A Timeline of Events in Electromagnetism

Human fascination with electromagnetism, the interaction of electric currents and magnetic
fields, dates back to the dawn of time with the human observation of lightning and other
unexplainable occurrences, such as electric fish and eels. Humans knew there was a
phenomenon, but it remained shrouded in mysticism until the 1600s when scientists began
digging deeper into theory.
This timeline of events about the discovery and research leading to our modern understanding
of electromagnetism demonstrates how scientists, inventors, and theorists worked together to
advance the science collectively.
600 BCE: Sparking Amber in Ancient Greece
The earliest writings about electromagnetism were in 600 BCE, when the ancient Greek
philosopher, mathematician and scientist Thales of Miletus described his experiments rubbing
animal fur on various substances such as amber. Thales discovered that amber rubbed with fur
attracts bits of dust and hairs that create static electricity, and if he rubbed the amber for long
enough, he could even get an electric spark to jump.
221–206 BCE: Chinese Lodestone Compass
The magnetic compass is an ancient Chinese invention, likely first made in China during the Qin
dynasty, from 221 to 206 BCE. The compass used a lodestone, a magnetic oxide, to indicate
true north. The underlying concept may not have been understood, but the ability of the
compass to point true north was clear.
1600: Gilbert and the Lodestone
Toward the late 16th century, the "founder of electrical science" English scientist William Gilbert
published "De Magnete" in Latin translated as "On the Magnet" or "On the Lodestone." Gilbert
was a contemporary of Galileo, who was impressed by Gilbert's work. Gilbert undertook a
number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many
substances were capable of manifesting electrical properties.
Gilbert also discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the
electrification of all bodies. He also noticed that electrified substances attracted all other
substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron.
1752: Franklin's Kite Experiments
American founding father Benjamin Franklin is famous for the extremely dangerous experiment
he ran, of having his son fly a kite through a storm-threatened sky. A key attached to the kite
string sparked and charged a Leyden jar, thus establishing the link between lightning and
electricity. Following these experiments, he invented the lightning rod.
Franklin discovered there are two kinds of charges, positive and negative: objects with like
charges repel one another, and those with unlike charges attract one another. Franklin also
documented the conservation of charge, the theory that an isolated system has a constant total
charge.
1785: Coulomb's Law
In 1785, French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb developed Coulomb's law, the
definition of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion. He found that the force exerted
between two small electrified bodies is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of
charges and varies inversely to the square of the distance between those charges. Coulomb's
discovery of the law of inverse squares virtually annexed a large part of the domain of electricity.
He also produced important work on the study of friction.
1789: Galvanic Electricity
In 1780, Italian professor Luigi Galvani (1737–1790) discovered that electricity from two different
metals causes frog legs to twitch. He observed that a frog's muscle, suspended on an iron
balustrade by a copper hook passing through its dorsal column, underwent lively convulsions
without any extraneous cause.
To account for this phenomenon, Galvani assumed that electricity of opposite kinds existed in
the nerves and muscles of the frog. Galvani published the results of his discoveries in 1789,
together with his hypothesis, which engrossed the attention of the physicists of that time.
1790: Voltaic Electricity
Italian physicist, chemist and inventor Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) read of Galvani's research
and in his own work discovered that chemicals acting on two dissimilar metals generate
electricity without the benefit of a frog. He invented the first electric battery, the voltaic pile
battery in 1799. With the pile battery, Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically
and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's
invention sparked a great deal of scientific excitement, leading others to conduct similar
experiments which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry.
1820: Magnetic Fields
In 1820, Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) discovered what
would become known as Oersted's Law: that an electric current affects a compass needle and
creates magnetic fields. He was the first scientist to find the connection between electricity and
magnetism.
1821: Ampere's Electrodynamics
French physicist Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836) found that wires carrying current produce
forces on each other, announcing his theory of electrodynamics in 1821.
Ampere's theory of electrodynamics states that two parallel portions of a circuit attract one
another if the currents in them are flowing in the same direction, and repel one another if the
currents flow in the opposite direction. Two portions of circuits crossing one another obliquely
attract one another if both the currents flow either towards or from the point of crossing and
repel one another if one flows to and the other from that point. When an element of a circuit
exerts a force on another element of a circuit, that force always tends to urge the second one in
a direction at right angles to its own direction.
1831: Faraday and Electromagnetic Induction
English scientist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) at the Royal Society in London developed the
idea of an electric field and studied the effect of currents on magnets. His research found that
the magnetic field created around a conductor carried a direct current, thereby establishing the
basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that
magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the
two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principles of electromagnetic induction and
diamagnetism and the laws of electrolysis.
1873: Maxwell and the Basis of Electromagnetic Theory
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), a Scottish physicist and mathematician, recognized that
electromagnetism's processes could be established using mathematics. Maxwell published
"Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" in 1873 in which he summarizes and synthesizes the
discoveries of Coloumb, Oersted, Ampere, Faraday into four mathematical equations. Maxwell's
equations are used today as the basis of electromagnetic theory. Maxwell predicts the
connections of magnetism and electricity leading directly to the prediction of electromagnetic
waves.
1885: Hertz and Electric Waves
German physicist Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theory was correct,
and in the process, generated and detected electromagnetic waves. Hertz published his work in
a book, "Electric Waves: Being Researches on the Propagation of Electric Action With Finite
Velocity Through Space." The discovery of electromagnetic waves led to the development to the
radio. The unit of frequency of the waves measured in cycles per second was named the "hertz"
in his honor.
1895: Marconi and the Radio
In 1895, Italian inventor and electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi put the discovery of
electromagnetic waves to practical use by sending messages over long distances using radio
signals, also known as the "wireless." He was known for his pioneering work on long-distance
radio transmission and his development of Marconi's law and a radio telegraph system. He is
often credited as the inventor of the radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with
Karl Ferdinand Braun "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless
telegraphy."
Electromagnetic Induction
When a DC current passes through a long straight conductor a magnetising force and a static
magnetic field is developed around it
If the wire is then wound into a coil, the magnetic field is greatly intensified producing a static
magnetic field around itself forming the shape of a bar magnet giving a distinct North and South
pole.
Air-core Hollow Coil
The magnetic flux developed around the coil being proportional to the
amount of current flowing in the coils windings as shown. If additional
layers of wire are wound upon the same coil with the same current flowing
through them, the static magnetic field strength would be increased.
Therefore, the magnetic field strength of a coil is determined by the ampere
turns of the coil. With more turns of wire within the coil, the greater the
strength of the static magnetic field around it.
But what if we reversed this idea by disconnecting the electrical current from the coil and
instead of a hollow core we placed a bar magnet inside the core of the coil of wire. By moving
this bar magnet “in” and “out” of the coil a current would be induced into the coil by the physical
movement of the magnetic flux inside it.
Likewise, if we kept the bar magnet stationary and moved the coil back and forth within the
magnetic field an electric current would be induced in the coil. Then by either moving the wire or
changing the magnetic field we can induce a voltage and current within the coil and this process
is known as Electromagnetic Induction and is the basic principle of operation of transformers,
motors and generators.
Electromagnetic Induction was first discovered way back in the 1830’s by Michael Faraday.
Faraday noticed that when he moved a permanent magnet in and out of a coil or a single loop of
wire it induced an ElectroMotive Force or emf, in other words a Voltage, and therefore a current
was produced.
So what Michael Faraday discovered was a way of producing an electrical current in a circuit by
using only the force of a magnetic field and not batteries. This then lead to a very important law
linking electricity with magnetism, Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. So how does
this work?.
When the magnet shown below is moved “towards” the coil, the pointer or needle of the
Galvanometer, which is basically a very sensitive centre zero’ed moving-coil ammeter, will
deflect away from its centre position in one direction only. When the magnet stops moving and
is held stationary with regards to the coil the needle of the galvanometer returns back to zero as
there is no physical movement of the magnetic field.
Likewise, when the magnet is moved “away” from the coil in the other direction, the needle of
the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction with regards to the first indicating a change
in polarity. Then by moving the magnet back and forth towards the coil the needle of the
galvanometer will deflect left or right, positive or negative, relative to the directional motion of
the magnet.
 1821: Ampere's Electrodynamics
1790: Voltaic Electricity 1820: Magnetic Fields

1831: Faraday and Electromagnetic Induction 1873: Maxwell and the Basis of Electromagnetic

Theory

1885: Hertz and Electric Waves

1895: Marconi and the Radio
600 BCE: Sparking Amber in Ancient Greece 221–206 BCE: Chinese Lodestone Compass

1600: Gilbert and the Lodestone 1752: Franklin's Kite Experiments

1785: Coulomb's Law

1789: Galvanic Electricity