PED Slides - Revised

Process Equipment Design
CHX-321
Design Preliminaries
Design of Pressure Vessels
Design of Storage Tanks
Design of Heads and Closures
Design of Tall Vessels
Design of Supports
Mechanical Design of Process Equipment
The chemical engineer is responsible for developing and specifying the basic
design information for a particular vessel, and needs to have a general
appreciation of pressure vessel design to work effectively with the specialist
design engineer
The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be:

1. Vessel function.
2. Process materials and services.
3. Operating and design temperature and pressure.
4. Materials of construction.
5. Vessel dimensions and orientation.
6. Type of vessel heads to be used.
7. Openings and connections required.
8. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
9. Type of agitator.
10. Specification of internal fittings.
 It is generally accepted that any closed vessel over 150 mm diameter
subject to a pressure difference of more than 0.5 bar should be designed as
a “pressure vessel”
 For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels are sub-divided
into two classes: depending on the ratio of the wall thickness to vessel
diameter
A) Thin-walled vessels, ratio upto 1 : 20
B) Thick-walled vessels above this ratio
Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards:
 The design and fabrication of pressure vessels is covered by national

standards and codes of practice
 Codes give the guidelines for safety design of process equipment, not
directly concerned with the economic design of the equipment
 Besides outlining the standard procedure for safe design, code also suggests
the preferred dimensions of process vessels and their components
 Most common international codes followed in India are BS 1500, BS 1515

and ASME Section VIII
 The Indian code developed for unfired pressure vessels is IS:2825-1969

Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards:
 The codes and standards are drawn up by committees of engineers

experienced in vessel design and manufacturing techniques, and are a
blend of theory, experiment and experience
 They are periodically reviewed, and revisions issued to keep updates of

developments in design, stress analysis, fabrication and testing. The latest
version of the appropriate national code or standard should always be
consulted before undertaking the design of any pressure vessel
 Computer programs to aid in the design of vessels to the ASME code are
available from several commercial organizations and can be found by
making a search of the internet
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Design Pressure
 A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it

is likely to be subjected in operation
 For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is normally taken as
the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally be 5 to 10
per cent above the maximum working pressure, to avoid spurious operation
during minor process upsets
 When deciding the design pressure, the hydrostatic pressure in the base of
the column should be added to the operating pressure, if significant
 Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist the

maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur in service. Vessels likely
to be subjected to vacuum should be designed for a full negative pressure
of 1 bar
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Design Temperature
 The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the

maximum allowable design stress will depend on the material temperature
 The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be

taken as the maximum working temperature of the material, with due
allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall
temperatures
 For example, the tensile strength of mild steel (low carbon steel, C < 0.25
per cent) is 450 N/mm2 at 25°C falling to 210 N/mm2 at 500°C
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Design Temperature
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Materials of Construction
 Pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steels, low and high
alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate, and reinforced plastics
 Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability of the
material for fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of
the material with the process environment
 The pressure vessel design codes and standards include lists of acceptable
materials; in accordance with the appropriate material standards
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Design Stress
 For design purposes it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum

allowable stress (nominal design strength) that can be accepted in the
material of construction
 This is determined by applying a suitable “design stress factor” (factor of

safety) to the maximum stress that the material could be expected to
withstand without failure under standard test conditions
 The design stress factor allows for any uncertainty in the design methods,
the loading, the quality of the materials, and the workmanship
 For materials not subject to high temperatures the design stress is based on
the yield stress (or proof stress), or the tensile strength (ultimate tensile
stress) of the material at the design temperature
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations:
Welded Joints and their Efficiency
 The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the
quality of the welding
 The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and by non-

destructive testing (radiography)
 The possible lower strength of a welded joint compared with the virgin
plate is usually allowed for in design by multiplying the allowable design
stress for the material by a “welded joint factor” J
 The value of the joint factor used in design will depend on the type of joint
and amount of radiography required by the design code
 Taking the factor as 1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin
plate; this is achieved by radiographing the complete weld length, and cutting
out and remaking any defects
 The use of lower joint factors in design, though saving costs on radiography, will
result in a thicker, heavier, vessel, and the designer must balance any cost
savings on inspection and fabrication against the increased cost of materials
 The national codes and standards divide vessel construction into different
categories, depending on the amount of non-destructive testing required
 The higher categories require 100 per cent radiography of the welds, and allow
the use of highest values for the weld-joint factors
 The lower-quality categories require less radiography, but allow only lower
joint-efficiency factors, and place restrictions on the plate thickness and type of
materials that can be used. The highest category will invariably be specified for
process-plant pressure vessels
The standard specifies three construction categories:

Category 1: the highest class, requires 100 per cent non-destructive testing
(NDT) of the welds; and allows the use of all materials covered by the standard,
with no restriction on the plate thickness
Category 2: requires less non-destructive testing but places some limitations

on the materials which can be used and the maximum plate thickness
Category 3: the lowest class, requires only visual inspection of the welds, but is
restricted to carbon and carbon-manganese steels, and austenitic stainless
steel; and limits are placed on the plate thickness and the nominal design
stress. For carbon and carbon- manganese steels the plate thickness is
restricted to less than 13 mm and the design stress is about half that allowed
for categories 1 and 2. For stainless steel the thickness is restricted to less than
25 mm and the allowable design stress is around 80 per cent of that for the
other categories.
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Corrosion Allowance
 The “corrosion allowance” is the additional thickness of metal added to

allow for material lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling. The allowance to
be used should be agreed between the customer and manufacturer
 Corrosion is a complex phenomenon, and it is not possible to give specific

rules for the estimation of the corrosion allowance required for all
circumstances. The allowance should be based on experience with the
material of construction under similar service conditions to those for the
proposed design
 For carbon and low-alloy steels, where severe corrosion is not expected, a
minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should be used; where more severe
conditions are anticipated this should be increased to 4.0 mm. Most design
codes and standards specify a minimum allowance of 1.0 mm
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Design Loads
 A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and

collapse under all the conditions of loading
 The loads to which a process vessel will be subject in service are listed
below:
 They can be classified as major loads, that must always be considered in

vessel design, and subsidiary loads
 Formal stress analysis to determine the effect of the subsidiary loads is only
required in the codes and standards where it is not possible to demonstrate
the adequacy of the proposed design by other means; such as by
comparison with the known behavior of existing vessels
Pressure Vessel: General Design Considerations: Design Loads
Major loads
1. Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid.
2. Maximum weight of the vessel and contents, under operating conditions.
3. Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under the hydraulic test conditions.
4. Wind loads.
5. Earthquake (seismic) loads.
6. Loads supported by, or reacting on, the vessel.
Subsidiary loads
1. Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting pipes.
2. Shock loads caused by water hammer, or by surging of the vessel contents.
3. Bending moments caused by eccentricity of the center of the working pressure
relative to the neutral axis of the vessel.
4. Stresses due to temperature differences and differences in the coefficient expansion
of materials.
5. Loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure.
A vessel will not be subject to all these loads simultaneously. The designer must determine
what combination of possible loads gives the worst situation, and design for that loading
condition.
Minimum Practical Wall Thickness
 There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads. As a
general guide the wall thickness of any vessel should not be less than the
values given below; the values include a corrosion allowance of 2 mm:
Principal Stresses in Pressure Vessels
 The principal stresses acting at a point in the wall of a vessel, due to a
pressure load, are shown in the following Figure
 If the wall is thin, the radial stress σ3 will be small and can be neglected in
comparison with the other stresses, and the longitudinal and
circumferential stresses σ1 and σ2 can be taken as constant over the wall
thickness
 In a thick wall, the magnitude of the radial stress will be significant, and the
circumferential stress will vary across the wall
 The thickness of the vessels used in the chemical and allied industries are
classified as thin-walled vessels and thick-walled vessels. Thick-walled
vessels are used mainly for high pressure equipments
Stress Analysis in
Thin-walled Pressure Vessels
Stress Analysis in
Consider the shell of general shape, under a loading that is rotationally
symmetric; that is, the load per unit area (pressure) on the shell is constant
round the circumference, but not necessarily the same from top to bottom
Stress Analysis in
Stress Analysis in
Stress Analysis in
A typical Pressure Vessel
Example 1:
A cylindrical process vessel is to be designed for the maximum operating
pressure of 500 kN/m2. The vessel has an internal (nominal) diameter of 1.2 m
and tangent-to-tangent length of 2.4 m. The vessel is made up of IS:2002-1962
Grade 2B quality steel having allowable design stress value of 118 MN/m2 at
the working temperature. The corrosion allowance is suggested to be 2 mm for
the life span expected for the vessel. The vessel is to be fabricated according to
class 2 of Indian Standard specifications which stipulate the weld joint
efficiency of 0.85.
a) What will be the standard plate thickness to fabricate this vessel (plate
thickness available in multiple of 2 mm)?
b) If a spherical vessel having the same diameter and thickness is fabricated
with the same quality steel, what maximum internal pressure the sphere
will withstand safely?
Example 2:
A vertical cylindrical process vessel with hemispherical-shaped ends of same
thickness(top and bottom) is installed in a closed shed. The internal diameter
of the vessel is 1800 mm. The tangent to tangent length of the vessel is 10.5 m.
a) Calculate the metal-sheet thickness required to fabricate this vessel.
b) Calculate the circumferential and longitudinal stress in the inner surface of
cylindrical shell at the point 2 m above the base of the tank (with and without
including the weight of the vessel).
The operating pressure for the process vessel = 0.4 MN/m2
Density of material = 7800 Kg/m3
Allowable stress of the material = 60 MN/m2
Weld joint efficiency = 85%
Example 3:
Suppose the process vessel mentioned in Example 2, is completely filled with a
liquid of density 900 Kg/m3. Calculate the minimum and maximum metal-sheet
thickness required to fabricate this vessel.
Example 4:
Repeat Examples 2 and 3 for a spherical vessel having internal diameter of
6000 mm.
Example 5:
Determine the optimum proportions of a cylindrical vessel with a capacity of
25 m3. The vessel is having a flat top and 60° conical bottom. Cost per unit area
of the flat top and the conical bottom is twice the cost per unit area of the
cylindrical shell.
Example 6:
A thick-walled cylindrical pressure vessel with an inside diameter of 20 cm, is
fabricated from a material having allowable strength of 450 MN/m2. The weld-
joint efficiency can be taken as 75%. The vessel is supposed to handle the
maximum operating pressure as 60 MN/m2. What should be the minimum wall
thickness for this vessel? Also, estimate the longitudinal, hoop and radial
stresses in the inner surface the wall of the vessel.
Example 7:
A cylindrical horizontal storage tank with flat heads, is 4 m in diameter and 6 m
in length. The tank is filled with a liquid up-to a height of 1.2 m and 3.4 m on
two consecutive days. Estimate the volume of liquid content in the storage tank
for the two days.
Repeat the example if the storage tank is spherical with the same diameter.
Design of Pressure Vessel Heads
The ends of a cylindrical pressure vessel are closed by heads of various shapes.
The principal types used are:
1. Flat heads
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads and Torispherical heads (Dished heads)
5. Conical Heads
1. Flat heads
 Generally used as closures/ manholes for low-pressure vessels

 Thickness required is very high while the fabrication is the cheapest
amongst the different head shapes
 Generally used for operations < 0.1 MN/m2
2. Torispherical and Elliptical heads
 These are recommended for pressure vessels operating above 1 MN/m2

 Most of the standard heads have a ratio of 2:1 of major to minor axis
 The strength of such a head is almost same as the strength of the seamless
cylindrical shell
3. Hemispherical heads
 For a given thickness, this head is the strongest.

 These heads can withstand almost twice the pressure rating of an ellipsoidal
head or a cylindrical shell
 The cost of forming is maximum and used for heavy duty pressure
operations (> 5 MN/mm2)
4. Conical heads
 Mostly used as bottoms for variety of process equipments

 Main advantage is in the accumulation and removal of solids in evaporators,
dryers, settling tanks etc.
1. Flat heads Joints
1. Flat heads Joints
1. Stress Concentration factors for dished heads without opening or with
fully compensated openings
1. Stress Concentration factors for dished heads with uncompensated
openings
Example 8:
Determine the thickness of a flanged flat-head is to be used with the cylindrical
pressure vessel mentioned in Example 1. Assume that the head is butt-welded
to the shell (C = 0.45 and De = Di) and the material of construction is same for
both the head and the shell. Consider a corrosion allowance of 2 mm.
Example 9:
Determine the thickness of a conical head (with an apex angle of 60°) is to be
used with the cylindrical pressure vessel mentioned in Example 1. Again, the
material of construction is same for both the head and the shell. Consider a
corrosion allowance of 2 mm.
Example 10:
Determine the thickness of an ellipsoidal conical head (with major to minor
axis ratio as 2:1) is to be used with the cylindrical pressure vessel mentioned in
Example 1. Again, the material of construction is same for both the head and
the shell. Consider a corrosion allowance of 2 mm.
Example 11:
Determine the thickness of a hemispherical head to be used with the
cylindrical pressure vessel mentioned in Example 1. Again, the material of
construction is same for both the head and the shell. Consider a corrosion
allowance of 2 mm.
Example 12:
Determine the thickness of a standard dished torispherical head is to be used
with the cylindrical pressure vessel mentioned in Example 1. The material of
construction is same for both the head and the shell. Consider a corrosion
allowance of 2 mm.
The specifications for the head are as follows:
Outer Crown Radius Ro = Do ;
Outer Knuckle Radius ro= 0.06 Do ;
Straight portion Sf = 40 mm
What should be the blank diameter of the metal plate for forming this head?
Example 13:
For the pressure vessel of Example 1, an 8 mm thick, 2:1 ellipsoidal head is
fabricated with an uncompensated opening. Considering the corrosion
allowance as 2 mm, what is the maximum diameter of the opening
permissible?
Example 14:
A cylindrical pressure vessel is having an outer diameter of 1.5 m, with a 2:1
elliptical head and bottom. The maximum operating pressure is 200 kN/m2
while the allowable stress for the material of construction (density is 8000
Kg/m3) is 75 MN/m2. The joint efficiency factor can be taken as 0.8 for the
shell and 1.0 for the head and the bottom.
Calculate the minimum thickness required for the shell, and the ellipsoidal
head and bottom. Consider the corrosion allowance as 2 mm.
Suppose a strip of suitable size is welded all along the longitudinal joint of the
cylindrical shell (joint efficiency factor = 1), how much percentage saving in the
material can be achieved?
Thick-walled Pressure Vessels
For internal pressure pi
Example 15:
A vessel is to be designed to withstand an internal pressure of 150 MN/m2. An
internal diameter of 300 mm is specified, and a steel having an yield point of
450 MN/m2 has been selected.
a) Calculate the wall thickness required by the four theories of failure with a
factor of safety, 1.5. Take Poisson’s ratio for the steel as 0.3.
b) For a mono-bloc construction, what is the maximum internal pressure
which can be safely handled with this vessel. Assume that maximum shear
theory is best applicable for the vessel.
Methods of increasing the elastic strength of a thick cylinder by pre-stressing
 In thick walled cylinders subjected to internal pressure only it can be seen

that the maximum stresses occur at the inside radius and this can be given
by:
 Furthermore, it can be shown that for large internal pressures in thick

walled cylinders the wall thickness is required to be very large. This means
that the material near the outer edge is not effectively used since the
stresses near the outer edge gradually reduce
In order to make thick-walled cylinders that resist elastically large internal

pressure and make effective use of material at the outer portion of the cylinder
the following methods of pre-stressing are used:
1. Shrinking a hollow cylinder over the main cylinder.

2. Multilayered or laminated cylinders.
3. Auto-frettage or self hooping.
1. Shrinking a hollow cylinder over the main cylinder (Hooping)

 An outer cylinder (jacket) with the internal diameter slightly smaller than
the outer diameter of the main cylinder is heated and fitted onto the main
cylinder. When the assembly cools down to room temperature a composite
cylinder is obtained.
 In this process the main cylinder is subjected to an external pressure
leading to a compressive radial stress at the interface. The outer cylinder or
the jacket is subjected to an internal pressure leading to a tensile
circumferential stress at the inner wall.
 Under this condition as the internal pressure increases the compression in
the inner cylinder is first released and then only the cylinder begins to act in
tension.
 Gun barrels are normally pre-stressed by hooping since very large internal
pressures are generated.
2. Multilayered or laminated cylinders.
The laminated cylinders are made by stretching the shells in tension and then
welding along a longitudinal seam
3. Auto-frettage or self-hooping
 In some applications of thick cylinders such as gun barrels no inelastic
deformation is permitted. But for some pressure vessel design satisfactory
function can be maintained until the inelastic deformation that starts at
inner bore spreads completely over the wall thickness.
 With the increase in fluid pressure yielding would start at the inner bore
and then with further increase in fluid pressure yielding would spread
outward. If now the pressure is released the outer elastic layer would regain
its original size and exert a radial compression on the inner shell and
tension on the outer region.
 This gives the same effect as that obtained by shrinking a hoop over an
inner cylinder. This is known as Self- hooping or Auto-frettage. This allows
the cylinder to operate at higher fluid pressure.
Example 16:
A vessel is to be designed to withstand an internal pressure of 150 MN/m2. An
internal diameter of 300 mm is specified, and a steel having an yield point of
450 MN/m2 has been selected.
a) Calculate the wall thickness required by the four theories of failure with a
factor of safety, 1.5. Take Poisson’s ratio for the steel as 0.3.
b) For a mono-bloc construction, what is the maximum internal pressure
which can be safely handled with this vessel. Assume that maximum shear
theory is best applicable for the vessel.
c) For a mono-bloc construction, what is the maximum internal pressure
which can be safely handled with this vessel. Assume that maximum
principal stress theory is best applicable for the vessel.
d) Assume that maximum principal stress theory is applicable. Calculate the
wall thickness of this vessel with an additional external pressure of 80
MN/m2. Again for this composite construction, calculate the maximum
internal pressure which can be safely handled with this vessel.
Example 17:
A 240 mm OD steel cylinder with a nominal ID of 140 mm (closed at both ends)

is to be tested for maximum internal pressure. The steel used for fabrication is
having an yield point of 210 MN/m2. As per maximum principal stress theory,
what is the maximum internal pressure the vessel can withstand safely. Take
factor of safety as 1.5.
Now a hollow steel cylinder of 400 mm OD and 240 mm ID is shrunk fit over
the main cylinder. The radial interference δ is measured with the help of a
strain gauge as 0.3 mm. Use Young's Modulus E = 200 GPa and Poisson's Ratio n
= 0.3. Find the interface pressure ps and estimate the distribution of radial and
circumferential (tangential) stresses in both cylinders. Then find the maximum
internal pressure which may be applied to the assembly if the maximum tensile
circumferential stress in the inside cylinder is to be no more than 140 MPa.
Example 18:
Now suppose the composite cylinder mentioned in Example 17, is free to

expand in the longitudinal direction also. (δ remains same as 0.3 mm)
Find the interface pressure ps and estimate the distribution of radial and
circumferential (tangential) stresses in both cylinders. Then find the maximum
internal pressure which may be applied to the assembly if the maximum tensile
circumferential stress in the inside cylinder is to be no more than 140 MPa.
Example 19:
Now consider a monobloc main cylinder with inner diameter as 300 mm. The
steel used for fabrication is having an yield point of 450 MN/m2. The operating
pressure is 150 MN/m2. As per maximum principal stress theory, what should
be the thickness of the vessel? Take factor of safety as 1.5.
Now in place of pre-stressing, a jacket (made of same steel as that of the
vessel) of internal diameter 410 mm is proposed to confine steam at a pressure
of 120 MN/m2 between the main vessel and the jacket. As per maximum
principal stress theory, now what should be the thickness of the vessel and the
steam jacket? Take factor of safety as 1.5. Also, what is the maximum pressure
the jacketed-vessel can withstand safely?
Pressure vessels and pipes subject to external pressure
Example 20:
A vacuum fractionating tower has an outside diameter of 3 m and a total
height of 9 m (including the toris-spherical closures). The vessel is made up of
IS:2002-1962 Grade 2B quality steel having allowable design stress value of 120
MN/m2 at the design temperature. The vessel is to be fabricated according to
class 1 of Indian Standard specifications which stipulate the weld joint
efficiency of 0.95. The tower contains removable trays with 1 m spacing.
The tori-spherical head and bottom are specified as follows:
Outer Crown Radius Ro = Do ;
Outer Knuckle Radius ro= 0.06 Do ;
Assume the out-of-roundness factor, U as 5%.
Determine the minimum thickness of the shell as per German design code (AD-
Merkblaetter)
a) Without stiffeners
b) With stiffeners located at the tray positions
 Distillation column, fractionating columns, absorption tower, multistage
reactor, stacks, chimneys etc. come under the category of tall vertical
vessels.
 Primarily the stresses in the wall of a tall vessel are:

a) circumferential stress, radial stress and axial stress due to internal pressure
or vacuum in the vessel
b) compressive stress caused by dead load such as self weight of the vessel
including insulation, attached equipments and weight of the contents
c) Tensile and compressive stresses due to bending moment caused by wind
load acting on the vessel and its attachments
d) Stresses due to siesmic loads
e) Stresses due to eccentric loads
f) Other possible residual stresses due to fabrication, joints etc.
Compressive stresses caused by dead load
The major sources of dead load acting over tall vertical vessel are:
weight of the vessel shell and weight of the vessel fittings which includes the
internal, external and auxiliary attachments.
Internal fittings: trays, packing, heating and cooling coils.
External fittings: platforms, piping, insulation, ladders.
Auxiliary attachments: instruments, condenser etc.
Stresses caused by dead loads may be considered in three groups:

(a) stress induced by shell and insulation
(b) stress induced by liquid in vessel
(c) stress induced by the attached equipment
Example 21: A tall vertical column 2.5 m in outer diameter and 40 m in height is to be
installed. The available specifications are: Operating temperature and pressure – 160oC
and 4 kg/cm2. Analyze the stability of the column (t based on maximum hoop stress)
considering the maximum axial load (tensile and compressive). The yield stress for the
material is 1350 kg/m2.
Example 22: A tray absorption column (internal diameter of 50 cm)is to be designed for
dissolving ammonia in water. With the help of following specifications, estimate the
height of the column for which the maximum tensile longitudinal stress at the base of
the column becomes equal to the maximum tensile circumferential stress (hoop stress)
at the base of the column.
Design Pressure: 3 MN/m2
Tray Loading with liquid: 150 Kg/m2; Tray spacing: 0.8 m
Top disengaging space: 1.5 m
Shell material density: 8000 Kg/m3
Insulation Thickness and density: 60 mm, 600 Kg /m3
Skirt height: 12 m
Corrosion allowance (for shell and head): 3 mm
Allowable stress: 105 MN/m2
Young’s Modulus for shell material: 200 GPa
Head: Torispherical head (same material as shell): (Ro = Do; ro = 0.06 Do; Sf = 40 mm)
Wind velocity: 150 km/hr
Weld joint efficiency for shell: 85%
Supports for pressure vessels
 Support is used to bear all the load of pressure vessel,
earthquake and wind loads
 There are different types of supports which are used

depending upon the size and orientation of the pressure vessel
 It is considered to be the non-pressurized part of the vessel

 SKIRT SUPPORT:
 Tall vertical cylindrical pressure vessels are typically supported

by skirts.
 A support skirt is a cylindrical shell section that is welded either

to the lower portion of the vessel shell or to the bottom head
(for cylindrical vessels).
 The skirt is normally long enough to provide enough flexibility

so that radial thermal expansion of the shell does not cause
high thermal stresses at its junction with the skirt.
 LEG SUPPORT:
 Small vertical drums are typically supported on legs that are

welded to the lower portion of the shell.
 The max. ratio of support leg length to drum diameter is
typically 2 : 1
 Reinforcing pads are welded to the shell first to provide
additional local reinforcement and load distribution.
 The number of legs depends on the drum size and loads to be
carried.
 Support legs are also used for Spherical pressurized storage
vessels.
 Cross bracing between the legs is used to absorb wind or earth
quake loads.
 LUG SUPPORT:
 Vertical pressure vessels may also be supported by lugs.
 The use of lugs is typically limited to pressure vessels of small

and medium diameter (1 to 10 ft)
 Also moderate height to diameter ratios in the range of 2:1 to

5:1
 The lugs are typically bolted to horizontal structural members

in order to provide stability against overturning loads.
 SADDLE SUPPORT:
 Horizontal drums are typically supported at two locations by

saddle support.
 It spreads over a large area of the shell to prevent an excessive

local stress in the shell at support point.
 One saddle support is anchored whereas the other is free to

permit unstrained longitudinal thermal expansion of the drum.
Example 23: A tray absorption column is to designed for absorption of NOx in dilute aqueous
solution of NaOH. The cylindrical column is proposed to have an ellipsoidal head and an
ellipsoidal bottom. The cost of fabrication for the cylindrical shell is Rs. 48/m2 and the cost of
fabrication for the head/bottom is Rs 140/m2 column. The required hold-up volume of NaOH
solution (sp. Gravity 1.07) is 35 m3 with tray spacing of 0.8 m, weir height of 0.2 m, and tray
occupying 85% of the internal cross-sectional area. Top clear space above the trays is 2 m.
a) Determine the optimum proportions for the column for minimum total cost of fabrication
b) Determine the minimum wall thickness required for the cylindrical shell, ellipsoidal head
and a cylindrical skirt support (skirt height recommended is 8 m)
Use the following specifications:

Design Pressure: 2 MN/m2
Density and thickness for the trays and weir plates: 3000 Kg/m3 and 2 cm thick plates
Shell , head and support material density: 8000 Kg/m3
Insulation Thickness and density: 50 mm, 550 Kg /m3
Corrosion allowance (for shell and head): 3 mm
Allowable stress for Shell , head and support material : 105 MN/m2
Young’s Modulus for Shell , head and support material: 150 GPa
2:1 ellipsoidal Head/bottom: Surface Area is 1.084Do2 and Volume is 1.084 Do3, where Do is
the outer diameter of the shell.
Wind velocity: 150 km/hr
Weld joint efficiency for shell and head/bottom: 85% and 100%

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Process Equipment Design

The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be:

 The design and fabrication of pressure vessels is covered by national

 Most common international codes followed in India are BS 1500, BS 1515

 The Indian code developed for unfired pressure vessels is IS:2825-1969

 The codes and standards are drawn up by committees of engineers

 They are periodically reviewed, and revisions issued to keep updates of

 A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it

 Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed to resist the

 The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the

 The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be

 For design purposes it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum

 This is determined by applying a suitable “design stress factor” (factor of

 The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and by non-

The standard specifies three construction categories:

Category 2: requires less non-destructive testing but places some limitations

 The “corrosion allowance” is the additional thickness of metal added to

 Corrosion is a complex phenomenon, and it is not possible to give specific

 A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic deformation and

 They can be classified as major loads, that must always be considered in

 Generally used as closures/ manholes for low-pressure vessels

2. Torispherical and Elliptical heads

 These are recommended for pressure vessels operating above 1 MN/m2

 For a given thickness, this head is the strongest.

 Mostly used as bottoms for variety of process equipments

 In thick walled cylinders subjected to internal pressure only it can be seen

 Furthermore, it can be shown that for large internal pressures in thick

In order to make thick-walled cylinders that resist elastically large internal

1. Shrinking a hollow cylinder over the main cylinder.

1. Shrinking a hollow cylinder over the main cylinder (Hooping)

A 240 mm OD steel cylinder with a nominal ID of 140 mm (closed at both ends)

Now suppose the composite cylinder mentioned in Example 17, is free to

 Primarily the stresses in the wall of a tall vessel are:

Stresses caused by dead loads may be considered in three groups:

 There are different types of supports which are used

 It is considered to be the non-pressurized part of the vessel

 Tall vertical cylindrical pressure vessels are typically supported

 A support skirt is a cylindrical shell section that is welded either

 The skirt is normally long enough to provide enough flexibility

 Small vertical drums are typically supported on legs that are

 Vertical pressure vessels may also be supported by lugs.

 The use of lugs is typically limited to pressure vessels of small

 Also moderate height to diameter ratios in the range of 2:1 to

 The lugs are typically bolted to horizontal structural members

 Horizontal drums are typically supported at two locations by

 It spreads over a large area of the shell to prevent an excessive

 One saddle support is anchored whereas the other is free to

Use the following specifications:

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