WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

1
This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide general
notes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty of
specific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.
Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/EC
For further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 6, 05.2010
The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version,
SS-EN ISO 9001
which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com
SS-EN ISO 14001
 WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

CONTENTS

General information on welding of tool steel ................... 4

Welding methods for tool steel ............................................ 4
The welding bay ........................................................................ 6
Filler material ............................................................................. 7
Hydrogen in tool steel ............................................................ 8
Elevated working temperature .............................................. 9
Welding procedure .................................................................. 10
Het treatment after welding .................................................. 11
Guidelines for welding in
– hot work tool steel ............................................................ 13
– cold work tool steel .......................................................... 14
– plastic mould steel .............................................................. 17

3
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL
General informa-
tion on welding of
tool steel
Tool steel contain up to 2.5% carbon
as well as alloying elements such as
manganese, chromium, molybdenum,
tungsten, vanadium and nickel. The
main problem in welding tool steel
stems from its high hardenability.
Welds cool quickly once the heat
source is removed and the weld
metal and part of the heat-affected
zone will harden. This transformation
generates stresses because the weld
is normally highly constrained, with a
concomitant risk for cracking unless
great care is exercised.
In what follows, a description is
given of the welding equipment,
4
welding technique and weld con-
sumables that are required in order
to weld tool steel successfully. Of
course, the skill and experience of
the welder is also a vital ingredient in
obtaining satisfactory results. With
sufficient care, it is possible to
achieve weld repairs or adjustments
which, in terms of tooling perform-
ance, are hardly inferior to that of the
base steel.
Welding of tooling may be required
for anyone of the following reasons:
• refurbishment and repair of
cracked or worn tooling
• renovation of chipped or worn
cutting edges, e.g. on blanking tools
• adjustment of machining errors in
tool making
• design changes
Welding methods
for tool steel
Shielded metal-arc welding
(SMAW or MMA)
PRINCIPLE
An electric arc generated by a DC or
AC power source is struck between
a coated, rod-like electrode and the
work-piece (Fig. 1).
The electrodes consist of a central
wire core, which is usually low-
carbon steel, covered with a coating
of pressed powder (flux). The consti-
tution of this coating is complex and
consists of iron powder, powdered
ferro-alloys, slag formers and a suit-
able binder. The electrode is con-
sumed under the action of the arc
during welding and drops of molten
metal are transferred to the work-
piece. Contamination by air during
the transfer of molten drops from
electrode to workpiece and during
solidification and cooling of the weld
deposit is inhibited partly by slag
formed from constituents in the elec-
trode coating and partly by gases
created during melting of the elec-
trode.
The composition of the deposited
weld metal is controlled via the con-
stitution of the electrode coating.
POWER SOURCE
For MMA welding, it is possible to
use either an AC or DC power
source. However, whichever is used,
the source must provide a voltage
and current which is compatible with
the electrode. Normal arc voltages
are:
• normal recovery electrodes:
20–30 V
• high recovery electrodes:
30–50 V
Uddeholm welding consumables are
of normal recovery type. A suitable
power source for these is a DC unit
with an open voltage of 70 V and
which is capable of delivering 250A/
30V at 35% intermittence.

Gas tungsten-ARC welding
(GTAW or TIG)
PRINCIPLE
In MMA welding, the electrode from
which the arc is struck is consumed
during welding.
The electrode in TIG welding is
made of tungsten or tungsten alloy
which has a very high melting point
(about 3300°C/6000°F) and is there-
fore not consumed during the proc-
ess (Fig. 2). The arc is initially struck
by subjecting the electrode-work-
piece gas to a high-frequency voltage.
The resulting ionization permits strik-
ing without the necessity for contact
between electrode and workpiece.
The tungsten electrode is always
connected to the negative terminal of
a DC power source because this
Electrode
holder
+ Pole
Power source
– Pole
Slag
Weld
Fig. 1 Shielded Metal-Arc Welding SMAW (MMA)
Protective gas
Deposited material
Fusion zone
minimizes heat generation and there-
by any risk of melting the electrode.
Current is conducted to the elec-
trode via a contact inside the TIG-
gun. Any consumables which are
required during TIG-welding are fed
obliquely into the arc in the form of
rod or wire. Oxidation of the weld
pool is prevented by an inert-gas
shroud which streams from the TIG
gun over the electrode and weld.
POWER SOURCE
TIG welding can be performed with a
regular MMA power source provided
this is complemented with a TIG
control unit. The gun should be water
cooled and be capable of handling a
minimum current of 250 A at 100%
intermittence. A gas lens is also a
desirable feature in order that the
Core wire
Coating
Protective gas
Filler material
Melt pool
Fig. 2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding GTAW (TIG)
Protective glass
Laser beam
Filler wire
Workpiece
Fig. 3 Laser Welding
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL
inert gas protection is as efficient as
possible. Welding is facilitated if the
current can be increased steplessly
from zero to the optimum level.
Laser Welding
PRINCIPLE
High power laser light is generated
and focused through a lens to the
welding spot. As filler material a thin
wire with a diameter between 0.1–
0.6 mm is primarily used. The welder
guides the wire to the area to be
welded. The laser beam melt the
wire and the base material. The mol-
ten material solidifies leaving behind
a small raised area. The welder con-
tinues spot by spot and line by line.
Argon gas shields the process from
oxidation (Fig.3).
Electrode holder
Cooling water
Tungsten electrode
– Pole
Power source
+ Pole
5
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL
POWER SOURCE
For deposition welding normally a
pulsed solid state laser of Nd: YAG
type is used.
Typical performance:
Nominal output 150–200 W
Max pulse output 10–12 kW
Pulse time 0.5–20 ms
Frequence 0.5–20 Hz
Spot diameter 0.5–2.0 mm (0.1–0.5 mm)
The welding bay
In order to be able to effect satisfac-
tory welding work on tool steel, the
following items of equipment are to
be regarded as minimum require-
ments.
Dry cabinet
The coated electrodes used for MMA
welding are strongly hygroscopic and
should not be allowed to come into
contact with anything other than dry
air. Otherwise, the weld will be con-
taminated with hydrogen (see later).
Hence, the welding bay should be
equipped with a dry cabinet for stor-
Preheating in an insulated box.
6
age of electrodes. This should be
thermostatically controlled in the
range 50–150°C (120–300°F). The
electrodes should be removed from
their containers and lie loose on
racks.
For welding of tooling outside the
welding bay, it will also be found use-
ful to have a portable heated con-
tainer in which the electrodes can be
carried.
Workbench
It is particularly important during
critical welding operations, of the
type performed with tool steel, that
the welder enjoys a comfortable
working position. Hence, the work-
bench should be stable, of the cor-
rect height a sufficiently level that the
Electrical elements for an insulated
preheating box.
work can be positioned securely and
accurately. It is advantageous if the
workbench is rotatable and adjust-
able vertically, since both these fea-
tures facilitate the welding operation.
Preheating equipment
Tool steel cannot be welded at room
temperature without considerable
risk for cracking and it is generally
necessary to pre-heat the mould or
die before any welding can be
attempted (see later). While it is
certainly possible to weld tools suc-
cessfully by preheating in a furnace,
the chances are that the temperature
will fall excessively prior to comple-
tion of the work. Hence, it is recom-
mended that the tool be maintained
at the correct temperature using an
electrical heating box supplied from a
current-regulated DC source. This
equipment also enables the tool to
be heated at a uniform and control-
led rate.
To place the tool on a heated table
or plate could sometimes be suffi-
cient to maintain the temperature.
For minor repairs and adjustments,
it is acceptable that the tool is pre-
heated using a propane torch. Hence,
liquid propane cylinders should be
available in the welding bay.
Grinding machines
The following should be available:
• disc grinder with minimum
180 Ø x 6 mm wheel (7 Ø x 0,25”)
for preparing the joint and grinding
out of any defects which may occur
during welding
• flat grinder capable of ≥25 000 rpm
for grinding of minor defects and of
the finished weld
• if a welded mould is subsequently
to be polished or photo-etched, it
may be necessary to have a grinder
capable of giving a sufficiently fine
finish
• small rotating metal files in different
shapes and sizes
 WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

Filler material
The chemical composition of a weld
deposit is determined by the compo-
sition of the consumable (filler metal),
the base steel composition and the
extent to which the base material is
melted during welding. The consum-
able electrode or wire should mix
easily with the molten base steel
giving a deposit with:
• uniform composition, hardness and
response to heat-treatment
• freedom from non-metallic inclu-
sions, porosity or cracks
• suitable properties for the tooling
application in question
Since tool steel welds have high hard-
ness, they are particularly susceptible
to cracking which may originate at
slag particles or pores. Hence, the
consumable used should be capable
of producing a high-quality weld. In a
similar vein, it is necessary that the
consumables are produced with very
tight analysis control in order that
the hardness as welded and the
response to heat treatment is repro-
ducible from batch to batch. High-
quality filler metals are also essential
if a mould is to be polished or photo-
etched after welding. Uddeholm
welding consumables meet these
requirements.
Filler rods are normally produced For the three main application seg-
from electro-slag remelted stock. ments for tool steel (cold work, hot
The coated electrodes are of basic work and plastic moulding), the im-
type, which are far superior to rutile portant weld-metal properties are:
electrodes as regards weld cleanli-
COLD WORK
ness. Another advantage with basic
• Hardness
coated electrodes over those of
• Toughness
rutile type is that the former give a
• Wear resistance
much lower hydrogen content in the
weld metal. HOT WORK
In general, the consumable used • Hardness
for welding tool steel should be simi- • Temper resistance
lar in composition to the base mate- • Toughness
rial. When welding in the annealed • Wear resistance
condition, e.g. if a mould or die has • Heat checking resistance
to be adjusted while in the process PLASTIC MOULDING
of manufacture, it is vital that the • Hardness
filler metal has the same heat treat- • Wear resistance
ment characteristics as the base • Polishability
steel, otherwise the welded area in • Photoetchability
the finished tool will have different
hardness. Large compositional differ-
ences are also associated with an
Uddeholm welding
increased cracking risk in connection
with hardening.
consumables
Uddeholm welding consumable are UDDEHOLM COATED
designed to be compatible with the ELECTRODES
corresponding tool steel grades irre-
Impax Weld
spective of whether welding is car-
QRO 90 Weld
ried out on annealed or hardened-
Calmax/Carmo Weld
and tempered base material.
Caldie Weld
Obviously, the weld metal of
welded tools will require different
UDDEHOLM TIG-RODS
properties for different applications.
Impax TIG-Weld
Stavax TIG-Weld
Corrax TIG-Weld
Nimax TIG-Weld
Unimax TIG-Weld
QRO 90 TIG-Weld
Dievar TIG-Weld
Calmax/Carmo TIG-Weld
Caldie TIG-Weld

UDDEHOLM LASER RODS

Stavax Laser Weld
Nimax Laser Weld

Laser welding consumables from Uddeholm.

7
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

Hydrogen of runs). However, no measures to

in tool steel
Welds in tool steel have high hard-
ness and are, therefore, especially
susceptible to cold cracking derived
from hydrogen ingress during weld-
ing. In many cases, hydrogen is gener-
ated as a result of water vapour be-
ing adsorbed in the hygro-scopic
coating of MMA electrodes.
The susceptibility of a weld to
hydrogen cracking depends on:
• the microstructure of the weld
metal (different microstructures
have different hydrogen sensitivi-
ties)
• the hardness of the steel (the
greater the hardness, the higher the
susceptibility)
• the stress level
• the amount of diffusible hydrogen
introduced in welding
Microstructure/hardness
The characteristic microstructures
giving high hardness in the heat-
affected zone and weld metal, i.e.
martensite and bainite, are particu-
larly sensitive to embrittlement by
hydrogen. This susceptibility is, albeit
only marginally, alleviated by temper-
ing.
reduce stress will help if the weld is
seriously contaminated by hydrogen.
Content of
diffusible hydrogen
As regards the susceptibility of welds
to cold cracking, this is the factor that
it is easiest to do something about.
By adhering to a number of simple
precautions, the amount of hydrogen
introduced during welding can be
reduced appreciably.
• Always store coated electrodes in a
heated storage cabinet or heated
container once the pack has been
opened (see earlier).
• Contamination on the surfaces of
the joint of the surrounding tool
surface, e.g. oil, rust or paint, is a
source of hydrogen. Hence, the
surfaces of the joint and of the tool
in the vicinity of the joint should be
ground to bare metal immediately
prior to starting to weld.
• If preheating is performed with a
propane burner, it should be
remembered that this can cause
moisture to form on the tool sur-
faces not directly impinged by the
flame.

Stress level
Stresses in welds arise from three
sources:
• contraction during solidification of
the molten pool
• temperature differences between
weld, heat-affected zone and base
steel
• transformation stresses when the
weld and heat-affected zone
harden during cooling
In general, the stress level in the vici-
nity of the weld will reach the magni-
tude of the yield stress, which for
hardened tool steel is very high in-
deed. It is very difficult to do anything
about this but the situation can be
improved somewhat via proper weld Dry cabinet for
storage of electrodes.
design, (bead location and sequence

8
 WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

to perform a proper preheating and

Elevated working mitigate the risk of cracking during
temperature welding.
During multi-run welding of a
The basic reason for welding tool
properly pre-heated tool, most of
steel at elevated temperature derives
the weld will remain austenitic under
from the high hardenability and
the entire welding operation and will
therefore crack sensitivity of tool
transform slowly as the tool cools
steel welds and heat-affected zones.
down. This ensures a uniform hard-
Welding of a cold tool will cause
ness and microstructure over the
rapid cooling of the weld metal and
whole weld in comparison with the
heat-affected zone between passes
situation where each run transforms
with resulting transformation to
to martensite in between passes.
brittle martensite and risk of crack-
It will be clear from this discussion
ing. Cracks formed in the weld could
that the entire welding operation
well propagate through the entire
should be completed while the tool
tool. Hence, the mould or die should,
is hot. Partially welding, letting the
during welding, be maintained at
tool cool down and then preheating
50–100°C (90–180°F) above the Ms-
later on to finish the job, is not to be
temperature (martensite-start tem-
recommended because there is
perature) for the steel in question.
considerable risk that the tool will
The critical temperature is the Ms of
crack.
the weld metal, which may not be
While it is feasible to pre-heat
the same as that of the base metal.
tools in a furnace, there is the possi-
In some instances, it may be that
bility that the temperature is uneven
the base steel is fully hardened and
(creates stresses) and that it will
has been tempered at a temperature
drop excessively before welding is
below the Ms-temperature. Hence,
completed (especially if the tool is
pre-heating the tool for welding will
small).
cause a drop in hardness. For exam-
The best method, of preheating
ple, most low-temperature tempered
and maintaining the tool at the
cold-work steel will have to be pre-
requested temperature during weld-
heated to a temperature in excess of
ing, is to use an insulated box with
the tempering temperature, which is
electrical elements in the walls (see
usually ca. 200°C (400°F). The hard-
page 6).
ness drop must be accepted in order

Uddeholm Stavax Weld/TIG-Weld and

Uddeholm Impax Weld/TIG-Weld match
their corresponding tool steel grades
exactly and give perfect results after
polishing or texturing of a welded mould.

9
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

Welding procedure The arc should be struck in the joint

and not on any tool surfaces which
BUILD UP SEQUENCE
Joint preparation are not being welded. The sore form
striking the arc is likely location for
The importance of careful prepara-
crack initiation. In order to avoid
tion can not be over-emphasized.
pores, the starting sore should be
Cracks should be ground out so that
melted up completely at the begin-
the groove angle will be 60° if possi-
ning of welding. If a restart is made
ble. The width of the bottom should Undercut Sink run
with a partly-used MMA electrode,
be at least 1 mm greater than the
the tip should be cleaned free from
maximum electrode diameter which
slag.
will be used.
For repair or adjustment of expen-
Erosion or heat-checking damage
sive tooling, e.g. plastic mould with a
on hot work tools should be ground
polished or textured cavity, it is
down to sound steel.
essential that there is good contact
The tool surfaces in the immediate
between the return cable and the
vicinity of the intended weld and the
tool. Poor contact gives problems
surfaces of the groove itself must all
with secondary arcing and the expen-
be ground down to clean metal. Prior
sive surface can be damaged by arcing
to starting welding, the ground areas
sores. Such tools should be placed on
should be checked with penetrant to
a copper plate which provides for the
make sure all defects have been re-
best possible contact. The copper
moved. The tool should be welded as
plate must be preheated along with
soon as the preparation is finished,
the tool.
otherwise there is risk of contamina-
The completed weld(s) should be
tion of the surfaces with dust, dirt or
carefully cleaned and inspected prior
moisture.
to allowing the tool to cool down.
Any defect, such as arcing sores or
Undercut
Building up the weld undercut, should be dealt with imme-
To avoid undercut in the border line, diately.
between the weld and the base mate- Before the tool has cooled, the Sink run
rial, start with fine sink runs. The init- surface of the weld should be ground
ial layer should be made with a small down almost to the level of the sur-
diameter MMA electrode, 2,5 mm, or rounding tool before any further
via TIG welding (max. current 120 A). processing.
The second layer is made with the Moulds where welded areas have
same electrode diameter and current to be polished or photo-etched
as the first in order to minimize the should have the final runs made using
heat-affected zone. The remaining of TIG-welding, which is less likely to
the groove can be welded with a give pores or inclusions in the weld
higher current and electrodes with metal.
GROOVE PREPARATION
larger diameter.
The final runs should be built up
well above the surface of the tool.
Even small welds should comprise a
minimum of two runs. Grind off the Crack risk OK
last runs.
During MMA welding, the arc
should be short and the beads de-
posited in distinct runs. The elec- Remove cracks Clean surface
trode should be angled at 90° to the
joint sides so as to minimize under-
cut. In addition, the electrode should
be held at an angle of 75–80°C to the
direction of forward movement.

10

Heat treatment
after welding
Depending on the initial condition
of the tool, the following heat treat-
ments may be performed after
welding:
• tempering
• soft annealing, then hardening
and tempering as usual
• stress relieving
Tempering
Fully-hardened tools which are repair
welded should if possible be tem-
pered after welding.
Tempering improves the tough-
ness of the weld metal and the heat
affected zone (HAZ).
The tempering temperature should
be chosen so that the hardness of
the weld metal and base steel are
compatible. An exception to this rule
is when the weld metal exhibits ap-
preciably improved temper resistance
over the base material (e.g. Udde-
holm Orvar Supreme welded with
Heat treatment of a die-casting die after welding.
Uddeholm QRO 90 Weld); in this
case, the weld should be tempered at
the highest possible temperature
concomitant with the base steel
retaining its hardness (typically 20°C/
40°F under the previous tempering
temperature).
Product brochures for Uddeholm
welding consumables and tool steel
give tempering curves from which
the tempering conditions for welded
tools can be ascertained.
Very small repairs may not need to
be tempered after welding; however,
this should be done if at all possible.
Soft annealing
Tools which are welded to accommo-
date design changes or machining
errors during toolmaking, and which
are in soft-annealed condition, will
need to be heat treated after welding.
Since the weld metal and HAZ will
have hardened during cooling, it is
highly desirable to soft anneal the
weld prior to hardening and temper-
ing of the tool. The soft annealing
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL
cycle used is that recommended for
the base steel. The welded area can
then be machined and the tool may
be finished and heat treated as usual.
However, even if the tool can be
finished by merely grinding the weld,
soft annealing is first recommended
in order to mitigate cracking during
heat treatment.
Stress relieving
Stress relieving is sometimes carried
out after welding in order to reduce
residual stresses. For very large or
highly-constrained welds, this is an
important precaution. If the weld is
to be tempered or soft annealed,
then stress relieving is not normally
necessary. However, pre-hardened
tool steel should be stress relieved
after welding since no other heat
treatment is normally performed.
The stress relieving temperature
must be chosen such that neither the
base steel nor the welded area soften
extensively during the operation.
Very small weld repairs or adjust-
ments will normally not require a
stress relieving treatment.
Further information
Information concerning heat treat-
ment of the tool subsequent to
welding can be obtained from the
brochures for the welding consum-
able and/or the tool steel in question.
11
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

12
 WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

Guidelines for welding in Uddeholm tool steel

The tables, on following pages, give details concerning weld repair or adjustment of tooling made from
Uddeholm steel grades for hot work, cold work and plastic moulding applications.

WELDING IN HOT WORK TOOL STEEL – MMA (SMAW)

UDDEHOLM WELDING PREHEATING HARDNESS POST

STEEL GRADE CONDITION METHOD CONSUMABLES TEMPERATURE AS WELDED TREATMENT REMARKS

VIDAR
SUPERIOR
VIDAR 1 Soft annealed MMA QRO 90 WELD Min. Soft annealing
VIDAR 1 ESR Hardened (SMAW) UTP 673 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering

ORVAR
SUPREME
ORVAR
SUPERIOR
ORVAR 2 Soft annealed MMA QRO 90 WELD Min. 48–53 HRC Soft annealing
MICRODIZED Hardened (SMAW) UTP 673 325°C (620°F) 55–58 HRC Tempering

Soft annealed MMA Min. Soft annealing Soft annealing, see

DIEVAR Hardened (SMAW) QRO 90 WELD 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering product brochure
Temper hardened
QRO 90 material 10–20°C
SUPREME Soft annealed MMA Soft annealing (20–40°F) below last
HOTVAR Hardened (SMAW) QRO 90 WELD 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering tempering temperature

ALVAR MMA UTP A 73 G4 225–275°C Stress relieve large

ALVAR 14 Prehardened (SMAW) ESAB OK 83.28 (430–520°F) 340–390 HB None repairs

WELDING IN HOT WORK TOOL STEEL – TIG (GTAW)

UDDEHOLM WELDING PREHEATING HARDNESS POST

STEEL GRADE CONDITION METHOD CONSUMABLES TEMPERATURE AS WELDED TREATMENT REMARKS

VIDAR
SUPERIOR
VIDAR 1 Soft annealed TIG QRO 90 TIG WELD Min. Soft annealing
VIDAR 1 ESR Hardened (GTAW) DIEVAR TIG WELD 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering

ORVAR
SUPREME
ORVAR
SUPERIOR
ORVAR 2 Soft annealed TIG QRO 90 TIG WELD Min. Soft annealing
MICRODIZED Hardned (GTAW) DIEVAR TIG WELD 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering
Soft annealing, see
Soft annealed TIG DIEVAR TIG WELD Min. Soft annealing
product brochure
DIEVAR Hardened (GTAW) QRO 90 TIG WELD 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering
Temper hardened
QRO 90 material 10–20°C
SUPREME Soft annealed TIG Soft annealing (20–40°F) below last
HOTVAR Hardened (GTAW) QRO 90 TIG WELD 325°C (620°F) 48–53 HRC Tempering tempering temperature

UTP A 73 G4
ALVAR TIG ESAB OK TIG ROD 225–275°C Stress relieve large
ALVAR 14 Prehardened (GTAW) 13.22 (430–520°F) 340–390 HB None repairs

13
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

GUIDELINES FOR WELDING IN COLD WORK TOOL STEEL – MMA (SMAW)

UDDEHOLM WELDING PREHEATING HARDNESS POST

STEEL GRADE CONDITION METHOD CONSUMABLES TEMPERATURE AS WELDED TREATMENT REMARKS

Tempering
ARNE Type AWS E312 300 HB 10–20°C
RIGOR ESAB OK 84.52 53–54 HRC (20–40°F)
VIKING Hardened MMA UTP 67S 200–250°C 55–58 HRC below last Initial layers with
FERMO* Prehardened (SMAW) UTP 73 G2 (390–480°F) 55–58 HRC tempering temp. soft weld metal

MMA 200–250°C Tempering

CALDIE* Hardened (SMAW) CALDIE WELD (390–480°F) 58–62 HRC 510°C (950°F)

Tempering
10–20°C
(20–40°F)
MMA CALDIE WELD 58–62 HRC below last
SLEIPNER Hardened (SMAW) UTP 690 250°C (480°F) 60–64 HRC tempering temp.

Tempering
Type Inconel 625 280 HB 10–20°C
UTP 73 G2 55–58 HRC (20–40°F)
SVERKER 21 MMA UTP 67S 55–58 HRC below last Initial layers with
SVERKER 3 Hardened (SMAW) UTP 690 250°C (480°F) 60–64 HRC tempering temp. soft weld metal

MMA CALMAX/CARMO
CARMO* Prehardened (SMAW) WELD 200–250°C
(390–480°F) 58–62 HRC Tempering

MMA
CALMAX (SMAW) See “Welding guidelines for plastic mould steel”

Tempering 200°C
(390°F) or 505°C
Type Inconel 625 280 HRC (940°F) depend-
VANADIS 4 MMA UTP 73 G2 200°C 55–58 HRC ing on the last Initial layers with
EXTRA** Hardened (SMAW) UTP 690 (390°F) 60–64 HRC used temp. temp. soft weld metal

* Minor welding operations in Uddeholm Fermo, Uddeholm Caldie and Uddeholm Carmo can be done at ambient temperature.
** Welding in Uddeholm Vanadis 4 Extra should generally be avoided due to the risk of cracking.

14
 WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

GUIDELINES FOR WELDING IN COLD WORK TOOL STEEL – TIG (GTAW)

UDDEHOLM WELDING PREHEATING HARDNESS POST

STEEL GRADE CONDITION METHOD CONSUMABLES TEMPERATURE AS WELDED TREATMENT REMARKS

ARNE Tempering
RIGOR Type AWS ER312 300 HB 10–20°C
VIKING Hardened TIG UTP ADUR 600 200–250°C 55–58 HRC below last Initial layers with
FERMO* Prehardened (GTAW) UTP A 73 G2 (390–480°F) 53–56 HRC tempering temp. soft weld metal

TIG 200–250°C Tempering

CALDIE* Hardened (GTAW) CALDIE TIG-WELD (390–480°F) 58–62 HRC 510°C (950°F)

Tempering
10–20°C
(20–40°F)
TIG CALDIE TIG-WELD 58–62 HRC below last
SLEIPNER Hardened (GTAW) UTP A 696 250°C (480°F) 60–64 HRC tempering temp.

Tempering
Type Inconel 625 280 HB 10–20°C
UTP A 73 G2 53–56 HRC (20–40°F)
SVERKER 21 TIG UTP ADUR 600 55–58 HRC below last Initial layers with
SVERKER 3 Hardened (GTAW) UTP A 696 250°C (480°F) 60–64 HRC tempering temp. soft weld metal

TIG CALMAX/CARMO
CARMO* Prehardened (GTAW) TIG WELD 200–250°C
(390–480°F) 58–62 HRC Tempering

TIG
CALMAX (GTAW) See “Welding guidelines for plastic mould steel”

Tempering 200°C
(390°F) or 505°C
Type Inconel 625 280 HRC (940°F) depend-
VANADIS 4 TIG UTP A 73 G2 200°C 53–56 HRC ing on the last Initial layers with
EXTRA** Hardened (GTAW) UTP 696 (390°F) 60–64 HRC used temp. temp. soft weld metal

* Minor welding operations in Uddeholm Fermo, Uddeholm Caldie and Uddeholm Carmo can be done at ambient temperature.
** Welding in Uddeholm Vanadis 4 Extra should generally be avoided due to the risk of cracking.

15
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

EXAMPLE OF LASER WELDS

16
 WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

GUIDELINES FOR WELDING IN PLASTIC MOULD STEEL – MMA (SMAW)

UDDEHOLM WELDING PREHEATING HARDNESS POST

STEEL GRADE CONDITION METHOD CONSUMABLES TEMPERATURE AS WELDED TREATMENT REMARKS

Stress relieve
IMPAX MMA 200–250°C large repairs
SUPREME* Prehardened (SMAW) IMPAX WELD (390–480°F) 320–350 HB 550°C (1020°F)

Heat treatment
Soft annealed Soft annealing see product brochure
MMA UTP 73 G2 200–250°C Tempering
UNIMAX Hardened (SMAW) UTP 67 S (390–480°F) 55–58 HRC 510°C (950°F)

RAMAX LH* Austenitic stainless

RAMAX HH* Prehardened MMA steel 200–250°C
(SMAW) Type AWS E312 (390–480°F) 28–30 HRC Tempering

200–250°C
Soft annealed (390–480°F) Soft annealing

MMA CALMAX/CARMO 180–250°C Heat treatment

CALMAX Hardened (SMAW) WELD (360–480°F) 59–62 HRC Tempering see product brochure

Stress relieve
MMA 150–200°C large repairs
HOLDAX* Prehardened (SMAW) IMPAX WELD (300–390°F) 320–350 HB 550°C (1020°F)
Soft annealing, see
product brochure.
Temper hardened
ORVAR Soft annealed Soft annealing material 10–20°C
SUPREME MMA Min. (20–40°F) below last
VIDAR 1 ESR Hardened (SMAW) UTP 673 325°C (620°F) 55–58 HRC Tempering tempering temperature

MMA Type Inconel 625 250–300°C 280 HB Tempering

ELMAX** Hardened (SMAW) UTP 701 (480–570°F) 54–57 HRC 200°C (390°F)

* Minor welding operations can be done at ambient temperature.

** Welding should generally be avoided due to the risk of cracking.

17
WELDING OF TOOL STEEL

GUIDELINES FOR WELDING IN PLASTIC MOULD STEEL – TIG (GTAW) AND LASER

UDDEHOLM WELDING PREHEATING HARDNESS POST

STEEL GRADE CONDITION METHOD CONSUMABLES TEMPERATURE AS WELDED TREATMENT REMARKS

TIG STAVAX 200–250°C

(GTAW) TIG-WELD (390–480°F) 54–56 HRC Soft annealing
STAVAX LASER Heat treatment
Soft annealed LASER WELD None 48–50 HRC None see product brochure
Tempering
TIG STAVAX 200–250°C 200–250°C
(GTAW) TIG-WELD (390–480°F) 54–56 HRC (390–480°F)
STAVAX ESR STAVAX LASER
POLMAX Hardened LASER WELD None 48–50 HRC None
Annealing 700-
750°C (1290-
Sot annealed 1380°F) 5h
Tempering 10–
20°C (20–40°F)
TIG STAVAX 200–250°C below last
MIRRAX ESR Hardened (GTAW) TIG-WELD (390–480°F) 54–56 HRC tempering temp.

Stress relieve
IMPAX TIG 200–250°C large repairs
SUPREME* Prehardened (GTAW) IMPAX TIG-WELD (390–480°F) 320–350 HB 550°C (1020°F)

Stress relieve
TIG large repairs
(GTAW) NIMAX TIG-WELD 550°C (1020°F)
NIMAX
NIMAX Prehardened LASER LASER WELD None 360–400 HB None
Heat treatment
Soft annealed UNIMAX 54–58 HRC Soft annealing see product brochure
TIG-WELD
TIG UTP A 73 G2 200–250°C Tempering
UNIMAX Hardened (GTAW) UTP ADUR 600 (390–480°F) 54–60 HRC 510°C (950°F)

Austenitic stainless
steel.
RAMAX LH* TIG Type AWS ER312 200–250°C 28–30 HRC Heat treatment
RAMAX HH* Prehardened (GTAW) STAVAX TIG-WELD (390–480°F) 54–56 HRC Tempering see product brochure

Solution
treated
TIG CORRAX See data sheet for
CORRAX Aged (GTAW) TIG-WELD None 30–35 HRC Ageing Corrax TIG-Weld

200–250°C
Soft annealed (390–480°F) Soft annealing

TIG CALMAX/CARMO 180–250°C Heat treatment

CALMAX Hardened (GTAW) TIG-WELD (360–480°F) 58–61 HRC Tempering see product brochure

Stress relieve
TIG 150–200°C large repairs
HOLDAX* Prehardened (GTAW) IMPAX TIG-WELD (300–390°F) 320–350 HB 550°C (1020°F)

Soft annealing, see

product brochure
Temper hardened
ORVAR Soft annealed Soft annealing material 10–20°C
SUPREME TIG DIEVAR TIG WELD Min. 48–53 HRC (20–40°F) below last
VIDAR 1 ESR Hardned (GTAW) UTP A673 325°C (620°F) 57–60 HRC Tempering tempering temperature

TIG 250–300°C Tempering

ELMAX** Hardened (GTAW) UTP A 701 (480–570°F) 54–57 HRC 200°C (390°F)

* Minor welding operations can be done at ambient temperature.

** Welding should generally be avoided due to the risk of cracking.

18
 Network of excellence
UDDEHOLM is present on every continent. This ensures you
high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you
are. ASSAB is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales
channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier
of tooling materials.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com
 UDDEHOLM 100501.1000 / TRYCKERI KNAPPEN, KARLSTAD 201004302
UDDEHOLM is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This
is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday
business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-
ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.
It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one
partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality
wherever you are. ASSAB is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive
sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of
tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm
or ASSAB representative close at hand to give local advice and support.
For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in
developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com, www.assab.com

or your local website.
POLISHING MOULD STEEL
 Contents
Why strive for a high surface finish? ........ 3
Judging surface finish ............................... 3
Factors which affect polishability .............. 3
Grinding and stoning of moulds ............... 4
Polishing of moulds .................................. 5
Typical polishing sequences ...................... 6
Different surface conditions prior
to polishing .............................................. 8
Surface roughness after different
heat treatment methods .......................... 8
Polishing problems can be solved ............ 8

This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide general
notes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty of
specific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.
Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/EC
For further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 4, 12.2007 SS-EN ISO 9001

The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version, SS-EN ISO 14001
which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com

Why strive for a
high surface finish?
The increased use of plastic products
has created a higher demand for mirror
finish of moulding tools. The highest
demands for surface finish are in the
optical lens mould where an extreme
requirement on polishability is desired.
However, in general there are other
advantages with high surface finish,
including:
• Easier ejection of the plastic
parts from the moulding tool
(applies to most plastics)
• Reduced risk of local corrosion
• Reduced risk of fracture or
cracking due to temporary over
loading or pure fatigue.
This brochure reviews the factors that
affect the polishability of mould steels
and gives recommendations on how to
economically obtain the required finish
on the main steel grades used. In
making these recommendations, it is
recognized that the skill, experience and
technique of the polisher plays an
extremely important role in achieving
the desired surface finish.
Judging
surface finish
Two things are important when judging
the surface of the mould. The surface
must first have a geometrically correct
shape without any long macro waves.
This macro shape is mostly an inherit-
ance from earlier grinding and stoning
steps.
Secondly, the mirror finish of the
mould surface must be free from
scratches, pores, orange peel, pitting
(pin-holes) etc. The surface finish is
normally judged by the naked eye. There
are certain difficulties involved in such a
visual evaluation. A “flat” surface can
look perfect despite the fact that it is
not geometrically completely flat. Thus,
the eye can be “fooled”.
In more sophisticated cases, the finish
can be judged by instrumental
methods, such as optical interference
techniques.
Factors which
affect polishability
The surface smoothness which can be
achieved by polishing steel depends on
factors such as:
• Tool steel quality
• Heat treatment
• Polishing technique.
In general, it can be stated that polish-
ing technique is the most important
factor. If a suitable polishing tech-nique
is used it is almost always possible to
achieve acceptable results, providing a
correctly heat treated, good quality tool
steel is used. If however, an unsuitable
technique is used, even the best steels
can be ruined.
THE TOOL STEEL QUALITY
Particles or areas in the steel surface
which deviate from the matrix in terms
of hardness and other properties can
cause problems during polishing. Slag
inclusions of various types and porosi-
ties are examples of such undesirable
constituents. To improve the polishing
properties, Uddeholm uses vacuum
degassing, electro-slag refining (ESR)
Lens mould with extreme demand on polishability. The material choice was Uddeholm Stavax ESR.
POLISHING MOULD STEEL
and vacuum arc remelting (VAR) tech-
niques in the production of its mould
steel grades.
Vacuum degassing reduces the risk
of large slag inclusions and hydrogen
embrittlement and also produces a
more homogeneous material.
ESR/VAR treatment greatly im-
proves properties from the viewpoint of
polishability, even better than those
achieved by vacuum degassing. ESR/
VAR treatment reduces the amount of
slag inclusions in the steel and ensures
that the remaining slag inclusions which
cannot be avoided will be small and
evenly distributed throughout the ma-
trix, as shown in figure 1.
Uddeholm Stavax ESR, Uddeholm
Mirrax ESR and Uddeholm Polmax
stainless mould steels, produced by the
ESR and/or the VAR technique, have
proved particularly suitable for moulds
with the highest surface finish require-
ments, e.g. optical lenses.
Conventional ESR
70 x
Figure 1. A typical inclusion picture in con-
ventional and ESR-material. (An “inclusion
picture” is made up from 70 superimposed
photographs at high magnification.)
3
POLISHING MOULD STEEL
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment can affect polishability
in many ways. A case-hardening steel
which has been overcarburized is likely
to have an unsuitable structure for
polishing. This is caused by the creation
of small oxide particles under the steel
surface, leading to polishing problems.
Decarburization or recarburization of
the surface during heat treatment can
produce variations in hardness, resulting
in polishing difficulties.
POLISHING TECHNIQUE
Different steel grades effect
on polishing techniques
Most Uddeholm mould steels, when
used at the same hardness levels, take
similar polishing times when using
standard polishing techniques. Excep-
tions to this are Uddeholm Stavax ESR,
Uddeholm Mirrax ESR and Uddeholm
Polmax stainless mould steels. These
grades are capable of producing the
very best surface quality, but many
mouldmakers use a slightly different
polishing technique to achieve it. The
important thing is to grind to as fine a
surface finish as possible before starting
the polishing operation. Great import-
ance is placed on stopping the polishing
operation immediately the last scratch
from the former grain size has been
removed.
Different hardnesses effect
on polishing technique
Higher hardness levels make the mould
steel more difficult to grind but give
higher surface smoothness after polish-
ing. However, harder mould steels
require a slightly longer polishing time
to achieve higher surface finishes. With
higher hardness levels, over-polishing is
less likely to be a problem.
Figure 2. The relationship
between increasing hardness levels,
grindability and polishability
4
Grinding and ston- • The finer the grain size used, the
more important is the cleaning
ing of moulds operation between each change of
grain size.
PRACTICAL HINTS
• When changing to next next-finer
Normally, a mould cavity is produced by
grain size, grind in a direction at
means of milling, EDM’ing or hobbing.
about 45° to the previous grinding
If a very smooth surface is desired,
direction until the surface only shows
the following sequences should be
scratches from the present grinding
followed:
step. After scratches from the previ-
After milling: rough grinding, fine
ous step have disappeared continue
grinding and polishing.
for about 25% longer time before
After EDM’ing: fine grinding and pol-
changing to the next grain size (ex-
ishing.
cept for Uddeholm Stavax ESR,
After hobbing: a single polishing opera-
Uddeholm Mirrax ESR and Uddeholm
tion after heat treatment.
Polmax). This is to remove the “de-
It should be emphasized that the grind- formed” surface layer caused by
ing operation forms the basis for a rapid mechanical stresses induced during
and successful polishing job. In grinding, previous grinding operations.
the marks left by the rough-machining • Changing grinding direction is also
operation are removed and a metalli- important to avoid the formation of
cally pure and geometrically correct irregularities and relief patterns.
surface is obtained. Certain rules should
• When grinding large, flat mould
be followed to facilitate the work and
surfaces, avoid hand-operated
ensure good results. This applies to both
grinding discs. The use of a stone
mechanical grinding and manual ston-
reduces the risk of obtaining large
ing.
shape irregularities.
• The grinding operation must not
generate so much heat and pressure
that the structure and hardness of
the material are affected. Use plenty
of coolant.
• Use only clean and free-cutting
grinding tools with soft stones for
hard surfaces.
• Between each change of grain size,
the workpiece and hands should be
cleaned to prevent coarse abrasive
particles and dust being carried over
to the next stage with a finer grain
size.
Grindability
and polishability
Polishability
(surface smoothness)
Grindability
Soft annealed Hardened Increasing
hardness
 POLISHING MOULD STEEL

Polishing of moulds • Hands and workpiece should be

cleaned carefully between each
PRACTICAL HINTS change of paste grade, the workpiece
Diamond paste is the most common with a grease solvent and the hands
abrasive agent used in polishing. with soap.
Optimum performance is obtained • Paste should be applied to the
with the right paste, on the right polish- polishing tool in manual polishing,
ing tool. The most common polishing while in machine polishing, the paste
tools are sticks, pads and blocks for should be applied to the workpiece.
manual use and bobs, brushes and discs
• Polishing pressure should be adjust-
for machines.
ed to the hardness of the polishing
Polishing tools are available in mate-
tool and the grade of the paste. For
rials of different hardnesses from metals
the finest grain sizes, the pressure
through different types of fibre (e.g.
should only be the weight of the
wood, synthetic fibre) to soft felt. The
polishing tool.
hardness of the polishing tool affects
the exposure of the diamond grains and • Heavy material removal requires
the removal rate. The following figure hard polishing tools and coarse
illustrates this: paste.
• Finish polishing of plastic moulds
Soft Medium Hard should be carried out in the release
directional.
Felt Wood Steel
• Polishing should start in the corners,
edges and fillets or other difficult
parts of the mould.
Hardened steel
• Be careful with sharp corners and
edges, so they are not rounded off.
Preferably use hard polishing tools.
Time-consuming and expensive polish-
ing can be cut by observing certain
rules.
Above all, cleanliness in every
step of the polishing operation is
of such great importance that it
cannot be overemphasized.
• Polishing should be carried out in
dust- and draughtfree places. Hard
dust particles can easily contaminate
the abrasive and ruin an almost
finished surface.
• Each polishing tool should be used
for only one paste grade and kept i
n dust-proof containers.
• The polishing tools gradually become
“impregnated” and improve with
use. Polishing a plastic mould.

5
POLISHING MOULD STEEL

and coarse paste is used initially. Then

Typical polishing the grain size of the paste is gradually
Examples of how to combine polishing
tool and grain size of the abrasive.
sequences reduced towards finer and finer pastes.
Cloth
The choice of grinding and polishing A combination of these two methods Hardness Cloth material Abrasive Micron
sequences is determined by the experi- can be recommended.
Very hard Steel
ence of the operator and the equipment Example of sequences: Nylon reinforced Diamond 45, 15,
he has at his disposal. The properties – Start with a hard polishing tool and a 6, 3
coarse paste. Hard Coated nylon Diamond 9, 6, 3
of the material can also affect the
Hard Silk Diamond 15, 6, 3, 1
sequence. – Then change to a softer polishing Alumina
In polishing there are two methods tool with the same paste. Hard Paper Diamond 15, 6, 3
– Then use a medium-hard polishing Alumina
used. In the first method, a paste with a
tool and a medium-coarse paste. Soft Wool Diamond 6, 3, 1
certain grain size is selected and a hard
Soft Dense nylon
polishing tool is used initially, after – Change to a soft polishing tool with velvet Diamond 3
which softer and softer polishing tools the same paste. Very soft Velvet Diamond 1 and
are used. In the second method, a – Finally, use a soft polishing tool and smaller
Alumina
medium-hard polishing tool is selected a fine paste. MgO
OP-S

Milling
Turning
EDM’ing
Rough grinding
Rough Grain
number
50

80

120
FEPA
D-series
180 Fine grinding
Rough Grain
Fine 220 number
Polishing with
diamond paste
Rough Micron
size
320
45 µm

25
800

1200 15
9
6
3
1
Fine Fine
This diagram shows example of how the
polishing sequence can be selected.

6
 POLISHING MOULD STEEL

Grain size conversion table

Grain sizes Commercial FEPA
µm grain number grain number
5100–4000 4
4000–3500 5
3500–2830 6
2830–2380 8 8
2380–2000 10 10
2000–1680 12 12
1680–1410 14 14
1410–1190 16 16
1190–1000 20 20
1000– 840 (22)
840– 710 24 24
710– 590 30 30
590– 500 36 36
500– 420 40 (40)
420– 350 46 46
350– 297 50 50
297– 250 60 60
250– 210 70 70
210– 177 80 80
177– 149 90 90
149– 125 100 100
125– 105 120 120
105– 88 150 150
88– 74 180 180
74– 62 200 F-series 200 D-series
62– 53 220 No. µm 220 No. µm
230 56,0 ±3
53– 45 240 240 49,3 ±2 240 240 58,5 ±2
45– 37 280 280 41,5 ±1,5 280 52,2 ±2
37– 31 320 320 34,4 ±1,5 320 46,2 ±1,5
360 28,2 ±1,5 360 40,5 ±1,5
31– 27 400 400 23,0 ±1,0 400 35,0 ±1,5
27– 22 500 500 18,2 ±1,0 500 30,2 ±1,5
22– 18 600 600 14,3 ±1,0 600 25,75±1,0
18– 15 700
15– 11 800 800 10,6 ±1,0 800 21,8 ±1,0
11– 8 1000 1000 7,8 ±0,8 1000 18,3 ±1,0
1200 5,6 ±0,5 1200 15,2 ±1,0
8– 5 2000 2400 10
5– 0 3000 4000 5

Surface roughness after grinding. Magnification x 300

Grain size 90–75 µm 27–24 µm 16–14 µm

Arithmetic Average micro inch 8 2,8 1,2

Surface roughness after using diamond paste on nylon cloth. Magnification x 300

Grain size 30 µm 7 µm 1 µm
Arithmetic Average micro inch 2,4 0,4 0,24

7
POLISHING MOULD STEEL

Different surface Polishing problems Either of the following alternatives can

conditions prior to
polishing
EDM’d surfaces are more difficult to
grind than conventionally machined or
heat treated surfaces. An EDM-opera-
tion should be finished with a fine
sparking stage. If the fine sparking
stage is performed correctly, there will
be no problems. If not, a thin rehard-
ened layer will remain on the surface.
This layer is considerably harder than
the matrix and must be removed.
A nitrided or case hardened surface
is more difficult to grind than base
material but takes a good surface finish
after polishing. However, small defects
produced in the surface layer do not
always allow the extremely high surface
finishes to be obtained.
A mould that has been flame-
hardened or repair welded often shows
a soft zone between the treated part
and the base material. To avoid a ditch
formation along the soft zone use a
broad stone.
can be solved
The predominant problem in polishing is
so-called “overpolishing”. Overpolish-
ing is the term used when a polished
surface gets worse the longer you polish
it. There are basically two phenomena
which appear when a surface is over-
polished: “Orange peel” and “Pitting”
(pin holes). It should be pointed out that
overpolishing often occurs in connection
with machine polishing.
“ORANGE PEEL”
The appearance of an irregular, rough
surface, which is normally referred to as
“orange peel”, may depend on a
number of different causes. The most
common is overheating or overcarburi-
zation from heat treatment in combina-
tion with high pressure and prolonged
polishing. A harder material can better
withstand a high polishing pressure,
softer steels overpolish more easily.
Studies have shown that the overpolish-
ing effect occurs at different polishing
times for different hardnesses.
be adopted to restore the surface.
Alt 1 Remove the defective surface
layer by grinding the surface
using the next-to-last grinding
step prior to polishing. Start
again at the final grinding stage.
Use a lower pressure during
polishing than before.
Alt 2 Stress-relieve at a temperature
about 25°C (45°F) below the last
tempering temperature. Regrind
using the final grinding step
prior to polishing until a satis-
factory surface has been obtain-
ed. Start polishing again, but at a
lower polishing pressure than
before.
If the result is still not good, the hard-
ness must be raised. This can be done
in a number of different ways:
• Increase the surface hardness of the
steel by means of nitriding or nitro-
carburizing treatment.
• Heat treat the tool to a higher
hardness.

Surface roughness Surface roughness

Ra µm

after different heat 0,06

treatment methods 0,05

IMPAX SUPREME
0,04 300 HB
Many toolmakers ask the question:
“How far should I go in grinding steps 0,03 RIGOR
before heat treatment?” 60 HRC
0,02
It should be borne in mind that
during heat treatment some dimen- 0,01

sional changes are likely to take place,

possibly requiring a final finishing 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
operation. Furthermore, the surface Polishing time, minutes
finish of the mould may be affected by
the heat treatment medium. There is no The normal reaction of a person who
point, therefore, in polishing a mould to sees that a surface has deteriorated is
a very high finish before heat treatment to increase the polishing pressure and
if size/shape changes and/or surface continue polishing. Such a course of
deterioration make further finishing action will inevitably result in further
operations necessary. surface deterioration.

8
 POLISHING MOULD STEEL

“PITTING” If pitting still occurs the following meas-

The very small pits which can occur in a ures should be taken:
polished surface generally result from • Regrind the surface carefully using
slag (non-metallic) inclusions in the the next-to-last grinding step prior to
form of hard, brittle oxides which have polishing. Use a soft free-cutting
been torn out from the surface by the stone. Then start with the final grind-
polishing process. The causal factors ing step and then polish.
which are of im-portance in this connec- • When using grain sizes 10 µm and
tion are: smaller, the softest polishing tools
• Polishing time and pressure. should be avoided.
• Purity of the steel, especially with • Polish for the shortest possible time
regard to hard slag inclusions. and under lowest possible pressure.
• The polishing tool.
• The abrasive.
One of the reasons why pitting can
occur is the difference in hardness
between the matrix and the slag inclu-
sion. During polishing, the matrix will be
removed at a more rapid rate than the
hard slag particles. Polishing will gradu-
ally “undermine” the slag particle until
the particle is torn out of the material
by further polishing. This leaves a pit.
The problem is most often encountered
in the case of paste grain size less than
10 µm and soft polishing tools (e.g.
felt).
One way to minimise the risk of
pitting is to select high-purity mould
steels that have been subjected to
vacuum-degassing, electro-slag refining
(ESR) or vacuum arc remelting (VAR)
during manufacture.

9
HEAT TREATMENT

Germany Lithuania Branch office

Europe Head office UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB UDDEHOLM
BE PLIENAS IR METALAI Barrio San Martín de Arteaga,132
UDDEHOLM
Austria Hansaallee 321 T. Masiulio 18B Pol.Ind. Torrelarragoiti
Representative office LT-52459 Kaunas ES-48170 Zamudio (Bizkaia)
DE-40549 Düsseldorf
Telephone: +370 37 370613, -669 Telephone: +34 94 452 13 03
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +49 211 5351-0
Albstraße 10 www.uddeholm.de www.besteel.lt
DE-73765 Neuhausen Sweden
Telephone: +49 7158 9865-0 Branch offices
www.uddeholm.de UDDEHOLM The Netherlands Head office
Falkenstraße 21 UDDEHOLM UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
DE-65812 Bad Soden/TS Isolatorweg 30 Aminogatan 25
Belgium Telephone: +49 6196 6596-0 NL-1014 AS Amsterdam SE-431 53 Mölndal
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +31 20 581 71 11 Telephone: +46 31 67 98 50
Europark Oost 7 UDDEHOLM www.uddeholm.nl www.uddeholm.se
B-9100 Sint-Niklaas Albstraße 10
DE-73765 Neuhausen Branch offices
Telephone: +32 3 780 56 20
www.uddeholm.be Telephone: +49 7158 9865-0 Norway UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
UDDEHOLM A/S Box 45
UDDEHOLM Jernkroken 18 SE-334 21 Anderstorp
Croatia Friederikenstraße 14b Postboks 85, Kalbakken Telephone: +46 371 160 15
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM Zagreb DE-06493 Harzgerode NO-0902 Oslo
d.o.o za trgovinu Telephone: +49 39484 727 267 Telephone: +47 22 91 80 00 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
Zitnjak b.b www.uddeholm.no Box 148
10000 Zagreb SE-631 03 Eskilstuna
Telephone: +385 1 2459 301 Great Britain Telephone: +46 16 15 79 00
Telefax: +385 1 2406 790 UDDEHOLM DIVISION Poland
www.bohler-uddeholm.hr BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED BOHLER UDDEHOLM POLSKA UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
European Business Park Sp. z.o.o./Co. Ltd. Aminogatan 25
Taylors Lane, Oldbury ul. Kolejowa 291, Dziekanów Polski, SE-431 53 Mölndal
Czech Republic GB-West Midlands B69 2BN PL-05-092 Lomianki Telephone: +46 31 67 98 70
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM CZ s.r.o. Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Telephone: +48 22 429 2260, -203, -204
Division Uddeholm Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 www.uddeholm.pl UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
U Silnice 949 www.uddeholm.co.uk Nya Tanneforsvägen 96
161 00 Praha 6, Ruzyne SE-582 42 Linköping
Telephone: +420 233 029 850,8
Portugal Telephone: +46 13 15 19 90
www.uddeholm.cz Greece F RAMADA Aços e Industrias S.A.
STASSINOPOULOS-UDDEHOLM P.O. Box 10 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
STEEL TRADING S.A. PT-3881 Ovar Codex Derbyvägen 22
Denmark 20, Athinon Street Telephone: +351 256 580580 SE-212 35 Malmö
UDDEHOLM A/S GR-Piraeus 18540 www.ramada.pt Telephone: +46 40 22 32 05
Kokmose 8, Bramdrupdam Telephone: +30 210 4172 109
DK-6000 Kolding www.uddeholm.gr UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
Telephone: +45 75 51 70 66
Romania Honnörsgatan 24
www.uddeholm.dk SKLERO S.A. BÖHLER-UDDEHOLM Romania SRL SE-352 36 Växjö
Heat Treatment and Trading of Steel Atomistilor Str. No 96-102 Telephone: +46 470 457 90
Uddeholm Tool Steels 077125 - com. Magurele, Jud. Ilfov.
Estonia Industrial Area of Thessaloniki Telephone: +40 214 575007
UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB P.O. Box 1123 Telefax: +40 214 574212 Switzerland
Silikatsiidi 7 GR-57022 Sindos, Thessaloniki HERTSCH & CIE AG
EE-11216 Tallinn Telephone: +30 2310 79 76 46 General Wille Strasse 19
Telephone: +372 655 9180 www.sklero.gr Russia CH-8027 Zürich
www.uddeholm.ee UDDEHOLM TOOLING CIS Telephone: +41 44 208 16 66
9A, Lipovaya Alleya, Office 509 www.hertsch.ch
Hungary RU-197183 Saint Petersburg
Finland UDDEHOLM TOOLING/BOK Telephone: +7 812 6006194
OY UDDEHOLM AB Dunaharaszti, Jedlik Ányos út 25 www.uddeholm.ru Turkey
Ritakuja 1, PL 57 HU-2331 Dunaharaszti 1. Pf. 110 Head office
FI-01741 VANTAA Telephone/fax:+36 24 492 690 ASSAB Korkmaz Celik A.S.
Telephone: +358 9 290 490 www.uddeholm.hu Slovakia Organize Sanayi Bölgesi
www.uddeholm.fi Bohler-Uddeholm Slovakia s.r.o. 2. Cadde No: 26 Y. Dudullu
divizia UDDEHOLM 34776 Umraniye
Ireland ˇ
Csl.Armády 5622/5 TR-Istanbul
France Head office: SK-036 01 Martin Telephone: +90 216 420 1926
Head office UDDEHOLM DIVISION Telephone: +421 (0)434 212 030 www.assabkorkmaz.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED www.uddeholm.sk
UDDEHOLM
Z.I. de Mitry-Compans, 12 rue Mercier, European Business Park
FR-77297 Mitry Mory Cedex Taylors Lane, Oldbury Slovenia
Telephone: +33 (0)1 60 93 80 10 UK-West Midlands B69 2BN
www.uddeholm.fr Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Representative office
Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 UDDEHOLM
Branch offices www.uddeholm.co.uk Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM S.A. Dublin: Italia S.p.A.
77bis, rue de Vesoul Telephone: +353 1845 1401 Via Palizzi, 90
La Nef aux Métiers IT-20157 Milano
FR-25000 Besançon Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211
Telephone: +33 (0)381 53 12 19 Italy www.uddeholm.it
UDDEHOLM
LE POINT ACIERS Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils Spain
Italia S.p.A.
Z.I. du Recou, Avenue de Champlevert Via Palizzi, 90 Head office
FR-69520 GRIGNY IT-20157 Milano UDDEHOLM
Telephone: +33 (0)4 72 49 95 61 Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211 Guifré 690-692
www.uddeholm.it ES-08918 Badalona, Barcelona
LE POINT ACIERS Telephone: +34 93 460 1227
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils www.acerosuddeholm.com
Z.I. Nord 27, rue François Rochaix Latvia
FR-01100 OYONNAX UDDEHOLM TOOLING LATVIA SIA
Telephone: +33 (0)4 74 73 48 66 Piedrujas Street 7
LV-1035 Riga
Telephone: +371 7 702133
latvia@assab.com

12
 HEAT TREATMENT

El Salvador Venezuela
America ACAVISA DE C.V. PRODUCTOS HUMAR C.A.
ASSAB Tooling Technology
(Chongqing) Co Ltd
25 Ave. Sur, no 763 Av. Bolivar, Zona Industrial Plant C, Automotive Industrial lPark
Argentina Zona 1 La Trinidad Chongqing Economic & Technological
ACEROS BOEHLER UDDEHOLM S.A SV-San Salvador Edificio. Distribuidora Agrofor, C.A. Development Zone
Mozart 40 Telephone: +503 22 71 1700 Piso 3, VE-Caracas 1080 Chongqing 401120, China
1619-Centro Industrial Garin www.acavisa.com Telephone: +58 212 942 1994 or Telephone: +86 23 6745 5698
Garin-Prov. +58 212 915 7073
AR-Buenos Aires humar@assab.com
Telephone: +54 332 7444 440 Guatemala South China
www.uddeholm.com.ar IMPORTADORA ESCANDINAVA Head office
Apartado postal 11C Other Countries in America ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
GT-Guatemala City ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Room 1701–1706
Brazil Telephone: +502 23 659270 Box 42 Tower 2 Grand Central Plaza
AÇOS BOHLER-UDDEHOLM DO guatemala@assab.com SE-171 11 Solna, Sweden 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road
BRASIL LTDA– DIV. UDDEHOLM Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70 Shatin NT - Hong Kong
Estrada Yae Massumoto, 353 www.assab.se Telephone: +852 2487 1991
CEP 09842-160 Honduras www.assabsteels.com
BR-Sao Bernardo do Campo - SP Brazil ACAVISA DE C.V.
Telephone: +55 11 4393 4560, 4554 25 Ave. Sur, no 763 Branch offices
www.uddeholm.com.br Zona 1 ASSAB Tooling (Dongguan) Co Ltd
SV-San Salvador Asia & Pacific Northern District
Song Shan Lake Science & Technology
Telephone: +503 22 71 1700
Canada www.acavisa.com Australia Industrial Park
Head Office & Warehouse Dongguan 523808, China
BOHLER UDDEHOLM Australia Telephone: +86 769 2289 7888
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED 129-135 McCredie Road
2595 Meadowvale Blvd.
Mexico www.assabsteels.com
Guildford NSW 2161
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y3 Head office Private Bag 14
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 ACEROS BOHLER UDDEHOLM S.A. ASSAB Tooling (Xiamen) Co Ltd
AU-Sydney First Floor Universal Workshop
www.bucanada.com de C.V. Telephone: +61 2 9681 3100
Calle Ocho No 2, Letra ”C” No. 30 Huli Zone
www.buau.com.au Xiamen 361006, China
Branch Warehouses Fraccionamiento Industrial Alce Blanco
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED C.P. 52787 Naucalpan de Juarez Telephone: +86 592 562 4678
3521 Rue Ashby MX-Estado de Mexico Bangladesh
St. Laurent, QC H4R 2K3 Telephone: +52 55 9172 0242
Telephone: +1 514 333 8000
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Hong Kong
www.bu-mexico.com P.O. Box 17595 ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
Jebel Ali Room 1701-1706
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED Branch office
AE-Dubai Grand Central Plaza, Tower 2
730 Eaton Way - Unit #10 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM MONTERREY, Telephone: +971 488 12165
New Westminister, BC V3M 6J9 NUEVO LEON 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road
www.assab.se Shatin NT, Hong Kong
Telephone: +1 604 525 3354 Lerdo de Tejada No.542
Colonia Las Villas Telephone: +852 2487 1991
Heat Treating MX-66420 San Nicolas de Los Garza, North China www.assabsteels.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM N.L. Head office
THERMO-TECH Telephone: +52 81 83 525239
2645 Meadowvale Blvd. ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Co Ltd India
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y4 No.10A Rong Jing Dong Jie ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 Peru Beijing Economic Development Area T 303 D.A.V. Complex
Beijing 100176, China Mayur Vihar Ph I Extension
C.I.P.E.S.A
Telephone: +86 10 6786 5588 IN-Delhi-110 091
Av. Oscar R. Benavides
Colombia (ante Colonial) No. 2066
www.assabsteels.com Telephone: +91 11 2271 2736
AXXECOL S.A. PE-Lima 1 www.assabsripad.com
Branch offices
Carrera 35 No 13-20 Telephone: +51 1 336 8673
ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Ltd ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Apartado Aereo 80718 peru@assab.com
Dalian Branch 709, Swastik Chambers
CO-Bogota 6
8 Huanghai Street, Haerbin Road Sion-Trombay Road
Telephone: +57 1 2010700
U.S.A. Economic & Technical Develop. District Chembur
www.axxecol.com
Dalian 116600, China IN-Mumbai-400 071
Head office and Warehouse Telephone: +86 411 8761 8080
ASTECO S.A. Telephone: +91 22 2522-7110, -8133
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM
Carrera 54 No 35-12 www.assabsripad.com
CORPORATION ASSAB Qingdao Office
Apartado Aereo 663 2505 Millennium Drive Room 2521, Kexin Mansion ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
CO-Medellin Elgin IL 60124 No. 228 Liaoning Road, Shibei District Padmalaya Towers
Telephone: +57 4 2320122 Telephone: 1-630-883-3000 or Qingdao 266012, China Janaki Avenue
www.asteco.com 1-800-652-2520 Telephone: +86 532 8382 0930 M.R.C. Nagar
Sales phone: 1-800-638-2520
IN-Chennai-600 028
www.bucorp.com
Dominican Republic ASSAB Tianjin Office Telephone: +91 44 2495 2371
No.12 Puwangli Wanda Xincheng www.assabsripad.com
RAMCA, C. POR A. Region East Warehouse
Xinyibai Road, Beichen District
P-2289 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM Tianjin 300402, China ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
P.O. Box 025650 CORPORATION Telephone: +86 22 2672 0006 19X, D. P. P. Road
Miami, Fl. 33102 220 Cherry Street
Telephone: +1 809 682 4011 Naktola Post Office
Shrewsbury MA 01545
domrep@assab.com IN-Kolkata-700 047
Region Central Warehouse
Central China Telephone: +91 (33) 400 1645
Head office www.assabsripad.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM
Ecuador CORPORATION ASSAB Tooling Technology
IVAN BOHMAN C.A. 548 Clayton Ct. (Shanghai) Co Ltd ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Apartado 1317 Wood Dale IL 60191 No. 4088 Humin Road Ground floor, Plot No 11-6-8
Km 6 1/2 Via a Daule Xinzhuang Industrial Zone Opp IDPL Factory Out Gate
Guayaquil Region West Warehouse Shanghai 201108, China Balanagar
Telephone: +593 42 254111 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM Telephone: +86 21 5442 2345 IN-Hyderabad-500 037
www.ivanbohman.com.ec CORPORATION www.assabsteels.com Telephone: +91 (40) 2377 8148
9331 Santa Fe Springs Road www.assabsripad.com
Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670 Branch offices
IVAN BOHMAN C.A.
Casilla Postal 17-01370 ASSAB Tooling Technology
Quito (Ningbo) Co Ltd Indonesia
Telephone: +593 2 2248001 No. 218 Longjiaoshan Road Head office
www.ivanbohman.com.ec Vehicle Part Industrial Park PT ASSAB Steels Indonesia
Ningbo Economic & Technical Dev. Jl. Rawagelam III No. 5
Zone Kawasan Industri Pulogadung
Ningbo 315806, China Jakarta 13930, Indonesia
Telephone: +86 574 8680 7188 Telephone: +62 21 461 1314
www.assabsteels.com

13
HEAT TREATMENT

Branch offices New Zealand Syria

SURABAYA BRANCH VIKING STEELS WARDE STEEL & METALS SARL MET
Africa
Jl. Berbek Industri 1/23 25 Beach Road, Otahuhu Charles Helou Av, Warde Bldg
Surabaya Industrial Estate, Rungkut P.O. Box 13-359, Onehunga P.O. Box 165886 Egypt
Surabaya 60293, East Java, Indonesia NZ-Auckland LB-Beirut MISR SWEDEN FOR
Telephone: +62 31 843 2277 Telephone: +64 9 270 1199 Telephone: +961 1 447228 ENGINEERING IND.
www.ssm.co.nz lebanon@assab.com Montaser Project No 20
MEDAN BRANCH Flat No 14
Komplek Griya Riatur Indah Taiwan Al Ahram Street-El Tabia
Blok A No.138 Pakistan Head office EG-Giza Cairo
Jl. T. Amir Hamzah ASSAB International AB Telephone: +20 2 7797751
ASSAB Steels (Taiwan) Co Ltd
Halvetia Timur, Medan 20124 P.O. Box 17595 www.assab.se
No. 112 Wu Kung 1st Rd.
Telephone: +62 61 847 7935/6 Jebel Ali Wu Ku Industry Zone
AE-Dubai TW-Taipei 248-87, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
BANDUNG BRANCH Telephone: +971 488 12165 Telephone: +886 2 2299 2849
Kenya
Komp. Ruko Bumi Kencana www.assab.se SANDVIK Kenya Ltd
www.assabsteels.com
Jl. Titian Kencana Blok E P.O. Box 18264
No.5 Bandung 40233 Branch offices Post code 00500
Telephone: +62 22 604 1364 Philippines NANTOU BRANCH KE-Nairobi
ASSOCIATED SWEDISH STEELS No. 10, Industry South 5th Road Telephone: +254 20 532 866
TANGERANG BRANCH PHILS Inc. Nan Kang Industry Zone info@sandvik.co.ke
Pusat Niaga Cibodas No. 3 E. Rodriguez Jr., Avenue Nantou 540-66, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
Blok C No. 7 Tangerang Bagong Ilog, Pasig City Telephone: +886 49 225 1702
Telephone: +62 21 921 9596, 551 2732 Philippines TAINAN BRANCH
Morocco
Telephone: +632 671 1953/2048 No. 180, Yen He Street, MCM Distribution
SEMARANG BRANCH www.assabsteels.com Yong Kang City 4 Bis, Rue 8610 - Z.I.
Jl. Imam Bonjol No.155 Tainan 710-82, Taiwan (R.O.C.) 2035 Charguia 1
R.208 Semarang 50124 Telephone: +886 6 242 6838 TN-Tunis
Telephone: +62 358 8167 Republic of Korea Telephone: + 216 71 802 479
Head office
Iran ASSAB Steels (Korea) Co Ltd Thailand
116B-8L, 687-8, Kojan-dong ASSAB Steels (Thailand) Ltd
South Africa
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB 9/8 Soi Theedinthai, UDDEHOLM Africa (Pty.) Ltd.
Namdong-ku
P.O. Box 19395 Taeparak Road, Bangplee, P.O. Box 539
Incheon 405-310, Korea
IR-1517 TEHRAN Samutprakarn 10540, Thailand ZA-1600 Isando/Johannesburg
Telephone: +82 32 821 4300
Telephone: +98 21 888 35392 Telephone: +66 2 385 5937, Telephone: +27 11 974 2791
www.assabsteels.com
www.assabiran.com +66 2 757 5017 www.bohler-uddeholm.co.za
Branch offices www.assabsteels.com
Israel BUSAN BRANCH
14B-5L, 1483-9, Songjeong-dong
Tunisia
PACKER YADPAZ QUALITY Kangseo-ku, Busan 618-270, Korea United Arab Emirates MCM Distribution
STEELS Ltd Telephone: +82 51 831 3315 ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB 4 Bis, Rue 8610 - Z.I.
P.O. Box 686 P.O. Box 17595 2035 Charguia 1
Ha-Yarkon St. 7, Industrial Zone DAEGU BRANCH Jebel Ali TN-Tunis
IL-81106 YAVNE Room 27, 7-Dong2 F AE-Dubai Telephone: + 216 71 802 479
Telephone: +972 8 932 8182 Industry Materials Bldg.1629 Telephone: +971 488 12165 www.mcm.com.tn
www.packer.co.il Sangyeog-Dong, Buk-Ku www.assab.se
Korea-Daegu 702-710
Telephone: +82 53 604 5133
Zimbabwe
Japan Vietnam Representative office:
UDDEHOLM KK CAM Trading Steel Co Ltd UDDEHOLM Africa (Pty.) Ltd.
Atago East Building Lebanon 90/8 Block 5, Tan Thoi Nhat Ward P.O. Box 539
3-16-11 Nishi Shinbashi WARDE STEEL & METALS SARL MET District 12, Ho Chi Minh City ZA-1600 Isando/Johannesburg
Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0003, Japan Charles Helou Av, Warde Bldg Vietnam Telephone: +27 11 974 2781
Telephone: + 81 3 5473 4641 P.O. Box 165886 Telephone: +84 8 5920 920 www.bohler-uddeholm.co.za
www.assabsteels.com LB-Beirut www.assabsteels.com
Telephone: +961 1 447228
lebanon@assab.com Other African Countries
Jordan Other Asia ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB
ENGINEERING WAY Est. ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Box 42
P.O. Box 874 Saudi Arabia Box 42 SE-171 11 Solna, Sweden
Abu Alanda ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB E-171 11 Solna, Sweden Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70
JO-AMMAN 11592 P.O. Box 255092 Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70 www.assab.se
Telephone: +962 6 4161962 SA-Riyadh 11353 www.assab.se
engineeringway@assab.com Telephone: +966 1 4466542
assab@emirates.net.ae
Malaysia
Head office Singapore
ASSAB Steels (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd Head office Pacific
Lot 19, Jalan Perusahaan 2 ASSAB Pacific Pte Ltd
Batu Caves Industrial Estate 171, Chin Swee Road
68100 Batu Caves No. 07-02, SAN Centre
Selangor Malaysia SG-Singapore 169877
Telephone: +60 3 6189 0022 Telephone: +65 6534 5600
www.assabsteels.com www.assabsteels.com
Branch offices Jurong
BUTTERWORTH BRANCH ASSAB Steels Singapore (Pte) Ltd
Plot 146a 18, Penjuru Close
Jalan Perindustrial Bukit Minyak 7 SG-608616 Singapore
Kawasan Perindustrial Bukit Minyak Telephone: +65 6862 2200
14000 Bukit Mertajam, SPT Penang
Telephone: +60 4 507 2020
Sri Lanka
JOHOR BRANCH GERMANIA COLOMBO PRIVATE Ltd.
No. 8, Jalan Persiaran Teknologi 451/A Kandy Road
Taman Teknologi LK-Kelaniya
81400 Senai Telephone: +94 11 2913556
Johor DT, Malaysia www.iwsholdings.com
Telephone: +60 7 598 0011

14
 Network of excellence
Uddeholm is present on every continent. This ensures you
high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you
are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales
channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier
of tooling materials.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com
 HAGFORS KLARTEXT U0712XX
Uddeholm is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This
is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday
business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-
ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.
It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one
partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality
wherever you are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive
sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of
tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm
or Assab representative close at hand to give local advice and support.
For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in
developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com or www.assab.com

PHOTO-ETCHING OF TOOL STEEL
 Contents
The photo-etching process ........................ 3
Advantages of textured surfaces .............. 3
Test programme ........................................ 4
Summary .................................................. 7

This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide general
notes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty of
specific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.
Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/EC
For further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 4, 12.2007
The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version,
which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com SS-EN ISO 9001
SS-EN ISO 14001

Introduction
A wide variety of moulded parts are
produced with a patterned or textured
surface. Normally, the pattern is repro-
duced on the moulding surfaces of the
tool by the photo-etching process.
The photo-etching
process
Published information about the
techniques employed by the specialist
photo-etching companies is very limited.
Essentially, however, the required
pattern is transferred to the moulding
surface by a photographic process. The
pattern is then etched to the required
depth by the application of an appro-
priate acid, under closely controlled
condition.
Photo-etching can be performed
both on complete tools or on specified
areas of the tool only.
Photo-etching enables a wide variety
of different patterns to be produced in
virtually any tool. The patterns may
Textured mould and moulded part for automobile steering wheel.
PHOTO-ETCHING OF TOOL STEEL
resemble leather or wood graining, for
example, or be a straight forward line
A further advantage is that finger prints
and similar marks do not show up as
pattern with varying directions and much as on a bright surface.
depths. Typical applications are for car This brochure deals with photo-
interior fittings, etc., and plastic casings etching as a finishing process, with the
for different kinds of machines and possibilities offered by it and with the
instruments. In recent years, photo- factors which must be taken into
etching has become an increasingly account to ensure a satisfactory result.
popular and practical method for These factors were determined by a test
imparting attractive and appealing programme carried out with the
surfaces to different products. cooperation of a leading photo-etching
company.
Advantages of
textured surfaces
A textured surface hides minor surface
flaws which may occur in manufacture
or during further treatment and fitting.
Because of this, the rejection rate for
the finished products is lower. Moreover,
photo-etching replaces the lengthy and
expensive finish polishing process.
The product is given an aesthetically
attractive surface finish. The surface is
easier to grip than a bright surface,
which facilitates holding and handling.
Irritating reflections are largely avoided.
3
PHOTO-ETCHING OF TOOL STEEL

Test programme PHOTO-ETCHING OF

DIFFERENT STEEL GRADES
To ensure that the toolmaker and the
Results
tool-user gets the optimum results from
Uddeholm tool steels that are photo- The etching results were assessed
etched, Uddeholm Tooling has carried taking into account the etching depth,
out a series of tests. The test pro- pattern similarity, side-etching effect
gramme examined a number of influ- and surface appearance. The surfaces
encing factors, including: have not only been visually appraised
• Photo-etching of different tool steel but also examined at a high magnifica-
grades, annealed and hardened tion in order to detect and study any
microscopic differences.
• Flame-hardening, welding and EDM
• Grain flow direction of the tool steel
• Variations in steel analysis and
cleanliness
• Material size
Several different tool steels were
studied, by etching plates measuring
50 x 60 mm (2" x 2 1/4"). All surfaces
were ground with a 280-grain grinding
wheel. In one set of tests, all the speci-
mens were etched under identical
conditions in order to grade the ‘‘etch-
ability’’ in terms of the amount of stock Photograph of a patterned surface.
removed from the different material.
After this, etching conditions were
varied with the aim of producing opti-
mum etching results. Annealed material Uddeholm Elmax. However, owing to its
The steels listed below have been Depending on the type of etching alloy content also Uddeholm Orvar
examined in the first instance as method used, a special etching media Supreme and Uddeholm Calmax gives
longitudinal specimens (in the rolling may be needed when etching steels weaker etching than other grades when
direction of the material) in the soft- with good corrosion resistance. This is the standard media is used and in view
annealed state and also according to valid for Uddeholm Stavax ESR, Udde- of this the special media is recom-
the parameters shown in the chart. holm Mirrax ESR, Uddeholm Corrax and mended.

Uddeholm
steel grade AISI Other parameters studied

RIGOR A2 Hardness: 60 HRC

High retained austenite content.
CALMAX Hardness: 57 HRC
ORVAR SUPREME H13 Hardness: 52 HRC
Rough- and fine-spark-machined.
IMPAX SUPREME P20 Analysis variation.
Flame-hardened to 54 HRC.
Surface and centre of large dimension.
Welded with IMPAX electrode. Soft-annealed Hardened to 55 HRC
STAVAX ESR 420 Hardness: 300 HB Uddeholm Stavax ESR textured with special media.
55 HRC
Welded with STAVAX electrode.
ELMAX Hardness: 58 HRC

4

The other steels examined show good
results upon visual examination after
having been etched by the standard
process. When the surfaces are exam-
ined under the microscope (9 x magnifi-
cation), some minor differences can be
observed.
The observed differences normally
have no practical significance. They
nevertheless show that if a tool with
inserts which are to be etched with the
same pattern is being made it is advis-
able for material from the same bar or
block to be used in all parts in order to
get a pattern of identical and uniform
appearance on the moulding. (See
‘‘Grain flow direction of the tool steel’’,
page 6.)
Hardened material
All grades were examined in the fully
hardened condition. Here, too, the four
grades Uddeholm Orvar Supreme, Udde-
holm Calmax, Uddeholm Stavax ESR
and Uddeholm Elmax differ from the
others in respect of etchability.
When the surfaces are studied under
the microscope, some tendency to
streakiness is discernible in some of the
hardened specimens. The streaks are
parallel to the direction of rolling, and
the phenomenon is an expression of the
normal rolling direction which appears
in alloyed tool steels. The streakiness,
however, is of such modest proportion
that it lacks significance when using
tool steels with normal degrees of seg-
regation, but at the same time it dem-
onstrates the importance of selecting a
steel that is as homogeneous and uni-
formly worked as possible.
The presence of a high content of
retained austenite in a hardened tool is
normally a disadvantage. Etchability,
however, is not affected even by a rela-
tively high content of retained austenite
according to a test performed on Udde-
holm Rigor.
Nitrided material
When a tool or insert is to be nitrided,
this must be done after photo-etching.
Flame-hardened material
The influence of flame-hardening on
the etching of Uddeholm Impax Su-
preme was also studied and here there
is a decided difference between the
locally hardened zone and the hard-
ened and tempered basic material. In
the flame-hardened zone, a faint
streakiness similar to that in hardened
specimens is discernible. In addition,
there is a difference in etching depth
between flame-hardened and hardened
and tempered material.
Basic material. Flame-hardened zone.
Flame-hardening, therefore, should
be carried out after photo-etching,
wherever possible.
Welding
In certain circumstances it may be
necessary to weld a tool, for instance
for repair purposes. Welding always
severely affects the uniform structure of
the parent material.
The weld metal and the base steel
must be similar in composition if a
welded surface of a plastic mould is to
be textured via photo-etching. If not,
Photo-etching on a rough-sparked surface.
PHOTO-ETCHING OF TOOL STEEL
the response to etching will vary
between the weld and the base metal
and this will result in a witness mark on
the plastic component. Welds in Udde-
holm Impax Supreme, Uddeholm Stavax
ESR, Uddeholm Mirrax ESR and Udde-
holm Calmax with Impax Weld, Stavax
Weld or Calmax Weld (or TIG-Weld) or
Corrax TIG-Weld will normally not be
discernible after photo-etching.
More information on welding is given
in the brochure ‘‘Welding of Tool Steel’’.
Areas which have been welded should
always be clearly indicated to the photo-
etching company.
Electrical discharge machining
(EDM)
If EDM is not carried out in the right
way, some defects may remain in the
surface of the material. The influence of
spark-erosion on photo-etchability has
therefore been studied. Specimens with
both a rough-sparked and a fine-sparked
surface were tempered at 250°C (480°F).
Photo-etching on a rough-sparked
surface gives a very poor result. Even
after a careful fine-sparking operation,
it may be difficult to get an acceptable
result.
5
PHOTO-ETCHING OF TOOL STEEL

Tempering does not give an appreciable a very low sulphur content (max.
improvement. If doubts are entertained 0,010%).
as to how the spark-machining has There are, however, similar types of
been carried out the material should steels with far higher sulphur contents
always be ground or polished to remove (0,08%), which can give rise to streaki-
any residual traces of the sparking. ness in photo-etching, as evident from
Special test kits are available for check- he following photograph.
ing removal of residual effects after
spark-erosion.
Areas which have been spark-eroded
should be clearly indicated to the
photo-etching company.

Grain flow direction The photograph shows

of the tool steel
Calmax has been examined on both the
lengthwise and crosswise direction in
the soft-annealed state. No appreciable
difference between the specimens was
observed. For fine patterns, however,
experience shows that some difference
can occur. Where it is important that
photo-etched patterns on different
mould parts match exactly, e.g. when
using inserts, the following procedure is
strongly recommended:
1. Make all parts to be textured from
the same bar or block of steel
2. Make sure that all surfaces to be
textured have the longitudinal grain
flow in the same direction
streakiness in photo-etching
of a pre-hardened mould steel
with high sulphur content.
MATERIAL SIZE
When manufacturing materials in heavy
sections differences in the microstruc-
ture of the material can be observed
between the surface and the centre.
In order to study the influence of these
differences on the photo-etchability of
Impax Supreme in the size 500 mm
(20") dia., specimens from the surface
and centre were photo-etched.

VARIATIONS IN STEEL
ANALYSIS AND CLEANLINESS
There are always minor differences in
No difference
the analysis of every steel to occur from
between the two
one heat to another. In this context,
specimens was
two extremes in the analysis of Udde-
observable.
holm Impax Supreme were examined,
but no differences in the results of the Surface. Centre.
etching were observable. Normal varia- Uddeholm Impax Supreme Ø 500 mm (20").
tions in analysis of Uddeholm Tooling
tool steels thus have no influence on
photo-etchability.
The cleanliness of the steel, and
especially its sulphur content, can affect
the appearance of photo-etched pat-
terns. Uddeholm Impax Supreme pre-
hardened mould steel is particularly
suitable for photo-etching for two rea-
sons: it has a very clean microstructure, A wood-grain texture
being subjected to a vacuum degassing on a moulded handle for
process during manufacture; it also has a saucepan.

6
 PHOTO-ETCHING OF TOOL STEEL

Summary • If several parts are included in a tool

and are to be photo-etched with
Several different grades of Uddeholm exactly the same pattern, the same
Tooling tool steels have been tested for grade of material and the same grain
photo-etchability. The results of the flow direction should be chosen for
etching tests and other experience all the parts.
gained can be summarized as follows:
• Normal variations in analysis for the
• All of the grades examined can be same grade of steel have no adverse
photo-etched with satisfactory influence. Steels with a clean micro-
results. There are certain microscopic structure and low sulphur content
differences, but these normally have give the most accurate and consist-
no practical significance whatsoever. ent pattern reproduction.
• Uddeholm Orvar Supreme, Uddeholm • Different sizes of starting material of
Calmax, Uddeholm Stavax ESR, one and the same grade do not
Uddeholm Mirrax ESR and Uddeholm usually show any differences.
Elmax should be etched by a special
• Initial machining operations should
process.
be followed by stress-relieving prior
• If nitriding is to be carried out it must to finish-machining.
be done after photo-etching.
• Coarser abrasives than 220 grain
• Flame-hardening prior to photo- must not be used on surfaces which
etching should be avoided, since the are to be photo-etched.
pattern will be etched differently in
the flame-hardened zone and in
hardened and tempered base mate-
rial.
• A welded tool can in certain circum-
stances be photo-etched, but this is
conditional upon using the same
material in the weld as in the parent
material.
• Spark-machined surfaces should be
ground or polished in order to be on
the safe side. A poor etching result
will be obtained on surfaces marred
by residual traces of spark-machin-
ing.
• Areas of tools which have been
flame-hardened, welded or spark-
eroded should always be clearly Photo-textured body for Polaroid instant camera.
indicated to the photo-etching com- Mould material: Uddeholm Stavax ESR.
pany.

Part of an automobile steering

wheel produced from a photo-etched
Uddeholm Impax Supreme mould.

7
HEAT TREATMENT

Germany Lithuania Branch office

Europe Head office UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB UDDEHOLM
BE PLIENAS IR METALAI Barrio San Martín de Arteaga,132
UDDEHOLM
Austria Hansaallee 321 T. Masiulio 18B Pol.Ind. Torrelarragoiti
Representative office LT-52459 Kaunas ES-48170 Zamudio (Bizkaia)
DE-40549 Düsseldorf
Telephone: +370 37 370613, -669 Telephone: +34 94 452 13 03
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +49 211 5351-0
Albstraße 10 www.uddeholm.de www.besteel.lt
DE-73765 Neuhausen Sweden
Telephone: +49 7158 9865-0 Branch offices
www.uddeholm.de UDDEHOLM The Netherlands Head office
Falkenstraße 21 UDDEHOLM UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
DE-65812 Bad Soden/TS Isolatorweg 30 Aminogatan 25
Belgium Telephone: +49 6196 6596-0 NL-1014 AS Amsterdam SE-431 53 Mölndal
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +31 20 581 71 11 Telephone: +46 31 67 98 50
Europark Oost 7 UDDEHOLM www.uddeholm.nl www.uddeholm.se
B-9100 Sint-Niklaas Albstraße 10
DE-73765 Neuhausen Branch offices
Telephone: +32 3 780 56 20
www.uddeholm.be Telephone: +49 7158 9865-0 Norway UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
UDDEHOLM A/S Box 45
UDDEHOLM Jernkroken 18 SE-334 21 Anderstorp
Croatia Friederikenstraße 14b Postboks 85, Kalbakken Telephone: +46 371 160 15
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM Zagreb DE-06493 Harzgerode NO-0902 Oslo
d.o.o za trgovinu Telephone: +49 39484 727 267 Telephone: +47 22 91 80 00 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
Zitnjak b.b www.uddeholm.no Box 148
10000 Zagreb SE-631 03 Eskilstuna
Telephone: +385 1 2459 301 Great Britain Telephone: +46 16 15 79 00
Telefax: +385 1 2406 790 UDDEHOLM DIVISION Poland
www.bohler-uddeholm.hr BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED BOHLER UDDEHOLM POLSKA UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
European Business Park Sp. z.o.o./Co. Ltd. Aminogatan 25
Taylors Lane, Oldbury ul. Kolejowa 291, Dziekanów Polski, SE-431 53 Mölndal
Czech Republic GB-West Midlands B69 2BN PL-05-092 Lomianki Telephone: +46 31 67 98 70
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM CZ s.r.o. Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Telephone: +48 22 429 2260, -203, -204
Division Uddeholm Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 www.uddeholm.pl UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
U Silnice 949 www.uddeholm.co.uk Nya Tanneforsvägen 96
161 00 Praha 6, Ruzyne SE-582 42 Linköping
Telephone: +420 233 029 850,8
Portugal Telephone: +46 13 15 19 90
www.uddeholm.cz Greece F RAMADA Aços e Industrias S.A.
STASSINOPOULOS-UDDEHOLM P.O. Box 10 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
STEEL TRADING S.A. PT-3881 Ovar Codex Derbyvägen 22
Denmark 20, Athinon Street Telephone: +351 256 580580 SE-212 35 Malmö
UDDEHOLM A/S GR-Piraeus 18540 www.ramada.pt Telephone: +46 40 22 32 05
Kokmose 8, Bramdrupdam Telephone: +30 210 4172 109
DK-6000 Kolding www.uddeholm.gr UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
Telephone: +45 75 51 70 66
Romania Honnörsgatan 24
www.uddeholm.dk SKLERO S.A. BÖHLER-UDDEHOLM Romania SRL SE-352 36 Växjö
Heat Treatment and Trading of Steel Atomistilor Str. No 96-102 Telephone: +46 470 457 90
Uddeholm Tool Steels 077125 - com. Magurele, Jud. Ilfov.
Estonia Industrial Area of Thessaloniki Telephone: +40 214 575007
UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB P.O. Box 1123 Telefax: +40 214 574212 Switzerland
Silikatsiidi 7 GR-57022 Sindos, Thessaloniki HERTSCH & CIE AG
EE-11216 Tallinn Telephone: +30 2310 79 76 46 General Wille Strasse 19
Telephone: +372 655 9180 www.sklero.gr Russia CH-8027 Zürich
www.uddeholm.ee UDDEHOLM TOOLING CIS Telephone: +41 44 208 16 66
9A, Lipovaya Alleya, Office 509 www.hertsch.ch
Hungary RU-197183 Saint Petersburg
Finland UDDEHOLM TOOLING/BOK Telephone: +7 812 6006194
OY UDDEHOLM AB Dunaharaszti, Jedlik Ányos út 25 www.uddeholm.ru Turkey
Ritakuja 1, PL 57 HU-2331 Dunaharaszti 1. Pf. 110 Head office
FI-01741 VANTAA Telephone/fax:+36 24 492 690 ASSAB Korkmaz Celik A.S.
Telephone: +358 9 290 490 www.uddeholm.hu Slovakia Organize Sanayi Bölgesi
www.uddeholm.fi Bohler-Uddeholm Slovakia s.r.o. 2. Cadde No: 26 Y. Dudullu
divizia UDDEHOLM 34776 Umraniye
Ireland ˇ
Csl.Armády 5622/5 TR-Istanbul
France Head office: SK-036 01 Martin Telephone: +90 216 420 1926
Head office UDDEHOLM DIVISION Telephone: +421 (0)434 212 030 www.assabkorkmaz.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED www.uddeholm.sk
UDDEHOLM
Z.I. de Mitry-Compans, 12 rue Mercier, European Business Park
FR-77297 Mitry Mory Cedex Taylors Lane, Oldbury Slovenia
Telephone: +33 (0)1 60 93 80 10 UK-West Midlands B69 2BN
www.uddeholm.fr Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Representative office
Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 UDDEHOLM
Branch offices www.uddeholm.co.uk Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM S.A. Dublin: Italia S.p.A.
77bis, rue de Vesoul Telephone: +353 1845 1401 Via Palizzi, 90
La Nef aux Métiers IT-20157 Milano
FR-25000 Besançon Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211
Telephone: +33 (0)381 53 12 19 Italy www.uddeholm.it
UDDEHOLM
LE POINT ACIERS Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils Spain
Italia S.p.A.
Z.I. du Recou, Avenue de Champlevert Via Palizzi, 90 Head office
FR-69520 GRIGNY IT-20157 Milano UDDEHOLM
Telephone: +33 (0)4 72 49 95 61 Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211 Guifré 690-692
www.uddeholm.it ES-08918 Badalona, Barcelona
LE POINT ACIERS Telephone: +34 93 460 1227
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils www.acerosuddeholm.com
Z.I. Nord 27, rue François Rochaix Latvia
FR-01100 OYONNAX UDDEHOLM TOOLING LATVIA SIA
Telephone: +33 (0)4 74 73 48 66 Piedrujas Street 7
LV-1035 Riga
Telephone: +371 7 702133
latvia@assab.com

12
 HEAT TREATMENT

El Salvador Venezuela
America ACAVISA DE C.V. PRODUCTOS HUMAR C.A.
ASSAB Tooling Technology
(Chongqing) Co Ltd
25 Ave. Sur, no 763 Av. Bolivar, Zona Industrial Plant C, Automotive Industrial lPark
Argentina Zona 1 La Trinidad Chongqing Economic & Technological
ACEROS BOEHLER UDDEHOLM S.A SV-San Salvador Edificio. Distribuidora Agrofor, C.A. Development Zone
Mozart 40 Telephone: +503 22 71 1700 Piso 3, VE-Caracas 1080 Chongqing 401120, China
1619-Centro Industrial Garin www.acavisa.com Telephone: +58 212 942 1994 or Telephone: +86 23 6745 5698
Garin-Prov. +58 212 915 7073
AR-Buenos Aires humar@assab.com
Telephone: +54 332 7444 440 Guatemala South China
www.uddeholm.com.ar IMPORTADORA ESCANDINAVA Head office
Apartado postal 11C Other Countries in America ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
GT-Guatemala City ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Room 1701–1706
Brazil Telephone: +502 23 659270 Box 42 Tower 2 Grand Central Plaza
AÇOS BOHLER-UDDEHOLM DO guatemala@assab.com SE-171 11 Solna, Sweden 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road
BRASIL LTDA– DIV. UDDEHOLM Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70 Shatin NT - Hong Kong
Estrada Yae Massumoto, 353 www.assab.se Telephone: +852 2487 1991
CEP 09842-160 Honduras www.assabsteels.com
BR-Sao Bernardo do Campo - SP Brazil ACAVISA DE C.V.
Telephone: +55 11 4393 4560, 4554 25 Ave. Sur, no 763 Branch offices
www.uddeholm.com.br Zona 1 ASSAB Tooling (Dongguan) Co Ltd
SV-San Salvador Asia & Pacific Northern District
Song Shan Lake Science & Technology
Telephone: +503 22 71 1700
Canada www.acavisa.com Australia Industrial Park
Head Office & Warehouse Dongguan 523808, China
BOHLER UDDEHOLM Australia Telephone: +86 769 2289 7888
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED 129-135 McCredie Road
2595 Meadowvale Blvd.
Mexico www.assabsteels.com
Guildford NSW 2161
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y3 Head office Private Bag 14
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 ACEROS BOHLER UDDEHOLM S.A. ASSAB Tooling (Xiamen) Co Ltd
AU-Sydney First Floor Universal Workshop
www.bucanada.com de C.V. Telephone: +61 2 9681 3100
Calle Ocho No 2, Letra ”C” No. 30 Huli Zone
www.buau.com.au Xiamen 361006, China
Branch Warehouses Fraccionamiento Industrial Alce Blanco
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED C.P. 52787 Naucalpan de Juarez Telephone: +86 592 562 4678
3521 Rue Ashby MX-Estado de Mexico Bangladesh
St. Laurent, QC H4R 2K3 Telephone: +52 55 9172 0242
Telephone: +1 514 333 8000
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Hong Kong
www.bu-mexico.com P.O. Box 17595 ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
Jebel Ali Room 1701-1706
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED Branch office
AE-Dubai Grand Central Plaza, Tower 2
730 Eaton Way - Unit #10 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM MONTERREY, Telephone: +971 488 12165
New Westminister, BC V3M 6J9 NUEVO LEON 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road
www.assab.se Shatin NT, Hong Kong
Telephone: +1 604 525 3354 Lerdo de Tejada No.542
Colonia Las Villas Telephone: +852 2487 1991
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BOHLER-UDDEHOLM N.L. Head office
THERMO-TECH Telephone: +52 81 83 525239
2645 Meadowvale Blvd. ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Co Ltd India
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y4 No.10A Rong Jing Dong Jie ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 Peru Beijing Economic Development Area T 303 D.A.V. Complex
Beijing 100176, China Mayur Vihar Ph I Extension
C.I.P.E.S.A
Telephone: +86 10 6786 5588 IN-Delhi-110 091
Av. Oscar R. Benavides
Colombia (ante Colonial) No. 2066
www.assabsteels.com Telephone: +91 11 2271 2736
AXXECOL S.A. PE-Lima 1 www.assabsripad.com
Branch offices
Carrera 35 No 13-20 Telephone: +51 1 336 8673
ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Ltd ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Apartado Aereo 80718 peru@assab.com
Dalian Branch 709, Swastik Chambers
CO-Bogota 6
8 Huanghai Street, Haerbin Road Sion-Trombay Road
Telephone: +57 1 2010700
U.S.A. Economic & Technical Develop. District Chembur
www.axxecol.com
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Head office and Warehouse Telephone: +86 411 8761 8080
ASTECO S.A. Telephone: +91 22 2522-7110, -8133
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM
Carrera 54 No 35-12 www.assabsripad.com
CORPORATION ASSAB Qingdao Office
Apartado Aereo 663 2505 Millennium Drive Room 2521, Kexin Mansion ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
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Telephone: +57 4 2320122 Telephone: 1-630-883-3000 or Qingdao 266012, China Janaki Avenue
www.asteco.com 1-800-652-2520 Telephone: +86 532 8382 0930 M.R.C. Nagar
Sales phone: 1-800-638-2520
IN-Chennai-600 028
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Dominican Republic ASSAB Tianjin Office Telephone: +91 44 2495 2371
No.12 Puwangli Wanda Xincheng www.assabsripad.com
RAMCA, C. POR A. Region East Warehouse
Xinyibai Road, Beichen District
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P.O. Box 025650 CORPORATION Telephone: +86 22 2672 0006 19X, D. P. P. Road
Miami, Fl. 33102 220 Cherry Street
Telephone: +1 809 682 4011 Naktola Post Office
Shrewsbury MA 01545
domrep@assab.com IN-Kolkata-700 047
Region Central Warehouse
Central China Telephone: +91 (33) 400 1645
Head office www.assabsripad.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM
Ecuador CORPORATION ASSAB Tooling Technology
IVAN BOHMAN C.A. 548 Clayton Ct. (Shanghai) Co Ltd ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Apartado 1317 Wood Dale IL 60191 No. 4088 Humin Road Ground floor, Plot No 11-6-8
Km 6 1/2 Via a Daule Xinzhuang Industrial Zone Opp IDPL Factory Out Gate
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Telephone: +593 42 254111 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM Telephone: +86 21 5442 2345 IN-Hyderabad-500 037
www.ivanbohman.com.ec CORPORATION www.assabsteels.com Telephone: +91 (40) 2377 8148
9331 Santa Fe Springs Road www.assabsripad.com
Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670 Branch offices
IVAN BOHMAN C.A.
Casilla Postal 17-01370 ASSAB Tooling Technology
Quito (Ningbo) Co Ltd Indonesia
Telephone: +593 2 2248001 No. 218 Longjiaoshan Road Head office
www.ivanbohman.com.ec Vehicle Part Industrial Park PT ASSAB Steels Indonesia
Ningbo Economic & Technical Dev. Jl. Rawagelam III No. 5
Zone Kawasan Industri Pulogadung
Ningbo 315806, China Jakarta 13930, Indonesia
Telephone: +86 574 8680 7188 Telephone: +62 21 461 1314
www.assabsteels.com

13
HEAT TREATMENT

Branch offices New Zealand Syria

SURABAYA BRANCH VIKING STEELS WARDE STEEL & METALS SARL MET
Africa
Jl. Berbek Industri 1/23 25 Beach Road, Otahuhu Charles Helou Av, Warde Bldg
Surabaya Industrial Estate, Rungkut P.O. Box 13-359, Onehunga P.O. Box 165886 Egypt
Surabaya 60293, East Java, Indonesia NZ-Auckland LB-Beirut MISR SWEDEN FOR
Telephone: +62 31 843 2277 Telephone: +64 9 270 1199 Telephone: +961 1 447228 ENGINEERING IND.
www.ssm.co.nz lebanon@assab.com Montaser Project No 20
MEDAN BRANCH Flat No 14
Komplek Griya Riatur Indah Taiwan Al Ahram Street-El Tabia
Blok A No.138 Pakistan Head office EG-Giza Cairo
Jl. T. Amir Hamzah ASSAB International AB Telephone: +20 2 7797751
ASSAB Steels (Taiwan) Co Ltd
Halvetia Timur, Medan 20124 P.O. Box 17595 www.assab.se
No. 112 Wu Kung 1st Rd.
Telephone: +62 61 847 7935/6 Jebel Ali Wu Ku Industry Zone
AE-Dubai TW-Taipei 248-87, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
BANDUNG BRANCH Telephone: +971 488 12165 Telephone: +886 2 2299 2849
Kenya
Komp. Ruko Bumi Kencana www.assab.se SANDVIK Kenya Ltd
www.assabsteels.com
Jl. Titian Kencana Blok E P.O. Box 18264
No.5 Bandung 40233 Branch offices Post code 00500
Telephone: +62 22 604 1364 Philippines NANTOU BRANCH KE-Nairobi
ASSOCIATED SWEDISH STEELS No. 10, Industry South 5th Road Telephone: +254 20 532 866
TANGERANG BRANCH PHILS Inc. Nan Kang Industry Zone info@sandvik.co.ke
Pusat Niaga Cibodas No. 3 E. Rodriguez Jr., Avenue Nantou 540-66, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
Blok C No. 7 Tangerang Bagong Ilog, Pasig City Telephone: +886 49 225 1702
Telephone: +62 21 921 9596, 551 2732 Philippines TAINAN BRANCH
Morocco
Telephone: +632 671 1953/2048 No. 180, Yen He Street, MCM Distribution
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Telephone: +62 358 8167 Republic of Korea Telephone: + 216 71 802 479
Head office
Iran ASSAB Steels (Korea) Co Ltd Thailand
116B-8L, 687-8, Kojan-dong ASSAB Steels (Thailand) Ltd
South Africa
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB 9/8 Soi Theedinthai, UDDEHOLM Africa (Pty.) Ltd.
Namdong-ku
P.O. Box 19395 Taeparak Road, Bangplee, P.O. Box 539
Incheon 405-310, Korea
IR-1517 TEHRAN Samutprakarn 10540, Thailand ZA-1600 Isando/Johannesburg
Telephone: +82 32 821 4300
Telephone: +98 21 888 35392 Telephone: +66 2 385 5937, Telephone: +27 11 974 2791
www.assabsteels.com
www.assabiran.com +66 2 757 5017 www.bohler-uddeholm.co.za
Branch offices www.assabsteels.com
Israel BUSAN BRANCH
14B-5L, 1483-9, Songjeong-dong
Tunisia
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STEELS Ltd Telephone: +82 51 831 3315 ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB 4 Bis, Rue 8610 - Z.I.
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Malaysia
Head office Singapore
ASSAB Steels (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd Head office Pacific
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Telephone: +60 7 598 0011

14
 Network of excellence
Uddeholm is present on every continent. This ensures you
high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you
are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales
channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier
of tooling materials.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com
 HAGFORS KLARTEXT U0712XX
Uddeholm is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This
is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday
business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-
ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.
It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one
partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality
wherever you are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive
sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of
tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm
or Assab representative close at hand to give local advice and support.
For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in
developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com or www.assab.com

HEAT TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL
 Contents
What is tool steel? .................................... 3
Hardening and tempering ......................... 3
Dimensional and shape stability ............... 7
Surface treatment ..................................... 8
Testing of mechanical properties .............. 10
Some words of advice to tool designers ... 11

This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide general
notes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty of
specific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.
Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/EC
For further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 6, 12.2007
The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version, SS-EN ISO 9001
SS-EN ISO 14001
which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com

The purpose of this brochure is to pro-
vide some idea of how tool steel is heat
treated and how it behaves.
Special attention is paid to hardness,
toughness and dimensional stability.
What is tool steel?
Uddeholm has concentrated its tool
steel range on high alloyed types of
steel, intended primarily for purposes
such as plastics moulding, blanking and
forming, die casting, extrusion, forging
and wood-working.
Conventional high speed steels and
powder metallurgy (PM) steels are also
included in the range.
Tool steel is normally delivered in the
soft annealed condition. This is to make
the material easy to machine with cutt-
ing tools and to give it a microstructure
suitable for hardening.
The microstructure consists of a soft
matrix in which carbides are embedded.
In carbon steel, these carbides consist of
iron carbide, while in the alloyed steel
they are chromium (Cr), tungsten (W),
molybdenum (Mo) or vanadium (V)
carbides, depending on the composition
of the steel. Carbides are compounds of
carbon and these alloying elements and
are characterized by very high hardness.
A higher carbide content means higher
resistance to wear.
In alloy steels, it is important that the
carbides are evenly distributed.
Other alloying elements are also
used in tool steel, such as cobalt (Co)
and nickel (Ni), but these do not form
carbides. Cobalt is normally used to im-
prove red hardness in high speed steels,
nickel to improve through-hardening
properties.
Hardening
and tempering
When a tool is hardened, many factors
influence the result.
SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS
In soft annealed tool steel, most of the
alloying elements are bound up with
carbon in carbides. In addition to these
there are the alloying elements cobalt
and nickel, which do not form carbides
but are instead dissolved in the matrix.
When the steel is heated for harden-
ing, the basic idea is to dissolve the car-
bides to such a degree that the matrix
acquires an alloying content that gives
the hardening effect—without becom-
ing coarse grained and brittle.
= Iron atoms
= Possible positions for carbon
atoms
2,86 A
Unit cell in a ferrite crystal
Body centred cubic (BCC)
3,57 A
Unit cell in an austenite crystal
Face centred cubic (FCC)
2.98 A
2,85 A
Unit cell in a martensite crystal
HEAT TREATMENT
Note that the carbides are partially dis-
solved. This means that the matrix be-
comes alloyed with carbon and
carbide-forming elements.
When the steel is heated to the hard-
ening temperature (austenitizing tem-
perature), the carbides are partially dis-
solved, and the matrix is also altered. It
is transformed from ferrite to austenite.
This means that the iron atoms change
their position in the atomic lattice and
make room for atoms of carbon and
alloying elements. The carbon and alloy-
ing elements from the carbides are dis-
solved in the matrix.
If the steel is quenched sufficiently
rapid in the hardening process, the car-
bon atoms do not have time to reposi-
tion themselves to allow the reforming
of ferrite from austenite, i.e. as in an-
nealing. Instead, they are fixed in posi-
tions where they really do not have
enough room, and the result is high
microstresses that can be defined as in-
creased hardness. This hard structure is
called martensite. Thus, martensite can
be seen as a forced solution of carbon
in ferrite.
When a steel is hardened, the matrix
is not completely converted into mar-
tensite. Some austenite is always left
and is called “retained austenite”. The
amount increases with increasing alloy-
ing content, higher hardening tempera-
ture and longer soaking times.
After quenching, the steel has a
microstructure consisting of martensite,
retained austenite and carbides. This
structure contains inherent stresses that
can easily cause cracking. But this can
be prevented by reheating the steel to a
certain temperature, reducing the stres-
ses and transforming the retained aus-
tenite to an extent that depends upon
the reheating temperature. This reheat-
ing after hardening is called tempering.
Hardening of a tool steel should always
be followed immediately by tempering.
It should be noted that tempering at
low temperatures only affects the mar-
tensite, while tempering at high tem-
perature also affects the retained auste-
nite.
After one tempering at high tem-
perature, the microstructure consists of
tempered martensite, newlyformed
martensite, some retained austenite and
carbides.
3
HEAT TREATMENT
Precipitated secondary (newly formed)
carbides and newly formed martensite
can increase hardness during high-
temperature tempering. Typical of this is
the so called secondary hardening of
e.g. high speed steel and high alloyed
tool steels.
Hardness
C
B machining, for example of one half of a
D
A This treatment is done after rough
Tempering temperature
A = martensite tempering
B = carbide precipitation
C = transformation of retained austenite to
martensite
D = tempering diagram for high speed steel
and high alloy tool steel
A+B+C = D
The diagram shows the influence of different
parameters on the secondary hardening.
Tool steel should always be double-
tempered. The second tempering takes
care of the newly formed martensite
formed after the first tempering. Three
tempers are recommended for high
speed steel with a high carbon content.
Tempered once.
Tempered twice. 1000x
Uddeholm Rigor, hardened
and tempered.
4
HOW HARDENING AND TEMPERING combined. Heating and cooling rates
IS DONE IN PRACTICE can be compared with salt bath. The
Distortion due to hardening must be Al-oxides and gas used as protective
taken into consideration when a tool is atmosphere are less detrimental to the
rough-machined. Rough machining environment than salt bath.
causes local heating and mechanical It is important that the tools are
working of the steel, which gives rise to protected against oxidation and decar-
inherent stresses. This is not serious on burization. The best protection is pro-
vided by a vacuum furnace, where the
a symmetrical part of simple design, but
can be significant in asymmetrical surface of the steel remains unaffected.
Furnaces with a controlled protective
die casting die. Here, stress relieving is gas atmosphere or salt baths also pro-
always recommended. vide good protection.
If an electric muffle furnace is used,
Stress relieving the tool can be protected by packing it
in spent charcoal or cast iron chips.
machining and entails heating to 550– It should be observed that these
650°C (1020–1200°F). The material packing materials can have a carburiz-
should be heated until it has achieved ing effect if the steels have a low car-
bon content, such as conventional hot
uniform temperature all the way
through and then cooled slowly, for work steels.
example in a furnace.
The idea behind stress relieving is
that the yield strength of the material at
the elevated temperature is so low that
the material cannot resist the inherent
stresses. The yield strength is exceeded
and these stresses are released, result-
ing in a greater or lesser degree of dis-
tortion.
The correct work sequence is: Vacuum furnace
rough machining, stress relieving and
semifinish machining.
The excuse that stress relieving takes
too much time is hardly valid. Rectifying
a part during semifinish machining of
an annealed material is with few excep-
tions cheaper than making dimensional
adjustments during finish machining of
a hardened tool.
Heating to hardening temperature
Salt bath furnace
The fundamental rule for heating to
hardening temperature is that it should
take place slowly. This minimizes distor-
tion.
In vacuum furnaces and furnaces
with controlled protective gas atmos-
phere, the heat is increased gradually.
When molten salt baths are used, pre-
heating is employed, whereas heating is
automatically slow in a muffle furnace
when steel is packed in castiron chips.
In a fluidized bed the advantages of Batch type furnace
with a controlled atmosphere
salt bath and protective atmosphere are

Wrapping in stainless steel foil also
provides good protection when heating
in a muffle furnace.
Decarburization results in low sur-
face hardness and a risk of cracking.
Carburization results in a harder
surface layer, which can have negative
effects.
Holding time at
hardening temperature
It is not possible to state exact recom-
mendations briefly to cover all heating
situations.
Factors such as furnace type, furnace
rating, temperature level, the weight of
the charge in relation to the size of the
furnace etc., must be taken into consid-
eration in each case.
We can, however, give one recom-
mendation that is valid in virtually all
situations:
• when the steel has reached hardening
temperature through its entire thick-
ness, hold at this temperature for
30 minutes. An exception to this rule
is for thin parts heated in salt baths at
high temperature, or high speed steel.
Here the entire period of immersion is
often only a few minutes.
Quenching
The choice between a fast and slow
quenching rate is usually a compromise;
to get the best microstructure and tool
performance, the quenching rate should
be rapid; to minimize distortion, a slow
quenching rate is recommended.
Slow quenching results in less tem-
perature difference between the surface
and core of a part, and sections of dif-
ferent thickness will have a more uni-
form cooling rate.
This is of great importance when
quenching through the martensite
range, below the Ms temperature. Mar-
tensite formation leads to an increase in
volume and stresses in the material. This
is also the reason why quenching
should be interrupted before room tem-
perature has been reached, normally at
50–70°C (120–160°F).
However, if the quenching rate is too
slow, especially with heavier cross-
sections, undersirable transformations
HEAT TREATMENT
in the microstructure can take place, Temperature
risking a poor tool performance. AC3
Water is used as a quenching me- AC1
dium for unalloyed steels. 8–10% so-
dium chloride (salt) or soda should be
added to the water in order to achieve
optimum cooling efficiency. Water hard-
ening can often cause problems in the
form of distortion and quench cracks.
Oil hardening is safer, but hardening in Core
air or martempering is best of all.
Surface
Oil should be used for low alloyed
steels. The oil should be of good quality,
and preferably of the rapid quenching
type. It should be kept clean and must MS
be changed after a certain period of use.
Hardening oils should have a tempera-
ture of 50–70°C (140–160°F) to give
the best cooling efficiency. Lower tem- Martensite
peratures mean higher viscosity, i.e. the
oil is thicker. The quenching process as expressed in a
Hardening in oil is not the safest way TTT graph
to quench steel, in view of the risks of
distortion and hardening cracks. These ture of the salt bath is normally kept at
risks can be reduced by means of mar- about 500°C (930°F). This temperature
tempering. In this process, the material ensures a relatively mild thermal shock,
is quenched in two steps. First it is but a sufficient cooling rate to avoid
cooled from hardening temperature in a phase transformations.
salt bath whose temperature is just Full martensite transformation has,
above the MS temperature. It is kept in many cases, time to occur when the
there until the temperature has equal- steel is cooled in air from the martem-
ized between the surface and the core, pering bath temperature. However, if
after which the tool can be allowed to the dimensions are big, it is often nec-
cool freely in air down through the essary to use a forced quenching rate
martensite transformation range. depending of the hardenability of the
When martempering oil hardening steel.
steels, it should also be kept in mind
that the material transforms relatively Temperature
rapid and should not be kept too long at
the martempering bath temperature.
AC3
This can lead to excessive bainite trans-
AC1
formation and the risk of low hardness.
High alloy steels can be hardened in
oil, a martempering bath or air. The
advantages and disadvantages of the
different methods can be discussed.
Oil gives a good finish and high Core
hardness, but it also maximizes the risk
of excessive distortion or cracking. In
the case of thick parts, quenching in oil Surface
is often the only way to achieve maxi- MS
mum hardness.
Martempering in salt bath produces
Martensite
a good finish, high hardness and less
risk of excessive distortion or cracking. Time
For certain types of steel, the tempera- Martempering
5
HEAT TREATMENT
Air quenching entails the least risk of
excessive distortion. A tendency to-
wards lower hardness is noticeable at
greater thicknesses. One disadvantage
is a poorer finish.
Some oxidation takes place when the
material comes into contact with air
and cools slowly from the high harden-
ing temperatures.
The choice of quenching medium
must be made from job to job, but a
general recommendation could perhaps
be made as follows:
Temperature
Hardening temperature
Oil
Air
Surface
Salt bath
MS
Core
Room temperature
Time
Cooling rates for various media
A martempering bath is the safest in
most cases.
Air is used when dimensional stabil-
ity is crucial.
Oil should be avoided and used only
when it is necessary to achieve satisfac-
tory hardness in heavy sections.
Three well known quenching meth-
ods have been mentioned here. Some
new concepts have been introduced
with modern types of furnaces, and the
technique of quenching at a controlled
rate in a protective gas atmosphere or
in a vacuum furnace with gas is becom-
ing increasingly widespread. The cooling
rate is roughly the same as in air for
protective gas atmosphere, but the
problem of oxidized surfaces is elimi-
nated. Modern vacuum furnaces have
the possibility to use overpressure
during quenching which increases the
quenching speed. The surfaces are com-
pletely clean after a vacuum hardening,
With these techniques, as with
quenching in air, the risks of excessively
slow cooling must be borne in mind,
even for vacuum furnaces if no over-
pressure is used. The effect is that sur-
face hardness is normally lower than
6
expected. Hardness in the centre of
heavy sections is even lower.
This effect can be critical with high
speed steel and hot work steel, where a
centre section can be cooled so slowly
that carbide precipitation takes place on
the way down. Here, the matrix be-
comes depleted of carbon and carbide-
forming alloying elements. The result is
reduced hardness and strength of the
core.
Tempering
The material should be tempered imme-
diately after quenching. Quenching
should be stopped at a temperature of
50–70°C (120–160°F) and tempering
should be done at once. If this is not
possible, the material must be kept
warm, e.g. in a special “hot cabinet”,
awaiting tempering.
The choice of tempering temperature
is often determined by experience. How-
ever, certain guidelines can be drawn
and the following factors can be taken
into consideration:
• hardness
• toughness
• dimension change.
If maximum hardness is desired, tem-
per at about 200°C (390°F), but never
lower than 180°C (360°F). High speed
steel is normally tempered at about
20°C (36°F) above the peak of the sec-
ondary hardening temperature.
If a lower hardness is desired, this
means a higher tempering temperature.
Reduced hardness does not always
mean increased toughness, as is evident
from the toughness values in our pro-
duct brochures. Avoid tempering within
temperature ranges that reduce tough-
ness. If dimensional stability is also an
Convection type
tempering furnace
important consideration, the choice of
tempering temperature must often be a
compromise. If possible, however, prior-
ity should be given to toughness.
How many tempers are required?
Two tempers are recommended for tool
steel and three are considered neces-
sary for high speed steel with a high
carbon content, e.g. over 1%.
Two tempers are always recom-
mended. If the basic rule in quenching is
followed—to interrupt at 50–70°C
(120–160°F)—then a certain amount of
austenite remains untransformed when
the material is to be tempered. When
the material cools after tempering, most
of the austenite is transformed to mar-
tensite. It is untempered. A second tem-
pering gives the material optimum
toughness at the hardness in question.
The same line of reasoning can be
applied with regard to retained auste-
nite in high speed steel. In this case,
however, the retained austenite is highly
alloyed and slow transforming. During
tempering, some diffusion takes place in
the austenite, secondary carbides are
precipitated, the austenite becomes
lower alloyed and is more easily trans-
formed to martensite when it cools after
tempering. Here, several temperings can
be beneficial in driving the transforma-
tion of the retained austenite further to
martensite.
Holding times in connection
with tempering
Here also, one should avoid all compli-
cated formulae and rules of thumb, and
adopt the following recommendation:
After the tool is heated through, hold
the material for at least 2 hours at full
temperature each time.

Dimensional and
shape stability
DISTORTION DURING THE
HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF
TOOL STEEL
When a piece of tool steel is hardened
and tempered, some warpage or distor-
tion normally occurs. This distortion is
usually greater at high temperature.
This is well known, and it is normal
practice to leave some machining allow-
ance on the tool prior to hardening. This
makes it possible to adjust the tool to
the correct dimensions after hardening
and tempering by grinding, for example.
How does distortion take place?
The cause is stresses in the material.
These stresses can be divided into:
• machining stresses
• thermal stresses
• transformation stresses.
Machining stresses
This type of stress is generated during
machining operations such as turning,
milling and grinding. (For example, such
stresses are formed to a greater extent
during cold forming operations such as
blanking, bending and drawing.)
If stresses have built up in a part,
they will be released during heating.
Heating reduces strength, releasing
stresses through local distortion. This
can lead to overall distortion.
In order to reduce this distortion
while heating during the hardening
process, a stress relieving operation can
be carried out prior to the hardening
operation. It is recommended that the
Yield strength Rp0,2
MPa
400
300
250
200
100
100 200 300 400 500 600°C
Temperature
Effect of temperature on the yield strength of
Uddeholm Orvar 2 Microdized, soft annealed
material be stress relieved after rough
machining. Any distorsion can then be
adjusted during semifinish machining
prior to the hardening operation.
Thermal stresses
These stresses are created when a piece
is heated. They increase if heating takes
place rapidly or unevenly. The volume
of the steel is increased by heating.
Uneven heating can result in local varia-
tions in volume growth, leading to stres-
ses and distortion.
As an alternative with large or com-
plex parts, heating can be done in pre-
heating stages in order to equalize the
temperature in the component.
Linear expansion mm/100 mm
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
100 200 300 400 500 600°C
Temperature
Effect of temperature on the linear expansion
of Uddeholm ORVAR 2 Microdized, soft annealed
An attempt should always be made
to heat slowly enough so that the
temperature remains virtually equal
throughout the piece.
What has been said regarding heat-
ing also applies to quenching. Very
powerful stresses arise during quench-
ing. As a general rule, the slower that
HEAT TREATMENT
quenching can be done, the less distor-
tion will occur due to thermal stresses.
It is important that the quenching
medium is applied as uniformly as pos-
sible. This is especially valid when
forced air or protective gas atmosphere
(as in vacuum furnaces) is used. Other-
wise temperature differences in the tool
can lead to significant distortion.
Transformation stresses
This type of stress arises when the
microstructure of the steel is trans-
formed. This is because the three micro-
structures in question—ferrite, auste-
nite and martensite—have different
densities, i.e. volumes.
The greatest effect is caused by
transformation from austenite to mar-
tensite. This causes a volume increase.
Excessively rapid and uneven
quenching can also cause local marten-
site formation and thereby volume
increases locally in a piece and give rise
to stresses in this section. These stresses
can lead to distortion and, in some
cases, quenching cracks.
Volume
Trans- Transformation
formation to austenite
to martensite AC1 AC3
Ms
Temperature
Volume changes due to structural
transformation
7
HEAT TREATMENT

HOW CAN DISTORTION to –80°C (–95 to –110°F), soaking time Nitriding is done in gas at about 510°C
BE REDUCED? 1–3 hours, followed by tempering. (950°F) and in salt or gas at about
Distortion can be minimized by: The sub-zero treatment leads to a 570°C (1060°F) or as ion nitriding,
• keeping the design simple and reduction of retained austenite content. normally at around 500°C (930°F). The
symmetrical This, in turn, will result in a hardness process therefore requires steels that
increase of 1–2 HRC in comparison to are resistant to tempering in order not
• eliminating machining stresses by
not sub-zero treated tools if low tem- to reduce the core strength.
stress relieving after rough machining
perature tempering is used. For high
• heating slowly during hardening
temperature tempered tools there will Examples of applications
• using a suitable grade of steel be little or no hardness increase and • Nitriding is used in some cases on
• quenching the piece as slowly as when referencing the normal tempering prehardened plastic moulds in order
possible, but quick enough to obtain curves, a 25 to 50°C (45 to 90°F) lower to prevent indentation and defects on
a correct microstructure in the steel tempering temperature should be cho- the parting faces. It should be noted,
• tempering at a suitable temperature. sen to achieve the required hardness. however, that a nitrided surface can-
Tools that are high temperature not be machined with cutting tools
The following values for machining
tempered, even without a sub-zero and can only be ground with diffi-
allowances can be used as guidelines.
treatment, will normally have a low culty. A nitrided surface will cause
Machining allowance retained austenite content and in most problems in weld repairing as well.
Grade of steel on length and diameter cases, a sufficient dimensional stability.
as % of dimension Nitriding can also have a stress reliev-
However, for high demands on dimen- ing effect. Heavily machined parts
UDDEHOLM ARNE 0,25 %
UDDEHOLM RIGOR 0,20 %
sional stability in service it is also rec- may, therefore, undergo some distor-
UDDEHOLM SVERKER 21 0,20 % ommended to use a sub-zero treatment tion during nitriding due to the re-
UDDEHOLM SVERKER 3 0,20 % in combination with high temperature lease of residual stresses from machi-
UDDEHOLM CARMO 0,20 % tempering.
UDDEHOLM SLEIPNER 0,25 % ning and in such a case, a stress re-
UDDEHOLM CALDIE 0,25 %
For the highest requirements on lieving between rough and finish
UDDEHOLM VANADIS 4 Extra 0,15 % dimensional stability, sub-zero treat- machining is recommended.
UDDEHOLM VANADIS 6 0,15 % ment in liquid nitrogen is recommended
UDDEHOLM VANADIS 10 0,15 % • The life of forging dies can be in-
after quenching and after each temper-
UDDEHOLM VANADIS 23 0,15 % creased by nitriding. It must be noted,
UDDEHOLM VANCRON 40 0,20 %
ing.
though, that the treatment can give
UDDEHOLM CALMAX 0,20 %
rise to higher susceptibility to crack-
UDDEHOLM GRANE 0,15 %
UDDEHOLM STAVAX ESR 0,15 % ing in sharp corners. Furthermore, the
UDDEHOLM MIRRAX ESR 0,20 % edge of the flash land must be given
UDDEHOLM ELMAX 0,15 % Surface treatment a rounded profile.
UDDEHOLM CORRAX 0,05–0,15 %
UDDEHOLM ORVAR 2 Microdized 0,20 % NITRIDING • Extrusion dies of Uddeholm Orvar 2
UDDEHOLM ORVAR SUPREME 0,20 %
The purpose of nitriding is to increase Microdized can be nitrided to advan-
UDDEHOLM VIDAR SUPERIOR 0,20 % tage—especially in the case of alumi-
UDDEHOLM QRO 90 SUPREME 0,30 % the surface hardness of the steel and
improve its wear properties. This treat- nium alloys. Exceptions can be pro-
UDDEHOLM HOTVAR 0,40 %
UDDEHOLM DIEVAR 0,30 % ment takes place in a medium (gas or files with sharp corners and thin sec-
UDDEHOLM ROLTEC SF 0,15 %
salt) which gives off nitrogen. During tions of the dies.
UDDEHOLM TOUGHTEC SF 0,15 %
UDDEHOLM WEARTEC SF 0,15 % nitriding, nitrogen diffuses into the steel NITROCARBURIZING
and forms hard, wear resistant nitrides.
A widely known method is nitriding in a
Note: Uddeholm Corrax is a precipita- This results in an intermetallic surface
salt bath.
tion hardening steel. Machining allow- layer with good wearing and frictional
The temperature is normally 570°C
ance is needed to compensate for properties.
(1060°F). Due to aeration the cyanate
shrinkage during ageing. The shrinkage
content of the bath can be better con-
depends on ageing temperature (see
trolled and the nitriding effect is very
product information brochure). No dis-
good.
tortion occurs.
A nitrocarburizing effect can also be
achieved in gas atmosphere at 570°C
SUB-ZERO TREATMENT
(1060°F). The results after these
Tools requiring maximum dimensional methods are comparable.
stability in service can be sub-zero The total nitriding time must be var-
treated as follows: Nitrided case shown at a magnification of ied for different tool types and sizes. In
Immediately after quenching, the 100X Uddeholm Orvar 2 Microdized the case of large sizes, the heating time
tool should be sub-zero treated to –70
8

to the specified nitriding temperature
can be considerably longer than in the
case of small tools.
ION NITRIDING
This is a new nitriding technology. The
method can be summarized as follows:
The part to be nitrided is placed in a
process chamber filled with gas, mainly
nitrogen. The part forms the cathode
and the shell of the chamber the anode
in an electric circuit. When the circuit is
closed, the gas is ionized and the part is
subjected to ion bombardment. The gas
serves both as heating and nitriding
medium.
The advantages of ion nitriding in-
clude a low process temperature and a
hard, tough surface layer. The depth of
diffusion is of the same order as with
gas nitriding.
Ion nitriding plant
CASE HARDENING
In this method, the steel is heated in a
medium that gives off carbon (gas, salt
or dry carburizing compound). The car-
bon diffuses into the surface of the
material and after hardening this gives
a surface layer with enhanced hardness
and wear resistance. This method is
used for structural steel, but is not gen-
erally recommended for alloy tool steels.
HARD CHROMIUM PLATING
Hard chromium plating can improve the
wear resistance and corrosion resistance
of a tool. Hard chromium plating is done
electrolytically. The thickness of the
plating is normally between 0,001 and
0,1 mm (0,00004–0,004 inch). It can be
difficult to obtain a uniform surface
layer, especially on complex tools, since
projecting corners and edges may re-
HEAT TREATMENT
ceive a thicker deposit than large flat Certain demands are put on the tool
surfaces or the holes. If the chromium steel depending on: coating method, the
layer is damaged, the exposed steel may design of the tool and the tolerances
corrode rapidly. needed. PVD coating is used for the
Another advantage of the chromium highest demands on tolerances. When
layer is that it greatly reduces the coeffi- using this method a tool steel with high
cient of friction on the surface. tempering resistance must be used and
During the chromium plating process, the surface coating has to be performed
hydrogen absorption can cause a brittle as the last operation, after the heat
surface layer. This nuisance can be elimi- treatment. At CVD coating, hardening
nated by tempering immediately after and tempering are done after the coat-
plating at 180°C (360°F) for 4 hours. ing. When using the CVD method there
is a risk for dimensional changes. The
SURFACE COATING method is therefore not recommended
for tools with requirements of very
Surface coating of tool steel is becom-
narrow tolerances.
ing more common. Not only for cold
The most suitable steels for the men-
work applications, but also for plastic
tioned methods are Uddeholm Vanadis
moulds and hot work dies.
4 Extra, Uddeholm Vanadis 6, Uddeholm
The hard coating normally consists
Vanadis 10, Uddeholm Vanadis 23 and
of titanium nitride and/or titanium
Uddeholm Caldie.
carbide. The very high hardness and low
Surface coating of tools and moulds
friction gives a very wear resistant
should be discussed from case to case
surface, minimizing the risk for adhe-
considering the application, coating
sion and sticking.
method and tolerance requirements .
To be able to use these properties in
an optimal way one has to choose a
tool steel of high quality or a powder
metallurgy manufactured steel as sub-
strate. The two most common coating
methods are:
• PVD coating: performed at 200–
500°C (390–930°F) (PVD = Physical
Vapour Deposition).
• CVD coating: performed at about
1000°C (1830°F) (CVD = Chemical
Vapour Deposition).
Coated tools
9
HEAT TREATMENT

Testing Vickers (HV)

In Vickers hardness testing a pyramid-
of mechanical shaped diamond with a square base
properties and a peak angle of 136° is pressed
under a load F against the material
When the steel is hardened and tem- whose hardness is to be determined.
pered, its strength is affected, so let us After unloading, the diagonals d1 and d2
take a closer look at how these proper- of the impression are measured and the
ties are measured. hardness number (HV) is read off a
table.
HARDNESS TESTING
When the test re-
Hardness testing is the most popular F
sults are reported,
way to check the results of hardening.
Vickers hardness is
Hardness is usually the property that is
indicated with the
specified when a tool is hardened. 136°
letters HV and a
It is easy to test hardness. The mate- d1 d2
suffix indicating the
rial is not destroyed and the apparatus
mass that exerted the
is relatively inexpensive. The most com-
load and (when re-
mon methods are Rockwell C (HRC),
quired) the loading
Vickers (HV) and Brinell (HBW).
period, as illustrated by
We shouldn’t entirely forget the old Principle of Vickers hardness testing
the following example:
expression “file-hard”. In order to check
HV 30/20 = Vickers
whether hardness is satisfactory, for
hardness determined
example above 60 HRC, a file of good Brinell (HBW)
with a load of 30 kgf
quality can provide a good indication. In Brinell hardness testing, a Tungsten
exerted for 20 seconds.
(W) ball is pressed against the material
Rockwell (HRC) whose hardness is to be determined.
In Rockwell hardness testing, a conical After unloading, two measurements of
diamond is first pressed with a force F0, the diameter of the impression are
and then with a force F0+F1 against a taken at 90° to each other (d1 and d2)
specimen of the material whose hard- and the HBW value is read off a table,
ness is to be determined. After unload- from the average of d1 and d2.
ing to F0, the increase (e) of the depth When the test results are reported,
of the impression caused by F1 is deter- Brinell hardness is indicated with the
mined. The depth of penetration (e) is letters HBW and a suffix indicating ball
converted into a hardness number diameter, the mass with which the load

F0 F0+F1=F F0 D

h0 h e HRC
F

d
Surface of specimen
h
100 h0
Hardness scale

e
0,2 mm
h
HRC
0
Principle of Brinell hardness testing

Principle of Rockwell hardness testing was exerted and (when required) the
loading period, as illustrated by the
(HRC) which is read directly from a scale following example: HBW 5/750/15 =
on the tester dial or read-out. Brinell hardness determined with 5 mm
Tungsten (W) ball and under load of
750 kgf exerted for 15 seconds.

10

TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile strength is determined on a test
piece which is gripped in a tensile test-
ing machine and subjected to a succes-
sively increasing tensile load until frac-
ture occurs. The properties that are
normally recorded are yield strength
Rp0,2 and ultimate tensile strength Rm,
while elongation A5 and reduction of
area Z are measured on the test piece.
In general, it can be said that hardness
is dependent upon yield strength and
ultimate tensile strength, while elonga-
tion and reduction of area are an indica-
tion of toughness. High values for yield
and ultimate tensile strength generally
mean low values for elongation and
reduction of area.
Tensile tests are used mostly on
structural steels, seldom on tool steels.
It is difficult to perform tensile tests at
hardnesses above 55 HRC. Tensile tests
may be of interest for tougher types of
tool steel, especially when they are used
as high strength structural materials.
These include e.g. Impax Supreme and
Orvar 2 Microdized.
IMPACT TESTING
A certain quantity of energy is required
to produce a fracture in a material. This
quantity of energy can be used as a
measure of the toughness of the mate-
rial, a higher absorption of energy indi-
cating better toughness. The most com-
mon and simplest method of determin-
ing toughness is impact testing. A rigid
pendulum is allowed to fall from a
known height and to strike a test speci-
men at the lowest point of its swing.
The angle through which the pendulum
travels after breaking the specimen is
measured, and the amount of energy
that was absorbed in breaking the
specimen can be calculated.
Several variants of impact testing
are in use. The various methods differ in
the shape of the specimens. These are
usually provided with a V- or U-shaped
notch, the test methods being then
known as Charpy V and Charpy U re-
spectively.
HEAT TREATMENT
For the most part, tool steel has a
rather low toughness by reason of its
Some words
high strength. Materials of low tough- of advice to tool
ness are notch sensitive, for which
reason smooth, un-notched specimens
designers
are often used in the impact testing of CHOICE OF STEEL
tool steels. The results of the tests are Choose air-hardening steels for complex
commonly stated in joules, or alterna- tools.
tively in kgm (strictly speaking kgfm),
although J/cm2 or kgm/cm2 is some- DESIGN
times used instead, specially in Charpy Avoid:
U testing.
• sharp corners
There are several other variants of
• notch effects
impact testing which are used outside
• large differences in section
Sweden, e.g. DVM, Mesanger and—
especially in English speaking coun- thicknesses.
tries—Izod. These are often causes of quench
cracks, especially if the material is
cooled down too far or allowed to stand
untempered.
Unsuitable Preferred
design alternative
Fillet
✗
✗
HEAT TREATMENT
Choose suitable hardnesses for the ap-
plication concerned. Be particularly care-
ful to avoid temperature ranges that can
reduce toughness after tempering.
Keep the risk of distortion in mind
and follow recommendations concerning
machining allowances.
It is a good idea to specify stress
relieving on the drawings.
11
HEAT TREATMENT

Germany Lithuania Branch office

Europe Head office UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB UDDEHOLM
BE PLIENAS IR METALAI Barrio San Martín de Arteaga,132
UDDEHOLM
Austria Hansaallee 321 T. Masiulio 18B Pol.Ind. Torrelarragoiti
Representative office LT-52459 Kaunas ES-48170 Zamudio (Bizkaia)
DE-40549 Düsseldorf
Telephone: +370 37 370613, -669 Telephone: +34 94 452 13 03
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +49 211 5351-0
Albstraße 10 www.uddeholm.de www.besteel.lt
DE-73765 Neuhausen Sweden
Telephone: +49 7158 9865-0 Branch offices
www.uddeholm.de UDDEHOLM The Netherlands Head office
Falkenstraße 21 UDDEHOLM UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
DE-65812 Bad Soden/TS Isolatorweg 30 Aminogatan 25
Belgium Telephone: +49 6196 6596-0 NL-1014 AS Amsterdam SE-431 53 Mölndal
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +31 20 581 71 11 Telephone: +46 31 67 98 50
Europark Oost 7 UDDEHOLM www.uddeholm.nl www.uddeholm.se
B-9100 Sint-Niklaas Albstraße 10
DE-73765 Neuhausen Branch offices
Telephone: +32 3 780 56 20
www.uddeholm.be Telephone: +49 7158 9865-0 Norway UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
UDDEHOLM A/S Box 45
UDDEHOLM Jernkroken 18 SE-334 21 Anderstorp
Croatia Friederikenstraße 14b Postboks 85, Kalbakken Telephone: +46 371 160 15
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM Zagreb DE-06493 Harzgerode NO-0902 Oslo
d.o.o za trgovinu Telephone: +49 39484 727 267 Telephone: +47 22 91 80 00 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
Zitnjak b.b www.uddeholm.no Box 148
10000 Zagreb SE-631 03 Eskilstuna
Telephone: +385 1 2459 301 Great Britain Telephone: +46 16 15 79 00
Telefax: +385 1 2406 790 UDDEHOLM DIVISION Poland
www.bohler-uddeholm.hr BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED BOHLER UDDEHOLM POLSKA UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
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BÖHLER UDDEHOLM CZ s.r.o. Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Telephone: +48 22 429 2260, -203, -204
Division Uddeholm Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 www.uddeholm.pl UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
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Telephone: +420 233 029 850,8
Portugal Telephone: +46 13 15 19 90
www.uddeholm.cz Greece F RAMADA Aços e Industrias S.A.
STASSINOPOULOS-UDDEHOLM P.O. Box 10 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
STEEL TRADING S.A. PT-3881 Ovar Codex Derbyvägen 22
Denmark 20, Athinon Street Telephone: +351 256 580580 SE-212 35 Malmö
UDDEHOLM A/S GR-Piraeus 18540 www.ramada.pt Telephone: +46 40 22 32 05
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Uddeholm Tool Steels 077125 - com. Magurele, Jud. Ilfov.
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EE-11216 Tallinn Telephone: +30 2310 79 76 46 General Wille Strasse 19
Telephone: +372 655 9180 www.sklero.gr Russia CH-8027 Zürich
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Hungary RU-197183 Saint Petersburg
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OY UDDEHOLM AB Dunaharaszti, Jedlik Ányos út 25 www.uddeholm.ru Turkey
Ritakuja 1, PL 57 HU-2331 Dunaharaszti 1. Pf. 110 Head office
FI-01741 VANTAA Telephone/fax:+36 24 492 690 ASSAB Korkmaz Celik A.S.
Telephone: +358 9 290 490 www.uddeholm.hu Slovakia Organize Sanayi Bölgesi
www.uddeholm.fi Bohler-Uddeholm Slovakia s.r.o. 2. Cadde No: 26 Y. Dudullu
divizia UDDEHOLM 34776 Umraniye
Ireland ˇ
Csl.Armády 5622/5 TR-Istanbul
France Head office: SK-036 01 Martin Telephone: +90 216 420 1926
Head office UDDEHOLM DIVISION Telephone: +421 (0)434 212 030 www.assabkorkmaz.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED www.uddeholm.sk
UDDEHOLM
Z.I. de Mitry-Compans, 12 rue Mercier, European Business Park
FR-77297 Mitry Mory Cedex Taylors Lane, Oldbury Slovenia
Telephone: +33 (0)1 60 93 80 10 UK-West Midlands B69 2BN
www.uddeholm.fr Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Representative office
Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 UDDEHOLM
Branch offices www.uddeholm.co.uk Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM S.A. Dublin: Italia S.p.A.
77bis, rue de Vesoul Telephone: +353 1845 1401 Via Palizzi, 90
La Nef aux Métiers IT-20157 Milano
FR-25000 Besançon Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211
Telephone: +33 (0)381 53 12 19 Italy www.uddeholm.it
UDDEHOLM
LE POINT ACIERS Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils Spain
Italia S.p.A.
Z.I. du Recou, Avenue de Champlevert Via Palizzi, 90 Head office
FR-69520 GRIGNY IT-20157 Milano UDDEHOLM
Telephone: +33 (0)4 72 49 95 61 Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211 Guifré 690-692
www.uddeholm.it ES-08918 Badalona, Barcelona
LE POINT ACIERS Telephone: +34 93 460 1227
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils www.acerosuddeholm.com
Z.I. Nord 27, rue François Rochaix Latvia
FR-01100 OYONNAX UDDEHOLM TOOLING LATVIA SIA
Telephone: +33 (0)4 74 73 48 66 Piedrujas Street 7
LV-1035 Riga
Telephone: +371 7 702133
latvia@assab.com

12
 HEAT TREATMENT

El Salvador Venezuela
America ACAVISA DE C.V. PRODUCTOS HUMAR C.A.
ASSAB Tooling Technology
(Chongqing) Co Ltd
25 Ave. Sur, no 763 Av. Bolivar, Zona Industrial Plant C, Automotive Industrial lPark
Argentina Zona 1 La Trinidad Chongqing Economic & Technological
ACEROS BOEHLER UDDEHOLM S.A SV-San Salvador Edificio. Distribuidora Agrofor, C.A. Development Zone
Mozart 40 Telephone: +503 22 71 1700 Piso 3, VE-Caracas 1080 Chongqing 401120, China
1619-Centro Industrial Garin www.acavisa.com Telephone: +58 212 942 1994 or Telephone: +86 23 6745 5698
Garin-Prov. +58 212 915 7073
AR-Buenos Aires humar@assab.com
Telephone: +54 332 7444 440 Guatemala South China
www.uddeholm.com.ar IMPORTADORA ESCANDINAVA Head office
Apartado postal 11C Other Countries in America ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
GT-Guatemala City ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Room 1701–1706
Brazil Telephone: +502 23 659270 Box 42 Tower 2 Grand Central Plaza
AÇOS BOHLER-UDDEHOLM DO guatemala@assab.com SE-171 11 Solna, Sweden 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road
BRASIL LTDA– DIV. UDDEHOLM Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70 Shatin NT - Hong Kong
Estrada Yae Massumoto, 353 www.assab.se Telephone: +852 2487 1991
CEP 09842-160 Honduras www.assabsteels.com
BR-Sao Bernardo do Campo - SP Brazil ACAVISA DE C.V.
Telephone: +55 11 4393 4560, 4554 25 Ave. Sur, no 763 Branch offices
www.uddeholm.com.br Zona 1 ASSAB Tooling (Dongguan) Co Ltd
SV-San Salvador Asia & Pacific Northern District
Song Shan Lake Science & Technology
Telephone: +503 22 71 1700
Canada www.acavisa.com Australia Industrial Park
Head Office & Warehouse Dongguan 523808, China
BOHLER UDDEHOLM Australia Telephone: +86 769 2289 7888
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED 129-135 McCredie Road
2595 Meadowvale Blvd.
Mexico www.assabsteels.com
Guildford NSW 2161
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y3 Head office Private Bag 14
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 ACEROS BOHLER UDDEHOLM S.A. ASSAB Tooling (Xiamen) Co Ltd
AU-Sydney First Floor Universal Workshop
www.bucanada.com de C.V. Telephone: +61 2 9681 3100
Calle Ocho No 2, Letra ”C” No. 30 Huli Zone
www.buau.com.au Xiamen 361006, China
Branch Warehouses Fraccionamiento Industrial Alce Blanco
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED C.P. 52787 Naucalpan de Juarez Telephone: +86 592 562 4678
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Telephone: +1 514 333 8000
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB Hong Kong
www.bu-mexico.com P.O. Box 17595 ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
Jebel Ali Room 1701-1706
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM LIMITED Branch office
AE-Dubai Grand Central Plaza, Tower 2
730 Eaton Way - Unit #10 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM MONTERREY, Telephone: +971 488 12165
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www.assab.se Shatin NT, Hong Kong
Telephone: +1 604 525 3354 Lerdo de Tejada No.542
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BOHLER-UDDEHOLM N.L. Head office
THERMO-TECH Telephone: +52 81 83 525239
2645 Meadowvale Blvd. ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Co Ltd India
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y4 No.10A Rong Jing Dong Jie ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 Peru Beijing Economic Development Area T 303 D.A.V. Complex
Beijing 100176, China Mayur Vihar Ph I Extension
C.I.P.E.S.A
Telephone: +86 10 6786 5588 IN-Delhi-110 091
Av. Oscar R. Benavides
Colombia (ante Colonial) No. 2066
www.assabsteels.com Telephone: +91 11 2271 2736
AXXECOL S.A. PE-Lima 1 www.assabsripad.com
Branch offices
Carrera 35 No 13-20 Telephone: +51 1 336 8673
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Apartado Aereo 80718 peru@assab.com
Dalian Branch 709, Swastik Chambers
CO-Bogota 6
8 Huanghai Street, Haerbin Road Sion-Trombay Road
Telephone: +57 1 2010700
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www.axxecol.com
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Head office and Warehouse Telephone: +86 411 8761 8080
ASTECO S.A. Telephone: +91 22 2522-7110, -8133
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM
Carrera 54 No 35-12 www.assabsripad.com
CORPORATION ASSAB Qingdao Office
Apartado Aereo 663 2505 Millennium Drive Room 2521, Kexin Mansion ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
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Telephone: +57 4 2320122 Telephone: 1-630-883-3000 or Qingdao 266012, China Janaki Avenue
www.asteco.com 1-800-652-2520 Telephone: +86 532 8382 0930 M.R.C. Nagar
Sales phone: 1-800-638-2520
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No.12 Puwangli Wanda Xincheng www.assabsripad.com
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P-2289 BOHLER-UDDEHOLM Tianjin 300402, China ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
P.O. Box 025650 CORPORATION Telephone: +86 22 2672 0006 19X, D. P. P. Road
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Head office www.assabsripad.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM
Ecuador CORPORATION ASSAB Tooling Technology
IVAN BOHMAN C.A. 548 Clayton Ct. (Shanghai) Co Ltd ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Apartado 1317 Wood Dale IL 60191 No. 4088 Humin Road Ground floor, Plot No 11-6-8
Km 6 1/2 Via a Daule Xinzhuang Industrial Zone Opp IDPL Factory Out Gate
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www.ivanbohman.com.ec CORPORATION www.assabsteels.com Telephone: +91 (40) 2377 8148
9331 Santa Fe Springs Road www.assabsripad.com
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IVAN BOHMAN C.A.
Casilla Postal 17-01370 ASSAB Tooling Technology
Quito (Ningbo) Co Ltd Indonesia
Telephone: +593 2 2248001 No. 218 Longjiaoshan Road Head office
www.ivanbohman.com.ec Vehicle Part Industrial Park PT ASSAB Steels Indonesia
Ningbo Economic & Technical Dev. Jl. Rawagelam III No. 5
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Ningbo 315806, China Jakarta 13930, Indonesia
Telephone: +86 574 8680 7188 Telephone: +62 21 461 1314
www.assabsteels.com

13
HEAT TREATMENT

Branch offices New Zealand Syria

SURABAYA BRANCH VIKING STEELS WARDE STEEL & METALS SARL MET
Africa
Jl. Berbek Industri 1/23 25 Beach Road, Otahuhu Charles Helou Av, Warde Bldg
Surabaya Industrial Estate, Rungkut P.O. Box 13-359, Onehunga P.O. Box 165886 Egypt
Surabaya 60293, East Java, Indonesia NZ-Auckland LB-Beirut MISR SWEDEN FOR
Telephone: +62 31 843 2277 Telephone: +64 9 270 1199 Telephone: +961 1 447228 ENGINEERING IND.
www.ssm.co.nz lebanon@assab.com Montaser Project No 20
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lebanon@assab.com Other African Countries
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Malaysia
Head office Singapore
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Johor DT, Malaysia www.iwsholdings.com
Telephone: +60 7 598 0011

14
 Network of excellence
Uddeholm is present on every continent. This ensures you
high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you
are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales
channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier
of tooling materials.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com
 HAGFORS KLARTEXT U0712XX
Uddeholm is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This
is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday
business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-
ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.
It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one
partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality
wherever you are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive
sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of
tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm
or Assab representative close at hand to give local advice and support.
For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in
developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com or www.assab.com

GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide general
notes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty of
specific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.
Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/EC
For further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 7, 02.2010
The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version,
which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com SS-EN ISO 9001
SS-EN ISO 14001
 GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

CONTENTS

Introduction 4
Grinding wheel design 4
How the grinding wheel works 6
The grinding machine 9
Grinding fluid 9
The tool steel 10
Recommendations for grinding of
Uddeholm tool steel 13
Cutting speed and feed 14
Grinding wheel dressing 15
Examples of suitable grinding wheels 15–17

3
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
Introduction
The high alloy content of tool steel
means that such steel are often more
difficult to grind than conventional
structural steel.
In order to achieve successful
results when grinding tool steel, it is
necessary to choose the grinding
wheel with care. In turn, choosing the
right grinding wheel and grinding data
requires an understanding of how a
grinding wheel works.
This brochure provides a quite
detailed description of the make-up
of the wheel, of how it works when
grinding and of the parameters that
determine the final result. It also
includes recommendations for
grinding wheels for use with Udde-
holm tool steel.
Grinding
wheel design
In principle, a grinding wheel consists
of the following components:
• Abrasive
• Binder
• Air pores
Binder
Air
pores
Abrasive
Figure 1. The arrangement and proportions
of abrasives grains, air pores and bond
bridges (made up of binder) determine
grinding wheel characteristics.
Certain special grinding wheels, such
as metallically bonded diamond
wheels, contain no air pores.
It is the composition and variation
of the above components that deter-
mines the characteristic of a grinding
wheel. An identification system, which
has now been ratified as an interna-
4
tional standard by ISO, indicates the The table below shows how the
composition of grinding wheels. The characteristics of aluminium oxide
identification consists of numerals abrasive can be varied by alloying it.
and letters in a particular sequence,
defining the abrasive, grain size, grade
ABRASIVE COLOUR PROPERTIES
and binder.
Normal
Example: corundum Brown, grey
Mixed
Tougher
Abrasive
Harder
corundum Yellowbrown
Grain size
Red alumina Red
A 46 H V Grade White alumina White
Binder
Unfortunately, the colour of a grind-
ABRASIVE
ing wheel does not always necessarily
It is important that the abrasive fulfils indicate the type of abrasive used in
requirements in respect of: it, due to the fact that some grinding
• hardness wheel manufacturers colour their
• sharpness abra-sives and binders.
• thermal resistance There is also another type of alu-
• chemical stability minium oxide named ceramic or
sintered aluminium oxide. This abra-
Today, the following four main groups
sive has a fine crystalline structure,
of abrasives (all synthetic) are used,
which means that the grains retain
fulfilling the above requirements to
greater or lesser extents.
their sharpness better. However, its
use requires higher grinding pressure.
1. Aluminium oxide designation A (SG) A typical application for it is grinding
2. Silicon carbide designation C tool steel in rigid grinding machines.
3. Cubic boron nitride designation B Examples of this type of abrasive are
4. Diamond designation SD SG (Seeded Gel) from Norton and
Cubitron from 3M.
Abrasives have different application
2. Silicon carbide is an abrasive that is
areas, depending on their particular
used primarily for grinding cast iron
characteristics, as shown partially in
and austenitic stainless steel, although
the table below.
it can also be used for hardened tool
steel. It occurs in two main variants:
THERMAL the black silicon carbide and a some-
DURABILITY
HARDNESS IN AIR what harder green variant, which is
ABRASIVE KNOOP °C more brittle than the black material.
Aluminium
oxide 2100 2000
3. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) is pro-
duced in approximately the same way
Silicon
carbide 2500 1200 as synthetic diamond, and is an abra-
CBN 4700 1400 sive that is used primarily for grinding
Diamond 7000 650 hardened high-carbide tool steel and
high-speed steel. A drawback of CBN
is its high price—almost twice that of
synthetic diamond.
1. Aluminium oxide, is the abrasive
most commonly used for grinding 4. Diamond is seldom used, despite
steel, and is available in several vari- its high hardness, for grinding tool
ants. It can be alloyed with other steel as a result of its low thermal
oxides, of which the most common is resistance. Diamond is used primarily
titanium oxide. for grinding cemented carbide and
ceramic materials.

ABRASIVE GRAIN SIZE
The grain size of the abrasive is an
important factor in selecting the
correct grinding wheel.
Grain sizes are classified in accord-
ance with an international mesh size
in mesh/inch, ranging from 8 (coarse)
to 1200 (superfine). Grain sizes for
grinding tool steel are generally in
the range 24–100 mesh. Coarse grain
sizes are used for rapid rate of remo-
val, when grinding large workpieces,
grinding softer materials or when the
contact surface of the grinding wheel
is large. Fine grain sizes are used to
produce high surface finish, when
grinding hard materials or when the
contact surface of the grinding wheel
is small.
The surface smoothness of the
ground part depends not only on the
grain size of the grinding wheel. The
sharpness of the wheel, the bonding
material used and the hardness of the
wheel also play a considerable part in
determining the surface finish pro-
duced.
In the case of diamond and CBN
grinding wheels, European grinding
wheel manufacturers indicate grain
size by the diameter of the abrasive
grains in microns, while American and
Japanese manufacturers indicate it in
mesh size.
The photo shows the difference between a CBN wheel and a conventional grinding wheel.
As a result of the high price of CBN, wheels made from it consist of a thin layer of abrasive
applied to a central hub, usually of aluminium.
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
GRINDING WHEEL GRADE Vitrified grinding wheels are those
The grade of a grinding wheel refers most commonly used for grinding
to its hardness, i.e. how securely the tool steel.
abrasive grains are held by the binder. Resinoid is used as a binder in
It does not, therefore, depend on the grinding wheels intended for high
hardness of the abrasive used in the peripheral speeds, such as certain
wheel. CBN wheels.
The grade of a grinding wheel is Rubber-bonded wheels are used for
determined primarily by the quantity high specific grinding pressures, such
of binder used in the wheel. A higher as for control wheels in centreless
proportion of binder reduces the grinding.
amount of air pores and produces a Metallic binders are used for
harder wheel. diamond and certain CBN wheels.
The grade of a wheel is indicated Such wheels can withstand very high
by a letter, indicating the hardness in peripheral speeds.
alphabetical order:
E = very soft composition
Z = very hard composition.
For tool steel, the most commonly
encountered compositions are within
the hardness range G–K. Indication of
the grade is sometimes followed by a
numeral, which indicates the spread
of the abrasive particles in the wheel.
GRINDING WHEEL BINDERS
The following binders are used to
bind the grains in a grinding wheel:
• Vitrified designation: V
• Resinoid ,, B
• Rubber ,, R
• Metal ,, M
5
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

• A very large number of cutting cease to remove material and gener-

How the grinding
wheel works
Grinding is a cutting process in which
the cutting edges are formed by the
grains of abrasive. The same prin-
ciples apply for grinding as for other
chip-cutting methods, although vari-
ous factors mean that it is necessary
to consider the theory of grinding
somewhat differently.
Conditions that are special for
grinding.
• The cutting tool has an irregular
cutting geometry and the abrasive
grains are irregularly placed, which
means that cutting, ploughing and
sliding will occur, see figure 2.
• The cutting geometry can change.
The method of working of an abra-
sive tool includes a certain degree
of “self-sharpening”, which means
that grains of abrasive break or are
replaced as they wear.
• Negative cutting angles. The irregu-
lar “blunt” shapes of the grains
mean that the rake angles are often
negative.
Cutting Grinding
direction
Chip Abrasive grain
Workpiece
edges.
• Very high cutting speed. The most
common cutting speed for preci-
sion grinding, 35 m/s = 2100 m/min.,
is far above what is normal for
other cutting processes.
• Very small chips, i.e. very small
cutting depth for each cutting edge.
GRINDING FORCES
The grinding forces that act on each
individual grain of abrasive are re-
ferred to as specific forces. A mean
value of the specific forces can be
obtained by dividing the total force
by the number of cutting edges,
which depends on the size of the
contact area and the number of cut-
ting edges in the grinding path. The
specific forces determine various
effects, including the degree of self-
sharpening of the grinding wheel, i.e.
its “working hardness”. The total force
is the force arising between the
grinding wheel and the workpiece.
GRINDING WHEEL WEAR
The grains of abrasive are initially
sharp, but in the same way as with all
other cutting edges they wear down
in use and become blunt. Finally, the
grains will have become so blunt that
they have difficulty in penetrating into
the material of the workpiece. They
ate only heat. The grinding wheel is
then said to be burning the material,
which can cause cracks in it.
For a grinding wheel to work
correctly, the stresses in the binder
and the strength of the binder must
be so balanced that, as the grains
become as blunt as can be accepted,
they are pulled out of the binder and
are replaced by new, sharp grains.
The grinding wheel, in other words,
sharpens itself. Self-sharpening also
occurs through grain breakage, which
creates new cutting edges.
The degree of self-sharpening, i.e.
whether the grinding wheel is hard
or soft, is affected by the composi-
tion of the wheel (its design hard-
ness) and by the conditions under
which it is working.
AVERAGE CHIP THICKNESS
Although the chips removed by
grinding are small and irregular, the
mean value of their thickness at any
time is relatively constant. This value
varies, depending on the type of
grinding operation and in response to
the changes in grinding data.
If a grinding wheel is cutting larger
chips, this means two things:
1. Higher loading on each cutting
edge, i.e. higher specific forces. This
increases the self-sharpening
characteristic of the wheel and

Grinding
Ploughing direction Small chip Large chip
Abrasive grain

Workpiece

Grinding
Low forces on High forces on
direction
Sliding the abrasive grain the abrasive grain
Abrasive grain

Friction heat
Workpiece
Fine surface
Rough surface
Figure 2. Different conditions during grind-
ing (highly schematic). Cutting angles are
Figure 3. A large chip size results in a rougher surface finish on
generally negative.
the workpiece.
6

gives it the characteristics of a
softer wheel.
2. The surface of the part being
ground is coarser, see Figure 3.
A reduction in the average chip thick-
ness represents the opposite. It is
therefore important to understand
how changes in grinding data and
other conditions affect the average
chip thickness.
STOCK REMOVAL RATE
When grinding, the amount of chips
removed per unit of time can most
easily be expressed as mm3/s. This is
often referred to as the stock re-
moval rate, and depends on the ma-
chine feed, the composition of the
grinding wheel, its cutting speed
(peripheral speed) and (in certain
cases) on the dimensions of the
workpiece.
It is often more meaningful to talk
about stock removal rate rather than
about table feed speed, feed depth
etc., and it is also quite easy to calcu-
late. Cost considerations often dic-
tate that the stock removal rate
should be as high as possible. If the
stock removal rate is increased with-
out increasing the number of grains
of abrasive performing the work, e.g.
by greater infeed depth, the chip size
will also naturally be increased.
CUTTING SPEED
The peripheral speed of a grinding
wheel has a direct effect on the
number of cutting edges that actually
perform the machining work. If, for
example, the cutting speed is dou-
bled, twice as many grains of abrasive
will pass the workpiece per unit of
time. If the workpiece speed is not
increased, the mean chip thickness
will decrease, thus also reducing the
cutting forces on each grain. Self-
sharpening will be less effective, i.e.
the grinding wheel will be effectively
harder, producing a finer surface
finish, but with greater risk of burning
the surface.
Conversely, reducing the speed of
the wheel will increase the chip
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
thickness, with the result that the If the wheel is to sharpen itself prop-
grinding wheel behaves as a softer erly, it must be of a softer composi-
wheel. tion than one intended for external
Generally, both peripheral velocity cylindrical grinding of a similar part. In
and workpiece speed are increased in this latter case, the contact length is
order to increase the total rate of shorter, which means that there are
removal. higher cutting forces on each grain.
The contact width may be equal to the
THE G-RATIO OF
width of the grinding wheel as, for
A GRINDING WHEEL
example, in plunge grinding. However
The G-ratio of a grinding wheel refers in operations such as surface grinding
to the relationship between the with a moving table, only part of the
amount of material removed and the
amount of grinding wheel consumed.
The G-ratio is a measure of how Cylindrical grinding
effectively a grinding wheel works
with the particular workpiece mate-
rial.
GRINDING WHEEL
CONTACT SURFACE
It is at the contact surface between
the grinding wheel and the workpiece
that the actual cutting operation
Surface grinding
occurs. A large contact surface means
that a greater number of cutting
edges participate in the process, thus
reducing the chip size and specific
forces. Similarly, a reduced contact
surface area results in greater chip
size and higher specific forces.
In principle, the contact surface is
in the shape of a rectangle. Its extent
in the cutting direction is referred to
as the contact length or contact arc, Internal grinding
while its extent perpendicular to the
cutting direction is referred to as the
contact width.
The contact length depends primarily
on the type of grinding operation. In
addition, it depends on the diameter
of the grinding wheel, the cutting
depth and in all cases—except for
surface grinding—the dimensions of
the workpiece. Differences in the Segmental surface
contact length are the main reason grinding
for having to select different grinding
wheel compositions for different
grinding operations.
If, when performing internal grind-
ing, a grinding wheel is used that has
a diameter only a little less than that
of the ground hole, the contact
length will be very large, resulting in Figure 4. Differences in contact length for
low cutting force per grain. different grinding operations.
7
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
grinding wheel is actually cutting and
this part changes as the wheel wears
down. It is sometimes possible to
reduce the contact width, if this is
required, by truing of the grinding
wheel. This reduces contact surface
area, resulting (as already described)
in a greater chip thickness, higher
loading on the abrasive grains and an
effectively softer grinding wheel.
THE NUMBER OF CUTTING
EDGES IN THE CONTACT AREA
The number of cutting edges in the
contact area is a factor that has a
considerable effect on the chip
thickness and thus on the grinding
process.
A large number of cutting edges
per unit area mean that the work of
removing material is spread over a
larger number of grains, reducing the
chip thickness and the specific forces.
The grain size of the abrasive also
affects the number of cutting edges,
which is the reason for the common
observation that fine-grained cutting
wheels seem to be harder.
DRESSING AND TRUING
GRINDING WHEELS
Dressing and truing of a grinding
wheel are often considered to be the
same thing because they are often
performed as one operation.
Truing is made to produce any profile
which may be required on the face
of the wheel and to ensure concen-
tricity.
8
Dressing is a conditioning of the creates space for chip formation. In
wheel surface to give the desired practice this can be done by pushing
cutting action. Dressing the wheel a wet aluminium oxide stone into the
exposes sharp cutting edges. One and wheel for a few seconds.
the same grinding wheel can be given
completely different grinding charac-
teristics through application of diffe-
rent dressing tools or different dres-
sing methods. Dressing is therefore a
particularly important parameter in
achieving good grinding performance.
Dressing resulting in a smooth
surface on the wheel results in the
cutting edges of the grains of abrasive
being close together, while dressing
resulting in a rough surface of the
wheel gives the wheel a more open
structure. Dressing provides a means
of making the same grinding wheel
give completely different grinding
results.
The degree of self-sharpening
affects the structure of the grinding
wheel surface, i.e. the number of
cutting edges per unit of area.
A grinding wheel that has a high self-
sharpening performance has a differ-
ent, more open structure than one
having poorer self-sharpening per-
formance.
There are many different tools avail-
able for dressing and truing grinding
wheels, e.g. crushing rolls and dia-
mond tools. CBN wheels are best
dressed using a diamond coated
roller.
Certain types of grinding wheels, e.g.
resinoid bonded CBN wheels, need
to be “opened” after dressing. This
reveals the abrasive particles and
 GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

• Emulsions. These consist of water

The grinding
machine
The type of grinding operation and
the machine available has a consider-
able effect on the choice of appropri-
ate grinding wheel composition.
A grinding machine should be as rigid
as possible, in order to allow it to
work at high grinding pressures. This
is because it is the rigidity of the
grinder and the method of clamping
the workpiece that determine the
permissible grinding pressure and
therefore restrict the choice of
wheels. If the machine is not suffi-
ciently rigid, a softer grinding wheel
composition or a smaller contact
area between the grinding wheel and
the workpiece should be chosen, in
order to achieve the required degree
of self-sharpening performance.
The speed of the grinder also
affects the choice of grinding wheel.
CBN wheels often require peripheral
speeds of 45 m/s in order to provide
good cutting performance.
with an ad-mixture of 2–5% of oil
in an extremely finely distributed
form. Sulphur or chlorine additives
may also be used as EP additives.
• Cutting oils. These are composed of
a mineral oil base with EP-type
additives. Cutting oils provide
effective lubrication but poorer
cooling.
Water solutions are most suitable
when grinding with diamond wheels.
Emulsions are used nowadays for
the majority of grinding operations
because they are ecologically bene-
ficial and perform adequately.
Cutting oils give the best results
for profile and plunge grinding with
fine grained wheels, e.g. when grind-
ing threads. Cutting oil also provides
the longest life for resinoid bonded
CBN wheels, although high-oil
emulsions are often chosen in the
interests of pollution reduction.

Grinding fluid
When grinding, as with all other
cutting operations, a cutting fluid is
used primarily to:
• cool the workpiece
• act as a lubricant and reduce
friction between the chips, work- Fine gridning of details
piece and grinding wheel in hardened Udddeholm
• remove chips from the contact Mirrax ESR
area
There are three main types of cutting
fluids that can be used when grinding.
• Water solutions. These are liquids
that consist of water with synthetic
additives in order to increase its
wetting performance and prevent
corrosion. Such fluids contain no oil
and provide good cooling perform-
ance but poorer lubrication per-
formance.

9
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

In practice, powder metallurgy is

The tool steel employed to increase the quantity of
The alloying constituents of a tool carbide in a tool steel, i.e. such steel
steel have a considerable effect on its are more highly alloyed than conven-
ease of grinding. tional steel, which generally means
The Uddeholm range of tool steel that they are more difficult to grind.
extends from low-alloy steel, such as The effect of hardness on ease of
Uddeholm UHB 11, to high-alloy grinding is also dependent on the
steel, such as Uddeholm Vanadis 10. quantity of carbide-forming alloying
There is seldom any problem in elements in the steel.
grinding low-alloy tool steel. At the
other end of the scale, however, the
high-alloy carbide-rich steel can cause Hardness kp/mm2
problems when being ground, and 7500
require a careful choice of grinding
7000
wheel and operating parameters.
The higher the wear resistance of a 6500
steel, the more difficult it is to grind.
6000
The wear resistance of a steel, and
thus also its ease of grinding, are 5500
determined by its basic hardness and
5000
by the size, hardness and quantity of
the carbides in it. 4500
In order to enhance the wear 4000
resistance of a tool steel, the steel is
alloyed with carbide-forming alloying 3500

elements, of which the most impor- 3000

tant are chromium and vanadium. The
2500
steel must also have a high carbon
content if carbides are to be formed. 2000
The diagram, Figure 5, shows the Figure 5. The
1500
hardness of the basic phases found in hardness of grinding
a tool steel, the hardness of the most 1000 abrasives, basic
common carbides found in tool steel phases found in a tool
500 steel and carbides
and the hardness of commonly used
found in tool steel.
grinding abrasives. 0
Martensite
Cementite
Molybdenum carbide

Niobium carbide

Silicon carbide
Ferrite
Austenite

Diamond
Vanadium carbide
Titanium carbide
Tungsten carbide

Aluminium oxide

Cubic boron nitride

Chromium carbide

As can be seen in the figure, it is

only diamond and CBN that are
harder than all the carbides that are
found in a tool steel. However, as
mentioned earlier, diamond is unsuit-
able for grinding steel.
The quantity and the size of carbides As can be seen in Figure 6, hardness
in a steel has a very considerable has a greater effect on grindability for
effect on the ease of grinding of the high-carbide steel.
material. The greater the number of, Grindability index
and the larger the carbides, the more 100
difficult the material is to grind. A
This is the reason why tool steel 10 B
produced by powder metallurgy C
Figure 6. The effect of hardness on
processes, having smaller carbides, is 1 grindability for:
easier to grind than a conventionally A – a low-alloy tool steel of Arne type
produced steel having a similar com- B – a material of Sverker type
position. 0,1 C – material of Vanadis 10 type.

10

In order to obtain good grinding
performance with high-alloy carbide-
rich tool steel, it is important to
select the correct grinding wheel.
Materials in the Uddeholm Vanadis
range, for example, contain a large
quantity of vanadium carbides. To cut
through a vanadium carbide requires
an abrasive that is harder than alu-
minium oxide or silicon carbide.
CBN wheels are therefore recom-
mended as first choice for grinding
this material. The fact that, despite
this, material can be removed from
Uddeholm Vanadis steel by grinding
with aluminium oxide or silicon car-
bide is due to the fact that it is the
material enclosing the carbides that is
ground away, so that the carbides are
torn out of the basic material of the
steel. However, this occurs at the
price of high wear of the grinding
wheel and a risk of poor grinding
performance.
GRINDING CRACKS AND
GRINDING STRESSES
The wrong choice of grinding wheels
and grinding parameters results in a
considerable risk of causing cracks in
the workpiece.
Generally, grinding cracks are not
as easy to see as in Photo 2. It is
usually necessary to examine the part
under a microscope, or with mag-
netic powder inspection, in order to
see the cracks.
Grinding cracks.
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
The formation of grinding cracks, The diagram below shows the
which tend to occur perpendicular to hardness profile through the surface
the direction of grinding, usually of a tool steel, incorrectly ground in
means the tool has to be scrapped. such a way as to produce re-harden-
Hardened steel are more sensitive to ing.
grinding cracks than non-hardened
steel. A material that has been only Hardness, HRC
hardened, and not tempered, must
never be ground: hardened materials 64
should always be tempered before
grinding. 60
Formation of grinding cracks can be
explained as follows: 56
Almost all the energy used in
grinding is converted into heat, partly 52
through pure friction and partly as a
48
result of deformation of the material. 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50
If the correct grinding wheel has Depth below ground surface, mm
been chosen, most of the heat will be
removed in the chips, with only a Figure 7. Hardness profile through the
smaller part heating up the work- surface layer of an incorrectly ground tool.
piece.
Re-hardened layer in an
incorrectly ground tool.
Incorrect grinding of a hardened tool
steel can result in such a high tem-
perature at the ground surface that
the tempering temperature of the
material is exceeded. This results in a
reduction in the hardness of the sur-
face. If the temperature is allowed to
rise further, the hardening tempera-
ture of the material can be reached,
resulting in rehardening. This pro-
duces a mixture of non-tempered
and tempered martensite in the sur-
face layer, together with retained
austenite, as shown in Photo 3. Very
high stresses arise in the material,
often resulting in the formation of
cracks.
11
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
The surface exhibits a high hardness
due to the untempered martensite.
An overtempered zone occurs just
below the surface, where the hard-
ness is lower than the basic hardness
of the workpiece.
Incorrect grinding, resulting in a
modified surface layer, often reveals
itself through burn marks—discolora-
tion of the ground surface. In order
to avoid burning and grinding cracks,
it is necessary to keep down the
temperature of the ground part, e.g.
by means of good cooling, and to
employ properly dressed grinding
wheels that cut the material with
sharp cutting edges instead of simply
generating heat through friction.
A simple example of how incorrect
grinding can cause cracks is shown in
Figure 8. A hardened punch with a
head is to be cylindrical-ground, with
the head (b) being ground flat in the
same operation.
Alternative A shows the use of a
grinding wheel trued with a 90° edge.
The grinding wheel, which is suitable
for cylindrical grinding of the surface
(a), produces a good result on sur-
face (a). Here the contact surface is
small so the self sharpening perform-
ance is good. The head, on the other
hand, which is to be ground flat,
presents a larger contact surface to
the grinding wheel. The specific
forces on the abrasive grains are low
so that the wheel does not self-
sharpen. Instead, surface (b) is sub-
jected mainly to rubbing and the heat
generated can cause grinding cracks.
Alternative B shows a better way to
grind the punch. In this case, the side
of the grinding wheel has been trued
as shown so that the contact surface
at (b) is smaller. This results in im-
proved self-sharpening and “cooler”
grinding.
Case C shows the preferred way to
grind this part. The grinding wheel is
set at an angle, so that the two con-
tact surfaces are of approximately the
same size.
The retained austenite content of a
hardened material can also affect the
grinding result. High retained austen-
12
ite levels increase the risk of crack
formation when grinding.
The majority of grinding operations
leave residual stresses in the ground
surface. These stresses are usually at
a maximum close to the surface, and
can cause permanent deformation of
the ground part when grinding thin
materials.
Of the three examples shown in
Figure 9, Example 1 is most at risk in
respect of crack formation. It exhibits
tensile stresses in the surface which
can, if they exceed the material’s
ultimate tensile strength, result in the
material cracking.
Examples 2 and 3 are not as danger-
ous—the surface stresses are com-
pressive stresses, which result in
improved fatigue strength of the
ground parts.
A
b
a
B –
Better
b +
a Example 2
C Example 3
Best
b
a
Figure 8. Incorrect grinding can often result
in grinding cracks.
It is, unfortunately, very difficult to
produce a simple check to determine
the stress pattern set up in the
ground part unless the stresses are
so high that grinding cracks are vis-
ible.
Grinding stresses can be reduced by
stress-relief tempering after grinding.
The tempering temperature should
be about 25°C below the previous
tempering temperature in order to
avoid any risk of reducing the hard-
ness of the workpiece.
Another way of reducing grinding
stresses is to tumble or blast the
ground parts.
+
Example 1
Depth below the surface
Tension
Depth below the surface
Com-
pression
–
+
Depth below the surface
–
Figure 9. Three typical examples of stress
distribution in a ground surface.
 GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

have not so good self-sharpening

Recommendations
for grinding of
Uddeholm tool steel
GRINDING OF
HIGH-CARBIDE TOOL STEEL
The high carbide content of high-
carbide tool steel gives them excel-
lent wear resistance, and require
special recommendations in respect
of grinding operations and selection
of grinding wheels. For the majority
of grinding operations, CBN wheels
are the best choice for such steel.
There are two different types of
carbide rich tool steel, conventionally
made steel and powder steel. The
main differences that affect the grind-
ing properties are the hardness, size
and distribution of carbides, see
Figure 10 below.
• Powder steel, such as Uddeholm
Elmax, Uddeholm Vanadis and
Uddeholm Vancron, have in spite of
the high alloying level relatively
good grinding properties due to
the small carbide/nitro carbide size.
The small carbides will give the
grinding wheel good self-sharpening
properties.
• Conventionally made steel, such as
Uddeholm Rigor, Uddeholm
Sleipner and Uddeholm Sverker,
Conventionally made
high-carbide steel
properties as powder steel due to
the bigger carbide size. However,
the lower carbide hardness and
carbide content will compensate
for the grinding properties.
Figure 11 shows the results of sur-
face grinding trials on Uddeholm
Vanadis 10 with aluminium oxide, fine
crystalline aluminium oxide and CBN
grinding wheels.
As can be seen in Figure 11, mate-
rial is removed more quickly, and the
G-ratio is higher, using CBN wheels.
These wheels have a “colder” cut,
with less risk of “burning” the sur-
face.
If the material is to be profile-
ground, bear in mind that a consider-
able quantity of heat will be gener-
ated. Experiments have shown that
vitrified CBN wheels are preferable
for this application. These wheels also
3
Stock removal rate mm /s
14
11,8 13,3
12
11
10
8
6 coolant, select a grinding wheel
4
2 performed with coolant
Al2O3 Al2O3-SG CBN
operate well for other grinding ope-
rations, provided that a high periph-
eral speed can be maintained.
Where boron nitride wheels cannot
be used, the type of grinding wheel
must be chosen with care. White
aluminium oxide or green silicon
carbide wheels are recommended.
Fine-crystalline aluminium oxide
wheels, such as the Norton SG, give
good results if the grinding set-up is
rigid.
When grinding high-carbide steel,
the grinding wheel should always be
somewhat softer in order to ensure
good self-sharpening performance.
In addition, the following points
must be borne in mind:
• the grinder must be vibration-free,
rigid and in good condition
• the workpiece must be securely
clamped. Use a steady rest when
grinding long, thin workpieces
• use sharp conical diamonds when
dressing Al2O3 and SiC wheels. The
dressed finish must be rough
• maintain a high peripheral speed of
grinding wheels
• ensure an adequate supply of
coolant to the grinding zone
• if grinding is carried out without a
that is one grade softer than would
have been used if grinding was
• never grind a hardened workpiece
before it has been tempered

Carbides G-ratio

270
240
253
Work piece 210
180
Powder steel 150
Carbides 120

90
60
Work piece Figure 11. Surface grinding of Uddeholm
30 Vanadis 10 with various grinding wheels.
0,68 2,4
(Grinding wheel width: Al2O3 40 mm, CBN
Al2O3 Al2O3-SG CBN 20 mm.)
Figure 10. Carbide size and distribution in
high-carbide tool steel (highly schematic).

13
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
GRINDING OF
CONVENTIONAL TOOL STEEL
This group covers all the other
conventionally produced tool steel.
Providing that common grinding
recommendations are followed,
problems are seldom encountered
when grinding these tool steel. For
these steel, ordinary aluminium oxide
grinding wheels are perfectly suitable.
CBN wheels can also be used if the
steel are to be ground in the hard-
ened and tempered condition.
GRINDING OF PRECIPITATION
HARDENING STEEL
Precipitation hardening steel, such as
Uddeholm Corrax, behaves in a little
different way than other tool steel
when grinding. It tends to clog the
grinding wheel, especially if the grind-
ing wheel is hard and has a close
structure. The clogging can cause
problems like low material removal
rate and rough surface finish. To prev-
ent the clogging, observe following
recommendations:
• the wheel should have an open and
porous structure
• use a softer wheel grade (hardness)
than for other types of tool steel
• the wheel dressing should be done
frequent and rough
• the coolant concentration should
be high (>5%) for efficient lubrica-
tion
Conventional Al2O3 wheels are
recommended, but SiC wheels can be
a better choice for high surface finish
when a small amount of material is to
be ground. No particular difference in
grindability between solution treated
and aged condition. In the table with
recommended grinding wheels, page
16–17, suitable standard type of
grinding wheels are recommended.
However, if a lot of grinding is to be
done in this type of steel, it is recom-
mended to select a wheel with a
more open structure than a standard
wheel type.
14
Cutting speed
and feed
GRINDING WHEEL SPEED
(CUTTING SPEED)
When using small grinding machines,
the spindle speed often restricts
choice of cutting speed.
A common safety limit for vitrified
grinding wheels is 35 m/s. However,
some grinding wheels are approved
for peripheral speeds of 125 m/s.
A common cutting speed for
surface and cylindrical grinding is
20–35 m/s. Varying the peripheral
speed of the wheel makes it possible
to modify its grinding performance.
Increasing the peripheral speed of
the wheel while retaining the same
workpiece speed means that the
wheel behaves as if it was harder.
Reducing the peripheral speed makes
the wheel seem softer.
A suitable peripheral speed for
resinoid CBN wheels is 30–40 m/s.
For vitrified CBN wheels, a cutting
speed ≥45 m/s is often necessary.
When grinding high-carbide tool
steel, the peripheral speed of the
grinding wheel should be high. Tests
on cylindrical grinding of Uddeholm
Elmax have shown that the G-ratio of
the grinding wheel dropped from 127
to 28 when the peripheral speed was
dropped from 60 m/s to 30 m/s.
Cutting speed, in other words, has a
considerable effect on the economics
of grinding.
WORKPIECE SPEED
For surface grinding, the speed of the
workpiece should be 10–20 m/min.
For conventional cylindrical grinding,
this speed should be 15–20 m/min.
This speed should be reduced for
smaller diameter workpieces, for
which 5–10 m/min is suitable.
Varying the workpiece speed also
provides a means of modifying the
grinding performance of the wheel.
Increasing the speed of the work-
piece makes the wheel seem softer,
while reducing its speed produces a
harder wheel.
CROSS-FEED
The cross-feed speed of a grinding
wheel, i.e. its sideways motion, is
higher for rough grinding than for
fine grinding.
In the case of cylindrical grinding,
the cross-feed should be about
1/3–1/2 of the width of the wheel for
each revolution of the workpiece. For
fine surface finish, this ratio should be
reduced to 1/6–1/3 of the width of
the grinding wheel per revolution of
the workpiece.
If a very high standard of surface
finish is required, cross feed can be
further reduced to 1/8–1/10 of the
grinding wheel width.
When surface grinding with a
straight wheel, choose a transverse
feed of 1/6–1/3 of the width of the
grinding wheel for each stroke. Again,
reduce this feed for high surface
finish requirements.
Note that when the cross-feed is
increased, the active contact surface
area between the grinding wheel and
the workpiece becomes larger, result-
ing in an apparent increase in hard-
ness of the grinding wheel.

INFEED
The infeed of the grinding wheel
depends on the type of wheel and
the rigidity of the grinder and/or
workpiece clamping.
Guide values for cylindrical grinding
using conventional grinding wheels
are:
Rough finish ~0.05 mm/pass.
Fine finish ~0.005–0.010 mm/pass.
The above feeds should be halved for
cylindrical grinding using CBN
wheels.
For surface grinding using a straight
grinding wheel, the feed depths for
conventional wheels are:
Rough finish ~0.025–0.075 mm/pass.
Fine finish ~0.005–0.010 mm/pass.
The feed depths when using CBN
wheels are:
Rough finish ~0,010–0,040 mm/pass.
Fine finish ~0,005–0,010 mm/pass.
When using grinding wheels having
fine-crystalline aluminium oxide
abrasive, such as the Norton SG type,
feed depth should be increased
somewhat over the above values
in order to achieve higher grinding
pressure and hence good self-
sharpening performance.
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL
Grinding Suitable
wheel dressing grinding wheels
The examples of grinding wheels in
During dressing a helix along the
the tables, page 16–17, have been
wheel periphery is made. The lead of
made in consultation with grinding
helix which the dressing tool is being
wheel manufacturers, and are based
fed affects the structure of the grind-
on our own and others experience.
ing wheel. The lead of helix depends
both of the r.p.m. of the grinding However, it must be emphasised that
wheel and the speed of the dressing the choice of grinding wheel is
strongly dependent on the type of
tool.
grinding machine, rigidity of clamping
The following are rules of thumbs
and the size of the workpiece, which
for grinding wheel dressing with
means that the recommendations
single point diamonds and similar
should be seen as starting points,
tools.
from which each particular process
Rough Fine
should be optimized.
dressing dressing
Diamond infeed
(mm) 0,02–0,04 0,01–0,02
Diamond
transverse rate
(mm/wheel rev.) 0,15–0,30 0,05–0,10
Diamond is sensitive for high tem-
peratures. Therefore, dressing with
diamonds should always be carried
out with plenty of coolant. The
coolant should always be turned on
before the diamond touches the
wheel. Single point diamond dressing
tool should be systematically rotated
to maintain the sharpness.
GRINDING PROBLEMS—REMEDIES
The table shows the most important
actions to solve different grinding
problems.
SYMPTOM REMEDY
Chatter marks Check the wheel balance.
Ensure that the diamond is sharp.
Ensure that the diamond is fixed.
Finish too coarse Use fine, slow traverse dress.
Decrease work speed.
Use finer grit wheel.
Use harder grade wheel.
Burning, grinding cracks Ensure that the diamond is sharp.
Use coarse dress.
Ensure that the coolant reaches the contact point.
Use softer grade wheel.
Short wheel life Ensure that the cutting speed is sufficient.
Reduce depth of cut and feed.
Use harder grade wheel.
Flecking on surface finish Check coolant filtration.
Flush wheel guard.
15
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

Example of suitable grinding wheels

The grinding wheels are of SlipNaxos1) ,Tyrolit2), Norton3) and Unicorn4) type. The designations, however,
essentially comply with international standards.

UDDEHOLM SURFACE GRINDING SURFACE GRINDING

STEEL GRADE CONDITION CENTERLESS STRAIGHT WHEEL SEGMENT
Conventional steel:
1) 1) 1)
ALVAR Soft 33A 60 LVM 43A 46 HVZ 43A 24 FVZ
2) 2) 2)
ALVAR 14 annealed 89A 60 2 K5A V217 91A 46 I8A V217 88A 36 H8A V2
3) 3) 3)
ARNE SGB 60 MVX 3SG 46 G10 VXPM 86A 30 G12 VXPM
4) 4) 4)
CALDIE 51A 601 L5V MRAA WA 46 HV WA 24 GV
CALMAX
DIEVAR
FORMAX
1) 1) 1)
HOTVAR Hardened 62A 60 LVZ 48A 46 HVZ 48A 46 FVZP
2) 2) 2)
MIRRAX ESR 89A 60 2 K5A V217 97A 46 2 H8A V217 97A 46 1 H10A V2
3) 3) 3)
ORVAR SUPREME SGB 60 MVX SGB 46 G10 VXPM 86A 36 F12 VXPC
4) 4) 4)
ORVAR 2 MICRODIZED 48A 601 L8V LNAA WA 46 GV WA 36 GV
POLMAX
QRO 90 SUPREME
REGIN 3
STAVAX ESR
THG 2000
UHB 11
UNIMAX
ORVAR SUPERIOR
VIDAR SUPERIOR
VIDAR 1
VIDAR 1 ESR
1) 1) 1)
HOLDAX Pre-hardened 33A 60 LVM 43A 46 HVZ 43A 24 FVZ
2) 2) 2)
IMPAX HI HARD 97A 60 1 K5A V217 89A46 2 I7A V217 88A 36 H8A V2
3) 3) 3)
IMPAX SUPREME SGB 60 MVX SGB 46 G10 VXPM 86A 36 F12 VXPC
4) 4) 4)
NIMAX 51A 601 L5V MRAA WA 46 HV WA 24 GV
RAMAX HH
RAMAX LH

Precipitation
hardening steel: Solution 1)
33A 60 KVM 1)
43A 46 GVZ 1)
43A 36 FVZ
2) 1) 1)
treated or 97A 60 2 K5A V227 15C 46 HVD 15C 36 GVD
3) 2) 2)
CORRAX aged SGB 60 KVX 89A 46 1 H8A V217 89A 362 I 10A V237 P20
4) 3) 3)
SPH 50 48A 601 J8V LNAA 3SG 46 G10 VXPM 1TGP 36 F12 VXPC
4) 4)
WA 46 GV WA 24 GV

High carbide steel:

1) 1) 1)
ELMAX Soft annealed 33A 60 LVM 43A 46 HVZ 43A 36 FVZ
2) 2) 2)
RIGOR 97A 60 2 J5A V227 455A 36 2 K15 V3 P22 454A 46 K13 V3
3) 3) 3)
SLEIPNER SGB 60 LVX 3SG 46 G10 VXPM 53A 30 F12 VBEP
4) 4) 4)
SVERKER 3 51A 601 L5V MRAA WA 46 HV WA 24 GV
SVERKER 21
VANADIS 4 EXTRA
VANADIS 6
VANADIS 10
VANADIS 23
VANADIS 30
VANADIS 60
VANCRON 40
1) 1) 1)
RIGOR Hardened 48A 60 LVZ B151 R50 B3 420A 46 FVQP
1) 1) 2)
SLEIPNER 820A 60 LVQ 420A 46 G12VQP 89A 362 I8A V2
2) 2) 3)
SVERKER 21 97A 60 1 K5A V227 51B126 C50B Vib-Star 3SG 36 HVX
3) 2) 4)
VANADIS 23 SGB 60 LVX 455A 36 2 K15 V3 P22 WA 36 HV
4) 3)
VANADIS 30 48A 601 L8V LNAA SGB 46 HVX
4) 3)
VANCRON 40 43A 601 L8V LNAA 3SG 46G10 VXPM
4)
B126 V18 KR237
4)
27A 46 HV
1) 1) 1)
ELMAX Hardened 48A 60 LVZ B151 R50 B3 420A 46 FVQP
1) 1) 2)
SVERKER 3 820A 60 LVQ 420A 46 G12VQP 454A 46 K13 V3
2) 2) 3)
VANADIS 4 EXTRA 97A 60 K5A V217 51B126 C50B Vib-Star 3SG 46 FVSPF
3) 2) 4)
VANADIS 6 SGB 60 LVX 455A 36 2 K15 V3 P22 WA 46 FV
4) 3)
VANADIS 10 48A 601 L8V LNAA C150 QBA
4) 3)
VANADIS 60 43A 601 L8V LNAA SGB 46 HVX
4)
B126 V18 KR237
4)
27A 46 HV

16
 GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

UDDEHOLM CYLINDRICAL
STEEL GRADE CONDITION GRINDING INTERNAL GRINDING PROFILE GRINDING

Conventional steel:
1) 1) 1)
ALVAR Soft 33A 46 KVM 77A 60 K9VZ 42A 100 IVZ
2) 2) 2)
ALVAR 14 annealed 89A 60 2 K 5A V217 89A 60 2 K6 V112 89A 801 G11A V237 P25
3) 3) 3)
ARNE 19A 60 KVS 32A 46 L5 VBE 32A 100 KVS
4) 4) 4)
CALDIE 48A 46 LV WA 46 JV WA 100 LV
CALMAX
DIEVAR
FORMAX
1) 1) 1)
HOTVAR Hardened 48A 60 KVZ 77A 80 K9VZ 42A 1003 HVZ
2) 2) 2)
MIRRAX ESR 92A 60 2 I6 V111 AH 120 K6 VCOL 89A 100 2 H11A V2
3) 3) 3)
ORVAR SUPREME SGB 60 KVX 32A 60K5 VBE 32A 100 KVS
4) 4) 4)
ORVAR 2 MICRODIZED WA 60 JV WA 60 IV WA 120 JV
POLMAX
QRO 90 SUPREME
REGIN 3
STAVAX ESR
THG 2000
UHB 11
UNIMAX
ORVAR SUPERIOR
VIDAR SUPERIOR
VIDAR 1
VIDAR 1 ESR
1) 1) 1)
HOLDAX Pre-hardened 33A 46 KVM 77A 60 K9VZ 42A 100 IVZ
2) 2) 2)
IMPAX HI HARD 89A 60 2 K 5A V217 97A 60 2 K6 V112 89A 80 1G11A V237 P25
3) 3) 3)
IMPAX SUPREME 19A 60 KVS 32A 46 L5 VBE 32A 100 KVS
4) 4) 4)
NIMAX 48A 46 LV WA 46 JV WA 100 LV
RAMAX HH
RAMAX LH

Precipitation
hardening steel: Solution 1)
42A 60 JVZ 1)
42A 60 J9 VZ 1)
42A 100 HVZ
1) 1) 2)
treated or 15C 60 IVD 15C 60 IVD 89A 80 1G11A V237 P25
2) 2) 3)
CORRAX aged 89A 60 2 J5A V217 64B91 K11 V333 VV 32A 100 JVS
3) 3) 4)
SPH 50 SGB 60 JVX 32A 46 K5 VBE 77A 100 J8V LNAA
4) 4)
77A 461 K7V LNAA 25A 601 J85VP MCNN

High carbide steel:

1) 1) 1)
ELMAX Soft annealed 62A 60 KVZ 77A 60 K9 VZ 42A 100 IVZ
2) 2) 2)
RIGOR 454A 80 J11 V3 AH 120 K6 VCOL F13A 54 FF22V Strato
3) 3) 3)
SLEIPNER SGB 60 KVX 32A 46 L5 VBE 32A 100 KVS
4) 4) 4)
SVERKER 3 48A 46 LV WA 46 JV WA 100 LV
SVERKER 21
VANADIS 4 EXTRA
VANADIS 6
VANADIS 10
VANADIS 23
VANADIS 30
VANADIS 60
VANCRON 40
1) 1) 1)
RIGOR Hardened B151 R50 B3 B151 R75 B3 B126 R100 B6
1) 1) 1)
SLEIPNER 48A 60 KVZ 430A 80 J VQA 820A 1003 GVQ
2) 2) 2)
SVERKER 21 51B126 C50B Vib-Star 51B126 C100 B54 B126 C75 B53
2) 2) 2)
VANADIS 23 454A 80 J11 V3 C202 H5A V18 89A 80 1 G11A V237 P25
3) 3) 3)
VANADIS 30 SGB 60 KVX CB150 TBA CB150 TBE
3) 3) 3)
VANCRON 40 3SGP 70 JVX 3SG 60 JVX 5SG 80 KVX
4) 4) 4)
B126 V18 KR191 B126 V24 KR237 B126K V24 KR237
4) 4) 4)
27A 60 JV 27A 60 HV 27A 100 JV
1) 1) 1)
ELMAX Hardened B151 R50 B3 B151 R75 B3 B126 R100 B6
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 3 420A 54 JVQ 430A 80 J VQA 820A 1003 GVQ
2) 2) 2)
VANADIS 4 Extra 51B126 C50B Vib-Star 51B126 C100 B54 B126 C75 B53
2) 2) 2)
VANADIS 6 454A 80 J11 V3 C202 H54 V18 F13A 54 FF22V Strato
3) 3) 3)
VANADIS 10 CB150 QBA CB150 TBA CB150 TBE
3) 3) 3)
VANADIS 60 SGB 60 KVX 3SG 60 JVX 5SG 80 JVX
3) 4) 4)
3SGP 70 JVX B126 V24 KR237 B126K V24 KR237
4) 4) 4)
B126 V18 KR191 27A 60 HV 27A 100 IV
4)
27A 60 IV

17
GRINDING OF TOOL STEEL

18
 Network of excellence
UDDEHOLM is present on every continent. This ensures you
high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you
are. ASSAB is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales
channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier
of tooling materials.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com
 UDDEHOLM 100201.700 / TRYCKERI KNAPPEN, KARLSTAD 201002167
UDDEHOLM is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This
is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday
business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-
ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.
It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one
partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality
wherever you are. ASSAB is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive
sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of
tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm
or ASSAB representative close at hand to give local advice and support.
For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in
developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com, www.assab.com

or your local website.
EDM OF TOOL STEEL
This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide general
notes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty of
specific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.
Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/EC
For further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 3, 08.2007
The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version,
SS-EN ISO 9001
which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com
SS-EN ISO 14001
 EDM OF TOOL STEEL

Contents
Introduction ............................................ 3
The basic principles of EDM ................ 4
The effects of the EDM process
on tool steels .......................................... 4
Measuring the effects ............................ 6
Achieving best tool performance ....... 9
Polishing by EDM .................................. 11
Summary ................................................. 11

3
EDM OF TOOL STEEL
Introduction
The use of Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM) in the production
of forming tools to produce plastics
mouldings, die castings, forging dies
etc., has been firmly established in
recent years. Development of the
process has produced significant
refinements in operating technique,
productivity and accuracy, while
widening the versatility of the pro-
cess.
Wire EDM has emerged as an
efficient and economic alternative
to conventional machining of aper-
tures in many types of tooling, e.g.
blanking dies, extrusion dies and for
cutting external shapes, such as
punches.
Special forms of EDM can now be
used to polish tool cavities, produce
undercuts and make conical holes
using cylindrical electrodes.
EDM continues to grow, there-
fore, as a major production tool in
most tool making companies,
machining with equal ease hardened
or annealed steel.
Uddeholm Tooling supplies a full
range of tool steels noted for con-
sistency in structure. This factor,
coupled with very low sulphur lev-
els ensures consistent EDM per-
formance.
This brochure gives information on:
• The basic principles of EDM
• The effects of the EDM pro-
cess on tool steels
• Achieving best tool perform
ance
4
The basic
principles of EDM
Electrical discharge machining (spark
erosion) is a method involving elec-
trical discharges between an anode
(graphite or copper) and a cathode
(tool steel or other tooling mate-
rial) in a dielectric medium. The
discharges are controlled in such a
way that erosion of the tool or
work piece takes place. During the
operation, the anode (electrode)
works itself down into the work-
piece, which thus acquires the same
contours as the former.
The dielectric, or flushing liquid
as it is also called, is ionized during
the course of the discharges. The
positively charged ions strike the
cathode, whereupon the tempera-
ture in the outermost layer of
the steel rises so high (10–50,000°C/
18–90,000°F) as to cause the steel
there to melt or vaporize, forming
tiny drops of molten metal which
are flushed out as “chippings” into
the dielectric. The craters (and
occasionally also “chips” which have
not separated completely) are easily
recognized in a cross section of a
machined surface. See figure 1.
Four main factors need to be taken
into account when considering the
operating parameters during an
EDM operation on tool steel:
• the stock-removal rate
• the resultant surface finish
• electrode wear
• the effects on the tool steel.
The influence of the EDM operation
on the surface properties of the
machined material, can in unfavour-
able circumstances jeopardize the
working performance of the tool.
In such cases it may be necessary to
subordinate the first three factors,
when choosing machining para-
meters, in order to optimize the
fourth.
The effects of
the EDM process
on tool steels
The influence of spark erosion on
the machined material is completely
different to that of conventional
machining methods.
As noted, the surface of the steel
is subjected to very high tempera-
tures, causing the steel to melt or
vaporize. The effect upon the steel
surface has been studied by Udde-
holm Tooling to ensure that the
tool maker may enjoy the many
benefits of the EDM process, while
producing a tool that will have a
satisfactory production life.
In the majority of cases, it has
been impossible to trace any influ-
ence at all on the working function
of the spark-eroded tool. However,
it has been observed that a trim-
ming tool, for example, has become
more wear resistant, while in some
cases tool failure has occurred pre-
maturely on changing from conven-
tional machining to EDM. In other
cases, phenomena have occurred
during the actual electrical discharge
machining that have caused un-
expected defects on the surface of
the tool. This due to the fact that
the machining has been carried out
in an unsuitable manner.
Fig.1. A “rough-machined”
EDM surface with a cross
section through chips and
craters. Material: Uddeholm
Orvar 2 Microdized.
 EDM OF TOOL STEEL

“Surface strength”— invariably follows the direction of Tempered layer

an important factor the crystals. In normal rough In the tempered layer, the steel
machining, this layer has a thickness has not been heated up so much as
All the changes that can be ob-
of about 15–30 µm. to reach hardening temperature and
served are due to the enormous
The carbon content in the surface the only thing that has occurred is
temperature rise which occurs in
layer can also be affected, for in- tempering-back. The effect naturally
the surface layer.
stance, by carburization from the decreases towards the core of the
In the surface layer, it has been ob- flushing liquid or from the elec- material – see the hardness curve in
served that the four (main) factors trode, but decarburization can also figure 2.
associated with the all-important occur. In order to study the structural
“surface strength” of the steel are
changes incurred with different
affected by this temperature in- Rehardened layer machining variables, different tool
crease:
In the rehardened layer, the tem- steels—see table 1—were “rough-
• the microstructure
perature has risen above the auste- machined” and “fine-machined” with
• the hardness
nitizing (hardening) temperature graphite electrodes.
• the stress condition
and martensite has been formed.
• carbon content.
This martensite is hard and brittle.
Figure 2 shows a section from a
normal rough-spark-machined
surface with the typical, different
structural changes.

Melted and resolidified layer

The melted and resolidified
layer produced during the EDM
process is also referred to as the
“white zone”, since generally no
etching takes place in these areas
during metallographic preparation.
Figure 3, nevertheless, shows clearly
that it is a rapidly solidified layer,
where long pillar crystals have
grown straight out from the surface 1000 x
of the metal during solidification. Fig. 3. Pillar crystals formed during
A fracture occurring in this layer solidification.

400 600 800 1000

Hv
Melted and
resolidified layer

Rehardened layer

Tempered layer

Unaffected matrix

200 X
Typical hardness distribution
in the surface layer

Fig. 2. Section from a spark-machined surface showing changes in structure.

Material: Uddeholm Rigor, hardened to 57 HRC.

5
EDM OF TOOL STEEL

Austenitizing, time 20 min Tempering, time 2 x 30 min Hardness

Uddeholm Temperature Temperature Hardened Annealed
steel grade AISI °C °F °C °F HRC HB Note: As Uddeholm Corrax is
a precipitation hardening steel
ARNE O1 810 1490 220 430 60 190 the EDM surface has different
CALMAX – 960 1760 200 392 58 200 characteristics. The “white
RIGOR A2 940 1725 220 430 60 – layer” consists of melted and
SVERKER 21 D2 1020 1870 250 480 60 220
resolidified material with a
IMPAX SUPREME P20 850 1560 580 1075 30 –
hardness of approx. 34 HRC.
ORVAR SUPREME H13 1025 1875 560 1040 50 180
There will be no other heat
affected zone of importance.
Table 1. The tool steels were tested in the hardened and tempered condition, and some of them
also in the annealed condition.

Thickness µm
Measuring 80
Graphite electrode
the effects 60 Fig. 4a. Layer thicknesses and
fissure frequency in the surface
40 Melted zone
The thicknesses of the heat- layer in electrical discharge
20 machining of hardened (52 HRC)
affected zones have been measured. Hardended zone
The hardnesses in these zones 0 Uddeholm Orvar Supreme at
Matrix different pulse durations.
have also been measured, as have
100 200 500 1000 ti µ sec
crack frequencies and crack 21 25 43(A)
depths. Strength values have – – 3(B)
– – –(C)
been obtained through bending
tests. No. of cracks per cm: (A) in melted zone
The layer thicknesses appear to (B) in hardened zone
(C) in matrix
be largely independent of both steel
grade and electrode material. On Thickness µm
the other hand, there is a definite
difference between the specimens Graphite electrode
60
which have been hardened and
40
those which were in the softanneal- Fig. 4b. As above, but for
ed condition. Figure 4 shows, in the 20 Melted zone
electrical discharge machining of
form of graphs, the layer thicknesses 0 Hardended zone Uddeholm Orvar Supreme in
Matrix the annealed condition.
and fissure frequency with different
100 200 500 1000 ti µ sec
pulse durations for Uddeholm 5 19 15(A)
Orvar Supreme. – – –(B)
– – –(C)
In the annealed material, the zones
are thinner and the fissures fewer. No. of cracks per cm: (A) in melted zone
(B) in hardened zone
The brittle, hardened zone is scar- (C) in matrix
cely present at all (figure 4b).
The layer thicknesses can vary
considerably, from 0 µm to maxi-
mum values slightly below the Rmax
specified in the machining directions.
In the rough-machining stages
(ti ≥100µ sec), the thicknesses of the
layers vary far more substantially
than in the fine-machining stages. Fig. 5. Fine-machined Uddeholm
The thickness of both the melted Rigor, pulse duration 10µ sec.
100 x
and the hardened zone increases
with spark duration, which appears the beneficial effect of “fine-finish-
to be the most important single ing”, i.e. to produce a very thin re-
controlling variable. Figure 5 shows melted and heat-affected zone.

6

Structures of
spark-machined layers
With longer pulse duration, the
heat is conducted more deeply into
the material. Higher current inten-
sity and density (and thus spark
energy) do, indeed, give a higher
“amount of heat” in the surface, but
the time taken for the heat to dif-
fuse, nevertheless, appears to have
the greatest significance. The pic-
tures below show how the surface
zones are changed in Uddeholm
Sverker 21 (in hardened and tem-
pered condition) with different
pulse durations and electrode mate-
rials.
ti = 10 µs. Magnification 500 x
Figur 6a. Copper electrode
ti = 10 µs. Magnification 500 x
Figur 6b. Graphite electrode
ti = 100 µs. Magnification 500 x
Figur 6c. Graphite electrode
The cause of “arcing”
Short off-times, or pause times, give
more sparks per unit of time and
thus more stock removal. During
the off-time, the dielectric fluid
ti = 200 µs. Magnification 500 x
Figur 6d. Copper electrode
ti = 500 µs. Magnification 500 x
Figur 6e. Graphite electrode
1:1
Figur 7. The suspected “pores” can
be seen on the surface of the tool
65 x
Figur 8. A section through one of the
suspected “pores”
EDM OF TOOL STEEL
must have time to become de-
ionized. Too short an off-time can
result in double sparking “ignitions”
which lead to constantly burning
arcs between the electrode and the
work piece, resulting in serious
surface defects. The risk of arcing is
increased if flushing conditions for
the dielectric fluid are difficult.
As a result of “arcing”, i.e. a con-
dition in which arcs are formed
between local parts of the elec-
trode and the workpiece, large cra-
ters or “burns” are formed in the
surface. These have frequently been
confused with slag inclusions or
porosity in the material. Figures 7
and 8 show the surface of a tool
with a section through one of the
suspected “pores”.
One of the primary causes of this
type of defect is inadequate flushing,
or machining of narrow slots, etc.,
resulting in chips and other loose
particles forming a bridge between
the electrode and the workpiece.
The same effect can be obtained
with a graphite electrode which
bears traces of foreign material.
On modern machines featuring so-
called adaptive current control, the
risk of “arcing” has been eliminated.
7
EDM OF TOOL STEEL
Fissure frequency
also increases with pulse
duration
With times in excess of 100µ sec,
all steels reveal several cracks in
the melted layer. High-carbon and/
or air-hardening steels show the
highest frequency of fissures. The
annealed specimens contain no
cracks at all in the matrix.
The number of cracks which con-
tinue down into the hardened zone
is roughly 20%, while only a very
few cracks penetrate into the ma-
trix. In the matrix, the fissure depth
is seldom more than about some
tens of a µm. Here too, it applies
that cracks in the matrix are mainly
encountered in the highly-alloyed
cold-working steels. Table 2 shows
the occurrence rate of fissures in a
number of tested tool steels.
The difference in stock-removal
rate amounts to a maximum of
approx. 15% between the different
grades of tool steel with the same
machine setting data.
The hardnesses in the different
layers can also vary considerably,
but in principle the same pattern
applies to all grades. Figure 9 shows
a typical hardness distribution.
Graphite electrode
t = 200 µ sec
i
HV
1000
800
600
400
Hardness immediately
after EDM
200 Hardness after re-
tempering
0
0 50 100
8
Melted Hardened
zone zone Matrix
High-alloy cold-work steel
UDDEHOLM SVERKER type 20–50 2–10 0–5
Hot-work steel
UDDEHOLM ORVAR type 10–40 2–5 0–2
Cold-work steels
UDDEHOLM RIGOR and
UDDEHOLM ARNE types 10–30 0–5 0–2
Plastic-moulding steel
UDDEHOLM IMPAX SUPREME type 0–5 0–2 0
Table 2. The table shows the occurrence rate of fissures.
The difference in hardness and vol- be eliminated, some different
ume between the layers gives rise related operations can be used:
to stresses which, upon measure- • Stress-relief tempering at a
ment, have been found to have the tempering temperature approx.
same depth as the affected surface 15°C (30°F) lower than that
layers. These stresses can be sub- previously used tempering tem-
stantially reduced by extra heat- perature, lowers the surface
treatment operations. hardness without influencing the
Renewed tempering (235°C/ hardness of the matrix.
455°F 30 min) of the specimen in
• Grinding or polishing will re-
figure 9 resulted in lowering of the
move both the surface structure
hardness level to the curve drawn
and cracks, depending of course
with a broken line.
on how deeply it is done (approx.
If electrical discharge machining is
5–10 µm in fine-machining).
properly performed with a final
fine-machined stage, surface defects
are largely eliminated. If this is not
possible for one reason or another,
or if it is necessary for all effects to
Fig. 9. Typical hardness distribu-
tion in hardened Uddeholm
Sverker 21 immediately after EDM
and then after re-tempering.
150 µm
 EDM OF TOOL STEEL

Bending test Background to Achieving best

To evaluate the likely effect of the the bending test results
remelted layer, surface irregularities The hard, re-solidified rehardened
tool performance
and cracks produced in the EDM layers cause, in the first instance, EDM using solid electrodes
process on the strength of a tool, a those cracks which are formed (copper/graphite)
bending test was carried out. Vari- upon application of the load and in
As noted, in most cases where the
ous combinations of EDM surface the second instance those which
EDM process has been carefully
finish and post treatments, e.g. were already present to act as initia-
carried out no adverse effect is
stress-relieving/polishing, were tors of failure in the matrix. At
experienced on tool performance.
tested on 5 mm square test pieces 57 HRC, the matrix is not tough
As a precautionary measure,
of Rigor at 57 HRC. The test pieces enough to stop the cracks from
however, the following steps are
were spark-machined on one face growing and consequently the fail-
recommended:
to different EDM stages and bent ure occurs already on the elastic
severely, with the EDM surface on part of the load curve. Normally,
EDM OF HARDENED AND
the outside of the bend. there should have been a certain TEMPERED MATERIAL
Figure 10 shows that the sample amount of plastic bending of a test
with a fine-spark machined finish bar in this material. A Conventional machining
which had been polished afterwards B Hardening and tempering
gave the best result. The rough C Initial EDM, avoiding “arcing” and
spark-machined sample, without any excessive stock removal rates.
Finish with “fine-sparking”, i.e. low
post treatment, had the lowest current, high frequency.
bending strength. D (i) Grind or polish EDM surface
or D (ii) Temper the tool at 15°C
(30°F) lower than the original
Bending strength tempering temperature.
N/mm2
1200 or D (iii) Choose a lower starting
hardness of the tool to
1100
improve overall toughness.
1000
900
800
EDM OF ANNEALED MATERIAL
700
600 A Conventional machining
Fine spark-machined, Polished

500 B Initial EDM, as C above.

Fine spark-machined
Rough spark-machined
Rough spark-machined

C Grind or polish EDM surface.

Fine spark-machined

400
This reduces the risk of crack
300 formation during heating and
Stress-relieved
Stress-relieved

200 quenching. Slow pre-heating, in

stages, to the hardening tempera-
100 ture is recommended.
0

Fig. 10. Bending strength at different EDM stages and with

different subsequent operation. Material Uddeholm Rigor Note: When EDM’d in solution
57 HRC. The shaded areas show the spread of the results
measured. annealed condition the toughness of
Uddeholm Corrax is not affected.
It is recommended that all
EDM’ing of Uddeholm Corrax is
done after aging since an aging after
EDM’ing will reduce the toughness.
It is recommended that the
“white layer” is removed by grind-
ing, stoning or polishing.

9
EDM OF TOOL STEEL
Wire EDM
The observation made about the
EDM surface in earlier pages are
also mostly applicable to the wire
EDM-process.
The affected surface layer, how-
ever, is relatively thin (<10 µm) and
can be compared more to “fine-
sparking” EDM. Normally there are
no observable cracks in the eroded
surface after wire erosion. But in
certain cases another problem has
been experienced.
After heat treating a through
hardening steel the part contains
high stresses (the higher the tem-
pering temperature, the lower the
stresses).
Fig. 12. This block of D2 steel, approx.
50 x 50 x 50 mm (2" x 2" x 2"), cracked
during the wire EDM operation.
10
These stresses take the form of
tensile stresses in the surface area
and compressive stresses in the
centre and are in opposition to each
other. During the wire erosion pro-
cess a greater or lesser amount of
steel is removed from the heat-
treated part. Where a large volume
of steel is removed, this can some-
times lead to distortion or even
cracking of the part. The reason is
that the stress balance in the part is
disturbed and tries to reach an
equilibrium again. The problem of
crack formation is usually only
encountered in relatively thick cross
section, e.g. over 50 mm (2") thick.
With such heavier sections, correct
hardening and double tempering is
important.
Fig. 11. Wire erosion of a hardened and tempered
tool steel blanking die.
In certain cases the risk can be
reduced through different pre-
cautions.
1: To lower the overall stress level
in the part by tempering at a high
temperature. This assumes the use
of a steel grade with high resistance
to tempering.
2: By drilling several holes in the
area to be removed and to connect
them by saw-cutting, before harden-
ing and tempering. Any stresses
released during heat treatment are
then taken up in the pre-drilled and
sawn areas, reducing or eliminating
the risk of distortion or cracking
during wire-erosion. Fig. 13 illu-
strates how such pre-cutting may
be done.
Fig. 13. Pre-drilled holes connected
by a saw-cut, before hardening and
tempering, will help to prevent
distortion or cracking when wire
eroding thick sections.

Wire erosion
of cutting punches
When producing a cutting punch
by wire erosion, it is recommended
(as with conventional machining) to
cut it with the grain direction of the
tool steel stock in the direction of
the cutting action. This is not so
important when using PM steels
due to their non-directional grain
structure.
Polishing by EDM
Today some manufacturers of EDM-
equipment offer, by a special tech-
nique, possibilities to erode very
fine and smooth surfaces. It is pos-
sible to reach the surface finish of
about 0,2–0,3 µm. Such surfaces are
sufficient for most applications. The
greatest advantages are when com-
plicated cavities are involved. Such
cavities are difficult, time consuming
and therefore expensive to polish
manually, but can be conveniently
done by the EDM- machine during a
night-shift, for example.
Investigations made on our grades
Uddeholm Impax Supreme, Udde-
holm Orvar Supreme, Uddeholm
Stavax ESR and Uddeholm Rigor
show that the hard re-melted white
Fig. 14. This Uddeholm Stavax ESR mould insert was finished
by EDM “polishing”.
layer produced is very thin and
equal in the these grades. The thick-
ness is about 2–4 µm. Since there is
no sign of any heat-affected layer,
the influence of the EDM on me-
chanical properties is negligible.
Summary
In summing up it can be said that
properly executed electrical dis-
charge machining, using a rough and
a fine machining stage in accordance
with the manufacturer’s instruction,
eliminates the surface defects ob-
tained in rough machining. Naturally,
certain structural effects will always
remain, but in the vast majority of
cases these are insignificant, pro-
vided that the machining process
has otherwise been normal. Struc-
tural effects, more-over, need not
necessarily be regarded as entirely
negative. In certain cases the surface
structure, i.e. the rehardened layer,
has—on account of its high hard-
ness—improved the resistance of
the tool to abrasive wear. In other
cases it has been found that the
cratered topography of the surface
is better able to retain lubricant
than conventional surfaces, resulting
in a longer service life. If difficulties
EDM OF TOOL STEEL
in connection with the working
performance of spark-machined
tools should arise, however, there
are some relatively simple extra
operations that can be employed, as
indicated above.
A slightly striped appearance has
been re-ported in materials rich in
carbides, such as high-carbon cold-
work steels and high-speed steels,
where there is always a certain
amount of carbide segregation or in
material with high sulphur content.
The difference in bending strength
between rough-spark-machined and
fine-spark-machined test pieces is
largely due to the difference in the
distribution of the cracks and to the
presence of the in spots distributed
white layer on the fine-spark-
machined specimens. The rougher
surface finish of the rough-machined
specimen has not really been signi-
ficant. Regardless of circumstances,
such surface irregularities are rela-
tively harmless as crack initiators
compared with the solidification
cracks. During the polishing of the
fine-machined test piece which was
carried out, the depth of the white
and rehardened layer was merely
reduced and not completely elimi-
nated. Further polishing would
probably result in complete restora-
tion of the bending strength.
Highly stressed tools and parts
thereof, e.g. very thin sections that
are far more liable to bending, can
justify an extra finishing operation.
The lower the hardness in the
matrix, the less sensitive the mate-
rial will be to adverse effects on the
strength as a result of electrical
discharge machining. Lowering of
the hardness level of the entire tool
can, therefore, be another alterna-
tive.
11
EDM OF TOOL STEEL

Germany Lithuania Branch office

Europe Head office UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB UDDEHOLM
BE PLIENAS IR METALAI Barrio San Martín de Arteaga,132
UDDEHOLM
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Telephone: +370 37 370613, -669 Telephone: +34 94 452 13 03
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Telephone: +32 3 780 56 20
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Taylors Lane, Oldbury ul. Kolejowa 291, Dziekanów Polski, SE-431 53 Mölndal
Czech Republic GB-West Midlands B69 2BN PL-05-092 Lomianki Telephone: +46 31 67 98 70
BÖHLER UDDEHOLM CZ s.r.o. Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Telephone: +48 22 429 2260, -203, -204
Division Uddeholm Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 www.uddeholm.pl UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
U Silnice 949 www.uddeholm.co.uk Nya Tanneforsvägen 96
161 00 Praha 6, Ruzyne SE-582 42 Linköping
Telephone: +420 233 029 850,8
Portugal Telephone: +46 13 15 19 90
www.uddeholm.cz Greece F RAMADA Aços e Industrias S.A.
STASSINOPOULOS-UDDEHOLM P.O. Box 10 UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
STEEL TRADING S.A. PT-3881 Ovar Codex Derbyvägen 22
Denmark 20, Athinon Street Telephone: +351 256 580580 SE-212 35 Malmö
UDDEHOLM A/S GR-Piraeus 18540 www.ramada.pt Telephone: +46 40 22 32 05
Kokmose 8, Bramdrupdam Telephone: +30 210 4172 109
DK-6000 Kolding www.uddeholm.gr UDDEHOLM TOOLING SVENSKA AB
Telephone: +45 75 51 70 66
Romania Honnörsgatan 16A
www.uddeholm.dk SKLERO S.A. BÖHLER-UDDEHOLM Romania SRL SE-352 36 Växjö
Heat Treatment and Trading of Steel Atomistilor Str. No 96-102 Telephone: +46 470 457 90
Uddeholm Tool Steels 077125 - com. Magurele, Jud. Ilfov.
Estonia Industrial Area of Thessaloniki Telephone: +40 214 575007
UDDEHOLM TOOLING AB P.O. Box 1123 Telefax: +40 214 574212 Switzerland
Silikatsiidi 7 GR-57022 Sindos, Thessaloniki HERTSCH & CIE AG
EE-11216 Tallinn Telephone: +30 2310 79 76 46 General Wille Strasse 19
Telephone: +372 655 9180 www.sklero.gr Russia CH-8027 Zürich
www.uddeholm.ee UDDEHOLM TOOLING CIS Telephone: +41 44 208 16 66
9A, Lipovaya Alleya, Office 509 www.hertsch.ch
Hungary RU-197183 Saint Petersburg
Finland UDDEHOLM TOOLING/BOK Telephone: +7 812 6006194
OY UDDEHOLM AB Dunaharaszti, Jedlik Ányos út 25 www.uddeholm.ru Turkey
Ritakuja 1, PL 57 HU-2331 Dunaharaszti 1. Pf. 110 Head office
FI-01741 VANTAA Telephone/fax:+36 24 492 690 ASSAB Korkmaz Celik A.S.
Telephone: +358 9 290 490 www.uddeholm.hu Slovakia Organize Sanayi Bölgesi
www.uddeholm.fi Bohler-Uddeholm Slovakia s.r.o. 2. Cadde No: 26 Y. Dudullu
divizia UDDEHOLM 34776 Umraniye
Ireland ˇ
Csl.Armády 5622/5 Istanbul Turkey
France Head office: SK-036 01 Martin Telephone: +90 216 420 1926-121/124
Head office UDDEHOLM DIVISION Telephone: +421 (0)434 212 030 www.assabkorkmaz.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM (UK) LIMITED www.uddeholm.sk
UDDEHOLM
Z.I. de Mitry-Compans, 12 rue Mercier, European Business Park
FR-77297 Mitry Mory Cedex Taylors Lane, Oldbury Slovenia
Telephone: +33 (0)1 60 93 80 10 UK-West Midlands B69 2BN
www.uddeholm.fr Telephone: +44 121 552 5511 Representative office
Telefax: +44 121 544 2911 UDDEHOLM
Branch offices www.uddeholm.co.uk Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM S.A. Dublin: Italia S.p.A.
77bis, rue de Vesoul Telephone: +353 1845 1401 Via Palizzi, 90
La Nef aux Métiers IT-20157 Milano
FR-25000 Besançon Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211
Telephone: +33 (0)381 53 12 19 Italy www.uddeholm.it
UDDEHOLM
LE POINT ACIERS Divisione della Bohler Uddeholm
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils Spain
Italia S.p.A.
Z.I. du Recou, Avenue de Champlevert Via Palizzi, 90 Head office
FR-69520 GRIGNY IT-20157 Milano UDDEHOLM
Telephone: +33 (0)4 72 49 95 61 Telephone: +39 02 39 49 211 Guifré 690-692
www.uddeholm.it ES-08918 Badalona, Barcelona
LE POINT ACIERS Telephone: +34 93 460 1227
UDDEHOLM - Aciers à outils www.acerosuddeholm.com
Z.I. Nord 27, rue François Rochaix Latvia
FR-01100 OYONNAX UDDEHOLM TOOLING LATVIA SIA
Telephone: +33 (0)4 74 73 48 66 Piedrujas Street 7
LV-1035 Riga
Telephone: +371 7 702133
Telefax: +371 7 185079

12
 EDM OF TOOL STEEL

El Salvador Branch offices

America ACAVISA DE C.V.
Asia & Pacific ASSAB Tooling (Dongguan) Co Ltd
25a. Avenida Sur 463 Northern District
Argentina zona 1 Australia Song Shan Lake Science & Technology
ACEROS BOEHLER UDDEHOLM S.A Apartado Postal 439 BOHLER UDDEHOLM Australia Industrial Park
Mozart 40 SV-San Salvador 129-135 McCredie Road Dongguan 523808, China
1619-Centro Industrial Garin Telephone: +503 22 711700 Guildford NSW 2161 Telephone: +86 769 2289 7888
Garin-Prov. www.acavisa.com Private Bag 14 www.assabsteels.com
AR-Buenos Aires AU-Sydney
Telephone: +54 332 7444 440 Telephone: +61 2 9681 3100 ASSAB Tooling (Xiamen) Co Ltd
www.uddeholm.com.ar Guatemala www.buau.com.au First Floor Universal Workshop
IMPORTADORA ESCANDINAVA No. 30 Huli Zone
Apartado postal 11C Xiamen 361006, China
Brazil GT-Guatemala City, Guatemala Bangladesh Telephone: +86 592 562 4678
AÇOS BOHLER-UDDEHOLM DO Telephone: +502 23 659270 ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB
BRASIL LTDA– DIV. UDDEHOLM guatemala@assab.com P.O. Box 17595
Estrada Yae Massumoto, 353 Jebel Ali
Hong Kong
CEP 09842-160 AE-Dubai ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
BR-Sao Bernardo do Campo - SP Brazil Mexico Telephone: +971 488 12165 Room 1701-1706
Telephone: +55 11 4393 4560, 4554 Head office www.assab.se Grand Central Plaza, Tower 2
www.uddeholm.com.br 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road
ACEROS BOHLER UDDEHOLM S.A.
Shatin NT, Hong Kong
de C.V.
Calle Ocho No 2, Letra ”C”
North China Telephone: +852 2487 1991
Canada Fraccionamiento Industrial Alce Blanco Head office www.assabsteels.com
Head Office & Warehouse C.P. 52787 Naucalpan de Juarez ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Co Ltd
UDDEHOLM MX-Estado de Mexico No.10A Rong Jing Dong Jie India
2595 Meadowvale Blvd. Telephone: +52 55 9172 0242 Beijing Economic Development Area
ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y3 www.bu-mexico.com Beijing 100176, China
T 303 D.A.V. Complex
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 Telephone: +86 10 6786 5588
Branch office Mayur Vihar Ph I Extension
www.bucanada.com www.assabsteels.com
BOHLER-UDDEHOLM MONTERREY, IN-Delhi-110 091
Branch Warehouses NUEVO LEON Branch offices Telephone: +91 11 2271 2736
UDDEHOLM Lerdo de Tejada No.542 ASSAB Tooling (Beijing) Ltd www.assabsripadsteels.com
3521 Rue Ashby Colonia Las Villas Dalian Branch
St. Laurent, QC H4R 2K3 MX-66420 San Nicolas de Los Garza, 8 Huanghai Street, Haerbin Road ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Telephone: +1 514 333 8000 N.L. Economic & Technical Develop. District 709, Swastik Chambers
Telephone: +52 81 83 525239 Dalian 116600, China Sion-Trombay Road
UDDEHOLM Telephone: +86 411 8761 8080 Chembur
730 Eaton Way - Unit #10 IN-Mumbai-400 071
New Westminister, BC V3M 6J9 Peru ASSAB Qingdao Office Telephone: +91 22 2522-7110, -8133
Telephone: +1 604 525 3354 C.I.P.E.S.A Room 2521, Kexin Mansion
Av. Oscar R. Benavides No. 228 Liaoning Road, Shibei District ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Heat Treating (ante Colonial) No. 2066 Qingdao 266012, China Padmalaya Towers
THERMO-TECH PE-Lima 1 Telephone: +86 532 8382 0930 Janaki Avenue
2645 Meadowvale Blvd. Telephone: +51 1 336 8673 M.R.C. Nagar
Mississauga, ON L5N 7Y4 peru@assab.com ASSAB Tianjin Office IN-Chennai-600 028
Telephone: +1 905 812 9440 No.12 Puwangli Wanda Xincheng Telephone: +91 44 2495 2371
Xinyibai Road, Beichen District
U.S.A. Tianjin 300402, China ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Colombia Head Office Telephone: +86 22 2672 0006 19X, D. P. P. Road
AXXECOL S.A. Naktola Post Office
UDDEHOLM IN-Kolkata-700 047
Carrera 35 No 13-20 4902 Tollview Drive
Apartado Aereo 80718 Rolling Meadows IL 60008
Central China Telephone: +91 (33) 400 1645
CO-Bogota 6 Telephone: 1-847-577-2220 Head office
Telephone: +57 1 2010700 ASSAB Sripad Steels LTD
Sales phone: 1-800-638-2520 ASSAB Tooling Technology Ground floor, Plot No 11-6-8
www.axxecol.com www.bucorp.com (Shanghai) Co Ltd Opp IDPL Factory Out Gate
No. 4088 Humin Road Balanagar
ASTECO S.A. Region East Warehouse Xinzhuang Industrial Zone
Carrera 54 No 35-12 IN-Hyderabad-500 037
UDDEHOLM Shanghai 201108, China Telephone: +91 (40) 2377 8148
Apartado Aereo 663 220 Cherry Street Telephone: +86 21 5442 2345
CO-Medellin Shrewsbury MA 01545 www.assabsteels.com
Telephone: +57 4 2320122 Indonesia
www.asteco.com Region Central Warehouse Branch offices
UDDEHOLM Head office
ASSAB Tooling Technology
548 Clayton Ct. (Ningbo) Co Ltd PT ASSAB Steels Indonesia
Dominican Republic Wood Dale IL 60191 No. 218 Longjiaoshan Road Jl. Rawagelam III No. 5
RAMCA, C. POR A. Vehicle Part Industrial Park Kawasan Industri Pulogadung
P-2289 Region West Warehouse Jakarta 13930, Indonesia
Ningbo Economic & Technical Dev.
P.O. Box 025650 UDDEHOLM Telephone: +62 21 461 1314
Zone
Miami, Fl. 33102 9331 Santa Fe Springs Road www.assabsteels.com
Ningbo 315806, China
Telephone: +1 809 682 4011 Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670
Telephone: +86 574 8680 7188 Branch offices
domrep@assab.com
ASSAB Tooling Technology SURABAYA BRANCH
Venezuela Jl. Berbek Industri 1/23
(Chongqing) Co Ltd
Ecuador PRODUCTOS HUMAR C.A.
Plant C, Automotive Industrial lPark Surabaya Industrial Estate, Rungkut
IVAN BOHMAN C.A. Multicentro Empresarial del Este, Surabaya 60293, East Java, Indonesia
Chongqing Economic & Technological
Apartado 1317 Edf Libertador, Núcleo A. Telephone: +62 31 843 2277
Development Zone
Km 6 1/2 Via a Daule Piso 9, Of. A-93, Chacao
Chongqing 401120, China
Guayaquil VE-Caracas 1060 MEDAN BRANCH
Telephone: +86 23 6745 5698
Telephone: +593 42 254111 Telephone: +58 212 2655040 Komplek Griya Riatur Indah
humar@assab.com Blok A No.138
IVAN BOHMAN C.A. South China Jl. T. Amir Hamzah
Casilla Postal 17-01370 Halvetia Timur, Medan 20124
Other Countries in America Head office
Quito Telephone: +62 61 847 7935/6
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB ASSAB Steels (HK) Ltd
Telephone: +593 2 2248001
Box 42 Room 1701–1706 BANDUNG BRANCH
SE-171 11 Solna, Sweden Tower 2 Grand Central Plaza Komp. Ruko Bumi Kencana
Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70 138 Shatin Rural Committee Road Jl. Titian Kencana Blok E
www.assab.se Shatin NT - Hong Kong No.5 Bandung 40233
Telephone: +852 2487 1991 Telephone: +62 22 604 1364
www.assabsteels.com

13
EDM OF TOOL STEEL

TANGERANG BRANCH Philippines Branch offices

Pusat Niaga Cibodas
ASSOCIATED SWEDISH STEELS NANTOU BRANCH Africa
Blok C No. 7 Tangerang No. 10, Industry South 5th Road
PHILS Inc.
Telephone: +62 21 921 9596, 551 2732
No. 3 E. Rodriguez Jr., Avenue Nan Kang Industry Zone Egypt
Bagong Ilog, Pasig City Nantou 540-66, Taiwan (R.O.C.) UNITED FOR IMPORT AND
SEMARANG BRANCH Telephone: +886 49 225 1702 INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIES
Philippines
Jl. Imam Bonjol No.155 TAINAN BRANCH Montaser Project No 20
Telephone: +632 671 1953/2048
R.208 Semarang 50124 No. 180, Yen He Street, Flat No 14
www.assabsteels.com
Telephone: +62 358 8167 Yong Kang City Al Ahram Street-El Tabia
Republic of Korea Tainan 710-82, Taiwan (R.O.C.) EG-Giza Cairo
Telephone: +886 6 242 6838 Telephone: +20 2 7797751
Iran Head office
ASSAB Steels (Korea) Co Ltd www.assab.se
ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB
P.O. Box 19395 116B-8L, 687-8, Kojan-dong Thailand
IR-1517 TEHRAN Namdong-ku Kenya
ASSAB Steels (Thailand) Ltd
Telephone: +98 21 888 35392 Incheon 405-310, Korea
9/8 Soi Theedinthai, SANDVIK Kenya Ltd
www.assabiran.com Telephone: +82 32 821 4300
Taeparak Road, Bangplee, P.O. Box 18264
www.assabsteels.com
Samutprakarn 10540, Thailand Post code 00500
Branch offices Telephone: +66 2 385 5937, KE-Nairobi
Israel +66 2 757 5017
BUSAN BRANCH Telephone: +254 20 532 866
PACKER YADPAZ QUALITY www.assabsteels.com sandvik@africaonline.co.ke
STEELS Ltd 14B-5L, 1483-9, Songjeong-dong
P.O. Box 686 Kangseo-ku, Busan 618-270, Korea
Telephone: +82 51 831 3315 United Arab Emirates
Ha-Yarkon St. 7, Industrial Zone South Africa
IL-81106 YAVNE ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB UDDEHOLM Africa (Pty.) Ltd.
Telephone: +972 8 932 8182 DAEGU BRANCH
Room 27, 7-Dong2 F P.O. Box 17595 P.O. Box 539
www.packer.co.il Jebel Ali ZA-1600 Isando/Johannesburg
Industry Materials Bldg.1629
Sangyeog-Dong, Buk-Ku AE-Dubai Telephone: +27 (11) 974 2791
Telephone: +971 488 12165 www.bohler-uddeholm.co.za
Japan Korea-Daegu 702-710
www.assab.se
UDDEHOLM KK Telephone: +82 53 604 5133
Atago East Building Tunisia
3-16-11 Nishi Shinbashi Lebanon Vietnam MCM Distribution
Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0003, Japan CAM Trading Steel Co Ltd 4 Bis, Rue 8610 - Z.I.
Telephone: + 81 3 5473 4641 WARDE STEEL & METALS SARL MET
Charles Helou Av, Warde Bldg 90/8 Block 5, Tan Thoi Nhat Ward 2035 Chargula 1
www.assabsteels.com District 12, Ho Chi Minh City TN-Tunis
P.O. Box 165886
LB-Beirut Vietnam Telephone: + 216 71 802479
Telephone: +84 8 5920 920 www.mcm.com.tn
Jordan Telephone: +961 1 447228
www.assabsteels.com
ENGINEERING WAY Est. lebanon@assab.com
P.O. Box 874 Zimbabwe
Abu Alanda Saudi Arabia Other Asia Representative office:
JO-AMMAN 11592 ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB
Telephone: +962 6 4161962 ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB UDDEHOLM Africa (Pty.) Ltd.
P.O. Box 255092 Box 42 P.O. Box 539
engineeringway@assab.com E-171 11 Solna, Sweden
SA-Riyadh 11353 ZA-1600 Isando/Johannesburg
Telephone: +966 1 4466542 Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70 Telephone: +27 11 974 2781
www.assab.se
Malaysia saudiarabia@assab.com www.bohler-uddeholm.co.za
Head office
ASSAB Steels (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd Singapore Other African Countries
Lot 19, Jalan Perusahaan 2 ASSAB INTERNATIONAL AB
Head office Pacific
Batu Caves Industrial Estate Box 42
68100 Batu Caves ASSAB Pacific Pte Ltd
171, Chin Swee Road SE-171 11 Solna, Sweden
Selangor Malaysia Telephone: +46 8 564 616 70
Telephone: +60 3 6189 0022 No. 07-02, SAN Centre
SG-Singapore 169877 www.assab.se
www.assabsteels.com
Telephone: +65 6534 5600
Branch offices www.assabsteels.com
BUTTERWORTH BRANCH Jurong
Plot 146a
ASSAB Steels Singapore (Pte) Ltd
Jalan Perindustrial Bukit Minyak 7
18, Penjuru Close
Kawasan Perindustrial Bukit Minyak
SG-608616 Singapore
14000 Bukit Mertajam, SPT Penang
Telephone: +65 6862 2200
Telephone: +60 4 507 2020

JOHOR BRANCH Sri Lanka

No. 8, Jalan Persiaran Teknologi
GERMANIA COLOMBO PRIVATE Ltd.
Taman Teknologi
451/A Kandy Road
81400 Senai
LK-Kelaniya
Johor DT, Malaysia
Telephone: +94 11 2913556
Telephone: +60 7 598 0011
www.iwsholdings.com

New Zealand Syria

VIKING STEELS
WARDE STEEL & METALS SARL MET
25 Beach Road, Otahuhu
Charles Helou Av, Warde Bldg
P.O. Box 13-359, Onehunga
P.O. Box 165886
NZ-Auckland
LB-Beirut
Telephone: +64 9 270 1199
Telephone: +961 1 447228
www.ssm.co.nz
lebanon@assab.com

Pakistan Taiwan
ASSAB International AB
Head office
P.O. Box 17595
Jebel Ali ASSAB Steels (Taiwan) Co Ltd
AE-Dubai No. 112 Wu Kung 1st Rd.
Telephone: +971 488 12165 Wu Ku Industry Zone
www.assab.se TW-Taipei 248-87, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
Telephone: +886 2 2299 2849
www.assabsteels.com

14
 Network of excellence
Uddeholm is present on every continent. This ensures you
high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you
are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales
channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier
of tooling materials.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com
 HAGFORS KLARTEXT U0708XX
Uddeholm is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This
is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday
business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-
ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.
It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one
partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality
wherever you are. Assab is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive
sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.
Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of
tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm
or Assab representative close at hand to give local advice and support.
For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in
developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com or www.assab.com