 3
1 D0.03562
3
20 10 6
4 4
20 10 6 0.7854 D 3 1 0.02672 D
20 10 6 0.7854 D 3 0.02098 D 4
4V
L
D 2
4 20 10 6
L
167.12
L = 911.984 cm …………..Ans
Problem D-40: A pressure vessel is to be designed for some chemical process. The total volume
of the vessel required is 7.5 m3. The vessel operates at a pressure of 2.5 kg/cm2. Materials used
for fabrication have an allowable stress of 1060 kg/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 85%.
Corrosion allowance is 2 mm. Weight of vessel with its contents is 6000 kg. The torque exerted
over the vessel is 75 kg-cm. Bending moment induced is negligible. The vessel is closed by two
elliptical heads of major to minor axis ratio is 2.0.
P = 2.5 kg/cm2
f = 1060 kg/cm2
C = 2 mm 2× 10-1 = 0.2 cm
J = 0.85
T = 75 kg-cm
K = 2.0
To find-: i) D = …… cm
ii) L =……..cm
iii) t = ……….cm
i) We know that
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
But
p
x =
CfJ
x =
2.75
0.2 1060 0.85
x = 0.01526 cm …………..Ans
D 3
1 D0.01526
3
7.5 10 6
4 4
4V
L
D 2
4 7.5 10 6
L
151.7 2
L = 414.95 cm …………..Ans
We know that
2.75 151.7
t 0.2
2 1060 0.85
t = 0.43 cm
We know that,
D D i t
151.7 = Di + 0.5
Di = 151.2 cm
And Do = 152.2 cm
p ( Di t )
ft 2
4t
f t 2 = 208.59 kg/cm2……………………….Ans
ii) We know that, For Circumferential stress
p ( Di t)
f t1
2t
f t1 = 417.18 Kg/cm2
W
fw
t ( Di t )
6000
fw
0.5(151.2 0.5)
f w = 25.18 kg/cm2
Stresses induced due to bending moment are zero, as bending moment is negligible in
this case.
f bm 0
...................................... (3)
iii) Total stresses induces in the vessel along in the longitudinal direction is given
by
f t = f t 2 + fw + f bm
ft
= 208.59+25.18+ 0
ft
= 233.77 Kg/cm2 ……..Ans
2 75
fs
151.2 0.5(151.2 0.5)
IV) On the basis of all these induced stresses, the equivalent stress can be estimated as
1
f R [ f 2 t1 f t1 f t f t 2 3 f s2 ] 2
f R = 362.16 Kg/cm2
f R (Tensile) ≤ f t1 (permissible)
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
0
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
2.75 151.7 1.0
t e
2 1060 0.85
t e = 0.23 + 0.2
Problem : Determine the optimum proportions of a pressure vessel required to handle 10000 kg
of liquid having density 1200 kg/m3 at 10 kg/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 85%. Permissible
stress of the material used for fabrication = 1020 kg/cm2. Corrosion allowance is 1.5 mm.
(unsolved D-25)
Given: M = 10000 kg
D = 1200 kg/m3
D = M/V=
P = 10 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
To find-: i) D = …… cm
ii) L =……..cm
i) We know that
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
But
p
x =
CfJ
x =
11
0.15 1020 0.85
x = 0.08458 cm …………..Ans
D3
1 D0.08458
3
1.2 10 6
4 4
4V
L
D 2
4 1.2 106
L
66.452
L = 346.0201 cm……………….Ans
HEADS
"Nature gave men two ends... one to sit on and one to think with. Ever since then man's
success or failure has been dependent on the one he used most." - George R. Kilpatrick
The same thing is with case of pressure vessel, the ends of cylindrical shell are to
be important before putting into operation. This is done by means of heads or closure. The ends
of cylindrical shell are attached to the head either by welded, riveted or bolted construction. The
selection for a particular type depend on the factors like process temperature and pressure, nature
of feed and product material being handled, position of vessel either horizontal or vertical, nature
of support and above all the economy. Thus the vessels are usually provided with different types
of heads
a) Flat head-: The simplest cover for a cylindrical shell is a flat head which having same
diameter as the shell. These plates can be firmly secured to the shell by a suitable method
and must be capable of withstanding the working pressure. Form fabrication point of
view, this is the simplest type of head to construct just cutting the circular piece from flat
plate. As a result, for a particular diameter and operating conditions, material cost for flat
head is maximum, though the fabrication cost is very low. The flat head are generally
used for manholes in low pressure vessels and small bore openings. For high pressure
vessels or larger vessels, flat heads cannot be used due to localized stress concentration.
The stresses induced in a flat plate, due to internal pressure. The maximum stress is at the
circ umference and is given by
2 2
3 R 3 D
f p f p
4 t Or 16 t
Thus, the thickness of the plate can be calculated as
p
t f CD
f
Where C = Edge fixity constant
D = diameter of the plate
P = working pressure
f = design stress at operating temperature
According to the method of attachment of the flat head to the shell the edge fixity
changes which varies from 0.4 to 0.7. (fig form mahajani 5.4)
The flange only head is also a type of vessel in which gradual changes in the
shape at the corner results in reduced local stresses. This is also economical to fabricate
and used for closing the ends of horizontal storage vessels at atmospheric pressure to
store liquids having low vapour pressure, such as fuel oil, kerosene etc. it is also used as
bottom head of vertical cylindrical vessels that rest on concrete slab.
b) Flange shallow dished head and flanged standard dished head or torispherical head-:
while pressing into dished shape, such head consist of two radii, namely,’ crown’ radius
and ‘knuckle’ radius as shown in fig. if the crown radius (R) is greater than the shell
outside diameter than the head is known as ‘flanged and shallow dished head’. On the
other hand, if the crown radius (R) is equal to less than the outside diameter, then such
head is known as ‘flanged standard dished head or torispherical head’. Due to small
inside knuckle –corner radius, localized stresses are very high. Thus such type of heads is
generally used for if vertical vessel then operates it at a low pressure while for horizontal
cylindrical vessel it operate generally for volatile fluids such as naphtha, gasoline and
kerosene.
If the pressure increased in flanged and dished heads, the local stresses at the
inside corner of the head must be reduced. This can be achieved by forming the head with
inside corner i.e. knuckle radius not less than three times the metal thickness and also not
less than 6 – 10 % of the inside diameter and also inside crown radius (Ri) should not be
greater than the outside diameter (Do).
The thickness of torispherical head is given by
pDC
ts
2 fj
Where C = stress intensification factor
1 R
C 3
4 r
V
1
6
2 k2
Where k = ration of major to minor axis.
d) Hemispherical head-: This is the strongest type of head among the formed head. These
heads can be operated at pressure which is twice than the ellipsoidal head of cylindrical
shell having same thickness and diameter. The advantage of such type of head is that it
provides maximum volume and minimum discontinuity stresses. The disadvantage of this
type of head is too difficult to form; cost of fabrication is very high hence it is generally
used for heavy duty high pressure vessels.
pD
th
4 fj
e) Conical head-: Conical heads are generally used as bottom head in evaporator, cyclone
separator, spray drier, crystallizers, settling tanks etc. The particular advantage lies in the
accumulation and removal of solids from such equipment. Another common application
of conical head is as reducer, providing a smooth transition between two parts of different
diameter in cylindrical process vessels. Conical heads with a sharp cylinder-cone junction
is easiest to manufacture, but this simplicity is partly lost, when a knuckle radius is
specified, to reduce the stress-concentration at the junction. Cones having apex angle 600
are commonly used for the removal of solids.
The thickness of conical head is given by
pD
tc
2 fj cos
(Dia. from Dawande)
Problem D-8: Calculate the thickness of torispherical (100-6) head, torispherical (80-10) head
and ellipsoidal head (2:1) for a vessel having 1.0 m diameter and having a design pressure of 3.5
kg/cm2. Welded joint is fully tested so welded joint efficiency can be considered as 100%.
Permissible stress for the material of construction = 1250 kg/cm2. (Problem 08) (3463-171,3363-
374,2963-371)(10 marks)
Also
P =3.5 kg/cm2
f = 1250 kg/cm2
J = 1.00
i) We know that
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1
C 3
4 0.06
C = 1.77
pDC
ts
2 fj
t s = 0.2478 cm………………………….Ans
pDC
ts
2 fj
Where C = stress intensification factor
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 0.8
C 3
4 0.1
C = 1.46
pDC
ts
2 fj
t s = 0.2044 cm………………………….Ans
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
0.2478 0.2044
i) (80-10) torispherical head = 100
0.2478
= 17.51%
0.2478 0.14
ii) (2:1) Elliptical head = 100
0.2478
= 43.50%
Problem D-9: Calculate the thickness of torispherical (100-6) head and (80-6) ellipsoidal head
(2:1) and hemispherical head for a pressure vessel haivng design pressure 7 kg/cm2.Diameter of
vessel is 1.5 m and the permissible stress is 1250 kg/cm2. Welded joint is 85%. (3263-374) (8
marks)
Also
D = 1.5 m 1.5 100 =150 cm
P = 7 kg/cm2
f = 1250 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
Solution- :
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1.5
C 3
4 0.09
C = 1.77
pDC
ts
2 fj
7 150 1.77
ts
2 1250 0.85
t s = 0.8746 cm………………………….Ans
v) We know that
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1.2
C 3
4 0.09
C = 1.66
pDC
ts
2 fj
7 150 1.66
ts
2 1250 0.85
t s = 0.8202 cm………………………….Ans
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
7 150 1.0
te
2 1250 0.85
pD
th
4 fj
7 150
th
4 1250 0.85
t h = 0.2470 cm ………………………..Ans
It can be seen that the maximum thickness is required for (100-6), (80-6) torispherical head and minimum
thickness is required for hemispherical head.
0.8746 0.8202
i) (80-6) torispherical head = 100
0.8746
= 6.21%
0.8746 0.4941
ii) (2:1) Elliptical head = 100
0.8746
= 43.50%
0.8746 0.2470
iii) Hemispherical head = 100
0.8746
= 71.76%
Problem (Unsolved 1)- : Estimate the thickness of a (100-6) ;(80-10) torispherical heads,(2 :1) elliptical
head and hemispherical head to be provided to a vessel having design pressure 10 kg/cm2. Permissible
stress of the material is 1020 kg/cm2 and welded joint efficiency is 90%. Corrosion allowance is 1 mm.
Which head will you select for the vessel when diameter of vessel is 1.5 m.
Also
P = 10 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
J = 0.90
i) We know that
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1.5
C 3
4 0.09
C = 1.77
pDC
ts
2 fj
10 150 1.77
ts
2 1020 0.90
t s = 1.4465 cm………………………….Ans
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1.2
C 3
4 0.15
C = 1.46
pDC
ts
2 fj
10 150 1.46
ts
2 1020 0.90
t s = 1.1904 cm………………………….Ans
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
10 150 1.0
te
2 1020 0.90
pD
th
4 fj
10 150
th
4 1020 0.90
t h = 0.4085 cm ………………………..Ans
It can be seen that the maximum thickness is required for (100-6), (80-6) torispherical head and minimum
thickness is required for hemispherical head.
1.4465 1.1904
i) (80-6) torispherical head = 100
1.4465
= 17.70%
1.4465 0.8169
ii) (2:1) Elliptical head = 100
1.4465
= 43.52%
1.4465 0.4084
iii) Hemispherical head = 100
1.4465
= 71.76%
Problem (Unsolved2)-: Estimate the thickness of a conical head having half apex angle 38 0. The
diameter of the vessel is 1.5 m. Permissible stress of the material is 1200 kg/cm 2. Welded joint efficiency
is 85%. (P = 10 kg/cm2)
f = 1200 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
To find-: i) t c = …… cm
pD
tc
2 fj cos
11 150
tc
2 1200 0.85 cos 38
t c = 0.8469 cm…………………………………Ans
Problem unsolved 5-: A flanged torispherical head having thickness 20 mm is to be used for a vessel
having internal diameter 3.0 m. The crown radius of the head is 3.0 m and the knuckle radius is 21 cm.
The permissible stress of the material is 1020 kg/cm2, welded joint efficiency is 85%. If the vessel is to be
operated at 5 kg/cm2, will this thickness be sufficient?
P = 5 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
R = 3.0 m 3 100 = 300 cm
r = 21 cm
To find-: i) t s = …… cm
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 300
C 3
4 21
C = 1.69
pDC
ts
2 fj
5 300 1.69
ts
2 1020 0.85
t s = 1.4619 cm………………………….Ans
Problem (unsolved 6)-: A hemispherical head with 750 mm diameter is subjected to an internal pressure
of 250 kg/cm2. If the permissible stress of the material is 1540 kg/cm2. Calculate the required thickness
of the head. Welded joint efficiency is 100%.
J = 1.0
To find-: i) t h = …… cm
pD
th
4 fj
275 75
th
4 1540 1.0
t h = 3.3482 cm ………………………..Ans
Problem Unsloved 10- : Find the minimum thickness of seamless elliptical head of diameter 250 mm to
resist an internal pressure of 100 kg/cm2. The allowable stress of steel is 1200 kg/cm2.
f = 1200 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
To find-: i) t e = …… cm
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
110 25 1.0
te
2 1200 0.85
Problem (Unsolved 3)-: A vessel having 1.5 m inner diameter and 8 mm thickness is provided with (80-
10) torispherical head. The permissible stress of the material is 1240 kg/cm 2 and welded joint efficiency
is 85%. No corrosion allowance is necessary. What maximum pressure the head will be able to
withstand?
f = 1240 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
t s = 8 mm 8 10 = 0.8 cm
To find-: i) P = …… kg/cm2
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 R
C 3
4 r
1 1.2
C 3
4 0.15
C = 1.46
pDC
ts
2 fj
2 fJts
p
DC
p = 7.7 kg/cm2……………………….Ans
Problem (Unsolved 4)-: A high pressure vessel is provided with a hemispherical head having thickness 35
mm. The inner diameter of the vessel is 500 mm. If the permissible stress of the material is 1400 kg/cm2,
what maximum pressure the head will be able to withstand? If this head is replaced with an elliptical
head having major axis to minor axis 2.0:1.0, what will be the required thickness? Welded joint
efficiency is 100%.
f = 1400 kg/cm2
J = 1.0
t h = 35 mm 35 10 = 3.5 cm
To find-: i) P = …… kg/cm2
ii) t e = ……..cm
pD
th
4 fj
4 fjth
p
D
p = 392kg/cm2 ………………………..Ans
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
392 50 1.0
te
2 1400 1.0
t e = 7 cm………………………….. Ans
Problem (Unsolved 32)-: Estimate the thickness of a (100-6) flanged torispherical head for a vessel
having 5 m internal diameter. Design pressure of the vessel is 5 kg/cm2. Permissible stress of the material
is 1200 kg/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 100%.
f = 1200 kg/cm2
J = 1.0
P = 5 kg/cm2
To find-: i) t s = …… cm
pDC
ts
2 fj
1 5
C 3
4 0.3
C = 1.77
pDC
ts
2 fj
5 500 1.77
ts
2 1200 1.0
t s = 1.84375
Problem (Unsolved 39)-: A pressure vessel is required to have a capacity of 30 m3. The vessel operates
at a pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2, the material used for fabrication of vessel has permissible stress of
1020kg/cm2. Welded joint efficiency is 85%. Corrosion allowance is 2 mm. Estimated the optimum
dimensions of the vessel.
P = 3.5 kg/cm2
f = 1020 kg/cm2
C = 2 mm 2× 10-1 = 0.2 cm
J = 0.85
To find-: i) D = …… cm
ii) L =……..cm
iii) t = ……….cm
i) We know that
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
But
p
x =
CfJ
x =
3.85
0.2 1020 0.85
x = 0.0222 cm …………..Ans
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
D 3
1 D0.0222
3
30 10 6
4 4
30 10 6 0.7854 D 3 0.0131 D 4
4V
L
D 2
4 30 10 6
L
205.2 2
L = 907.145 cm …………..Ans
Problem (Unsolved-43)- : A pressure vessel of two elliptical heads have total volume 5.6 m3. It
operates at 15 kg/cm2. Weight of vessel with all its contents is 5000kg. The torque exerted over
the vessel is 100 kg.cm. Bending moment induced is negligible. Corrosion allowance is 1.5 mm.
Welded joint efficiency is 85%. Allowable stress of material is 1200 kg/cm2.
P = 15 kg/cm2
f = 1200 kg/cm2
J = 0.85
To find-: i) D = …… cm
ii) L =……..cm
iii) t = ……….cm
i) We know that
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
But
p
x =
CfJ
x =
16.5
0.2 1200 0.85 (given C is 1.5)
x = 0.0809 cm …………..Ans
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
D 3
1 D0.0809
3
5.6 10 6
4 4
4V
L
D 2
4 5.6 10 6
L
181.29 2
D 2 L D 3
v
4 12
v = 7.135 m3……………………………Ans
pDi
t
2 fJ p
16.5 181.29
t
2 1200 0.85 16.5
t = 1.4783 cm……………(i)
p ( Di t )
ft 2
4t
f t 2 = 509.991 kg/cm2……………………….Ans
p ( Di t)
f t1
2t
f t1 = 1019.981 kg/cm2
W
fw
t ( Di t )
5000
fw
1.4783(181.29 1.4783)
f w = 5.891 kg/cm2…………………(2)
Stresses induced due to bending moment are zero, as bending moment is negligible in
this case.
f bm 0
...................................... (3)
iii) Total stresses induces in the vessel along in the longitudinal direction is given
by
f t = f t 2 + fw + f bm
ft
= 509.991 + 5.891 + 0
ft
= 515.882 kg/cm2……………………Ans
2T
fs
Di t ( Di t )
2 100
fs
181.29 1.4783(181.29 1.4783)
f s = 0.00130 kg/cm2………………………(4)
IV) On the basis of all these induced stresses, the equivalent stress can be estimated as
1
f R [ f 2 t1 f t1 f t f t 2 3 f s2 ] 2
1
f R [(1019.981) (1019.981 515.882) (515.882) 3(0.00130) ]
2 2 2 2
f R = 883.349 kg/cm2……………………………..Ans
The equivalent resultant stress and longitudinal stress is less than permissible stress of 1060 kg/cm2.
v) Therefore, by adding corrosion allowance, 5 mm plate thickness can be safely specified for fabrication
of pressure vessel.
pDV
te
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
So, standard plate thickness of 18 mm can be specified for the pressure vessel.
f = 1020 kg/cm2
C = 2 mm 2× 10-1 = 0.2 cm
J = 0.85
Ρ = 7800 kg/m3
To find-: i) t = …… cm
ii) t e =……..cm
iii) t c = ……….cm
pDi
t C
2 fJ p
11 300
t 0.2
2 1020 0.85 11
t = 2.1153 cm……………(i)
pDV
te C
2 fj
V
1
6
2 k2 k
2
1
2
V
1
6
2 22
V = 1.0
11 300 1.0
te 0.2
2 1020 0.85
t e = 2.1031 cm …………………….Ans
pD
tc
2 fj cos
11 300
tc
2 1020 0.85 cos 60
Thus it has been found that the half apex angle is in between 300.
t c = 12.3374 + 0.2
t c = 12.5374 cm…………………………Ans
Now to calculate dead weight of vessel, first we have to calculate the volume of cylindrical vessel
We know that,
D 3
1 Dx
3
V
4 4
p
But x =
CfJ
D 3 3 pD
V 1
4 4 CfJ
33 3 11 300
V 1
4 4 0.2 1020 0.85
V = 32 10^6 cm3
V = 32 10^7 cm3
D 2
V L
4
32
32 L
4
D 2
Total volume of cylindrical vessel = V L
4
32
V 0.22
4
V = 1.56 m3
( Do 2 Di 2 )
= L ( Do Di 2t 3 2 0.0211 3.042 m )
4
(3.042 2 3 2 )
= 0.22 7800
4
=342 kg
( Do 3 Di 3 )
Volume of elliptical head =
12
(3.042 3 33 )
V
12
V =0.30 m3
= 0.30 7800
= 2340kg