Onchari Amos Onchiri

Final Year Project 2014
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
An Investigation into the use of Cement Stabilized Murram Soil as a
Mortar for Construction
By Onchari Amos Onchiri
F16/29391/2009
Supervisor: Dr. (Eng.) Simpson Osano
A project submitted as a partial fulfillment for the requirement for the
award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
2014
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Abstract
In the developing countries, requirements for shelter can only be met by using local building
materials and relying on do-it-yourself construction techniques. Soil for a long time has been the
most important natural building material and thanks to its abundance, in its various forms, it is
one of the most widely used building materials known.
This study sought to investigate some of the properties of cement stabilized murram soil with the
aim of showing that soil-based mortars can still be put into use in construction today just as they
have been used in the past.
The study involved performing a series of tests on a murram soil sample that was collected from
Isinya in Kajiado County after stabilizing it with ordinary Portland cement. Its most critical
properties in both the fresh and hardened state were determined; i.e. setting time and
compressive strength respectively.
The conclusions of the investigation affirmed that the use of cement stabilized murram mortar
can be applied in construction as far the investigated parameters are concerned.
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Dedication
I dedicate this report to my loving parents, Abednego Onchari and Josephine Moraa to whom
I‟m deeply indebted and grateful for their continuous support throughout my social and academic
life.
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Acknowledgements
An undertaking of this magnitude cannot be successfully achieved by the unilateral efforts of one
individual. I would wish to express my sincere gratitude first and foremost to God for His divine
guidance throughout my five years in campus, my supervisor Dr. (Eng.) Simpson Osano for his
assistance and advice during the execution of this project and finally to the technicians in the
concrete laboratory who went out of their way to assist me finish my tests on schedule.
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Table of Contents
Preliminaries
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ i
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii
List of Plates ................................................................................................................................ viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter One .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 General Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Advantages of using earth as a construction material ..................................................... 2
1.3 Disadvantages of using earth as a construction material..................................................... 3
1.4 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Scope and Objective ......................................................................................................... 5
Chapter Two .................................................................................................................................. 6
2.0 Literature Review and Theoretical Analysis ....................................................................... 7
2.1 History of Soil-based Mortars ............................................................................................. 7
2.2 Soil characterization ............................................................................................................ 11
2.2.1 Colour ......................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Particle Size Distribution ............................................................................................ 11
2.2.3 Atterberg Limits ......................................................................................................... 14
2.2.4 Soil Density ................................................................................................................ 16
2.2.5 Soil pH ........................................................................................................................ 17
2.2.6 Carbonate (Acid – Soluble) Content .......................................................................... 18
2.2.7 Soil Particle Description ............................................................................................. 18
2.3 Properties of Mortar .......................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Properties of fresh mortar ........................................................................................... 20
2.3.2 Properties of hardened mortar .................................................................................... 22
2.4 Clay as a Binder in earth mortars ...................................................................................... 25
2.5 Preparation and Application of Earth Mortars .................................................................. 26
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2.6 The Setting Process of Earthen Mortars ............................................................................ 28

2.7 Earth Mortar Applications................................................................................................. 28
Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................. 30
3.0 Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Preparation of the Specimens ......................................................................................... 30
3.3 Setting Time ................................................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 31
3.3.2 Apparatus ................................................................................................................ 32
3.3.3 Procedure ................................................................................................................ 33
3.4 Compressive Strength .................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 34
3.4.2 Apparatus ................................................................................................................ 34
3.4.3 Preparation of cube specimens................................................................................ 35
3.4.4 Procedure ................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................... 37
4.0 Results and Analysis .......................................................................................................... 37
4.1 Vicat Time of Initial and Final Setting........................................................................... 37
4.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 37
4.1.2 Formulation A ......................................................................................................... 38
4.1.3 Formulation B ......................................................................................................... 39
4.1.4 Formulation C ......................................................................................................... 40
4.1.5 Formulation D ......................................................................................................... 41
4.1.6 Summary ................................................................................................................. 42
4.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 42
4.2.2 Formulation A ......................................................................................................... 43
4.2.3 Formulation B ......................................................................................................... 43
4.2.4 Formulation C ......................................................................................................... 43
4.2.5 Formulation D ......................................................................................................... 43
4.2.6 Summary of Compressive Strengths ....................................................................... 44
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Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................ 45

5.0 Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 45
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 45
5.2 Setting Time ................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter Six .................................................................................................................................. 51
6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations .................................................................................... 51
6.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 51
6.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 52
References ..................................................................................................................................... 54
Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 55
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 56
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................... 60
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................... 62
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Mortar Time Line Chart
Figure 2: The Vicat apparatus
Figure 3: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Formulation
Figure 4: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation A
Figure 5: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation B
Figure 6: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation C
Figure 7: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation D
Figure 8: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation A
Figure 9: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation B
Figure 10: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation C
Figure 11: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation D
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List of Plates
Plate 1: Earth pise, mud mortared stone, chite in Granada Spain
Plate 2: South elevation, York House, Malton
Plate 3: York House interior, mud mortared limestone to original wall
Plate 4: Old Malton Priory
Plate 5: ASTM sieve stack and mechanical shaker
Plate 6: Soil sedimentation cylinders with control cylinder on the left
Plate 7: Casagrande device with grooving tool
Plate 8: Construction of vaults and cupolas without shuttering
Plate 9: Testing final setting time using Vicat apparatus
Plate 10: Curing of specimen cubes by wrapping in polythene bags
Plate 11: Vertical cracking in a masonry wall
Plate 12: Preparation of mortar formulations
Plate 13: Preparation of cube moulds
Plate 14: Well-oiled and prepared cube moulds
Plate 15: Preparation of soil-cement paste for Vicat setting time test
Plate 16: Vicat initial setting time test
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List of Tables
Table 1: Particle size designations
Table 2: Soil plasticity index ranges
Table 3: Classification of soil pH
Table 4: Formulation of soil-cement ratios
Table 5: Time-penetration table for formulation A
Table 6: Time-penetration table for formulation B
Table 7: Time-penetration table for formulation C
Table 8: Time-penetration table for formulation D
Table 9: Vicat initial and final setting times
Table 10: Load – compressive strength table for formulation A
Table 11: Load – compressive strength table for formulation B
Table 12: Load – compressive strength table for formulation C
Table 13: Load – compressive strength table for formulation D
Table 14: Average compressive strength table for all formulations
Table 15: Table showing 28 day compressive strength for varying mortar designations
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Chapter One
1.0 Introduction
1.1 General Introduction
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind construction masonry blocks of stone, bricks or cinder
blocks together and fill the gaps between them. A mortar joint acts as a sealant, a bearing pad,
which sticks the masonry units together yet keeps them apart and in this sense performs as a „gap
filling adhesive‟. Mortar becomes hard when it sets or dries (in the case of soil-based mortars),
resulting in a rigid aggregate structure.
Definitions for soil
Civil Engineering definition: Soil is the earth material that can be disaggregated in water by
gentle agitation.
Construction definition: Soil is material that can be removed by conventional means without
blasting. It is similar to the definition of regolith in geological terms.
Agronomy definition: Soil consists of the thin layers of the earth‟s crust formed by surface
weathering that are able to support plant life.
Soil/earth is the result of the transformation of the underlying rock under the influence of a range
of physical, chemical and biological processes related to biological and climatic conditions and
to animal and plant life. Soil is an earth concrete. Like concrete that contains gravel, sand and
cement as a binder, soil contains gravel, sand, and, silt & clay which act as binders as well.
Mortar may account for as little as 7% of the volume of a masonry wall; but the role that it plays
and the influence that it has on performance are far greater than the proportion it indicates. The
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selection and use of various mortar ingredients directly affects the performance and bonding
characteristics of masonry.
Soil-based mortars are made of earth thinned with fine-grain and/or fine-fibrous additives
(though not necessary). Depending upon their usage they are known as earth masonry mortar,
sprayed earth mortar or earth plaster mortars or rendering.
Earth masonry mortars are used for bricklaying with earth bricks as well as with synthetic, fired
or stone blocks. They are typically thinned with sand.
Sprayed earth mortars are used for filling out timber frame panels, for the manufacture of inner
leaf coatings, interior walls or as filling in floor cavities. They are thinned with mineral or
organic additives that are suitable for use with a mixer and spray-pistol. Much like some plasters,
they are applied from a spray-pistol in as many layers as are necessary to fill the cavity or reach
the required thickness.
Earth plaster mortars or rendering are used for plastering internal walls and ceilings and in some
cases exterior walls if these are protected from direct rain. Sand, straw or other organic fibres are
typical additives. The fibres serve to bind the plaster and reduce cracking as the material dries.
Due to their moisture regulating properties, earthen plasters are particularly suited for use
indoors.
This study will mainly focus on earth masonry mortars.
1.2 Advantages of using earth as a construction material
i. Earth construction is economically beneficial. The use of excavated soil means greatly
reduced costs in comparison with other building materials. Even if this soil is
transported from other construction sites, it is usually much cheaper than industrial
building materials.
ii. It requires simple tools and less skilled labour. Provided the building process is
supervised by an experienced individual, earth construction techniques can usually be
executed by non-professionals.
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iii. It encourages self-help construction.

iv. It saves energy. The preparation, transport and handling of soil on site requires only
about 1% of the energy needed for the production, transport and handling of reinforced
concrete and other construction materials. Earth, then, produces virtually no
environmental pollution.
v. It balances and improves indoor air humidity and temperature which ensures thermal
comfort. Soil is able to absorb and desorb humidity faster and to a greater extent than
any other building material, enabling it to balance indoor climate.
vi. Earth is very good in fire resistance.
vii. Earth construction is regarded as a local job creation opportunity.
viii. Earth construction is environmentally sustainable. Soil can be recycled an indefinite
number of times over an extremely long period. Old earth can be reused after soaking in
water, so it never becomes a waste material that harms the environment.
ix. Easy to design and high aesthetical value.
x. Earth building provides noise control.
xi. Earth construction promotes local culture and heritage.
xii. Earth is readily available in large quantities in most regions. Clayey soil is often found
on site, so that the soil excavated for foundations can then be used for earth construction.
If the soil contains too little clay, then clayey soil must be added, whereas if too much
clay is present, sand is added.
1.3 Disadvantages of using earth as a construction material
a) Less durable as a construction material compared to conventional materials.

b) Earth construction is labour intensive.
c) Mostly suitable for in situ construction.
d) Earth used in construction mostly behaves poorly in the event of earthquakes.
e) Need high maintenance.
f) Earth has Structural limitations.
g) Professionals make less money from earth building projects.
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h) Need higher wall thickness.

i) Earth is not a standardized building material. Depending on the site where the soil is
gotten from, it will be composed of differing amounts and types of clay, silt sand and
aggregates. Its characteristics may therefore differ from site to site.
1.4 Problem Statement
Soil has been, and continues to be, the most widely used building material throughout most
developing countries: it is cheap, available in abundance, and simple to form into building
elements (Morris and Booysen 2000). Experience has shown that earth remains a viable material,
given costly increases in energy consumption caused by the production of modern building
materials (Montgomery 2002).
Environmental issues are a growing concern in the construction industry. New terms like “green
buildings”, “sustainable architecture”, “embodied energy” and “building ecology” have crept
into the vocabularies of architects, engineers and developers alike. The cost of energy, raw
materials and solid & hazardous waste disposal are directly linked with profitability in any
industry.
Contemporary earthen architecture shows significant evidence solving housing crisis in the
developing countries and it can also address excessive carbon dioxide emissions, global warming
and climate change in developed countries. Environmental sustainability is a major challenge
and built environment discipline professionals are facing an enormous task to tackle this problem
all over the world.
The manufacture of one tonne of cement generates approximately one tonne of carbon dioxide.
This is a clear indication that any attempt to replace cement use in construction is a progressive
step and a way of ensuring environmental sustainability. The need to come up with cheap,
durable, green and readily available construction materials has been on the increase in recent
times. This has been brought about by a number of factors some of which are:
• Rise in demand of decent and affordable housing units in both rural and urban setups.
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• Need for promotion of use of locally available construction materials to spur economic
growth.
• The need to encourage the use of environmentally friendly „green‟ materials.
The appropriate use of earth construction produces cost-effective and comfortable buildings
(Doat et al 1990). Thus, contemporary earth construction is economically beneficial in the
construction of urban housing.
This study is therefore highly beneficial to poor people who are not able to afford cement for
construction of their buildings. It will also be of some importance to engineers who are seeking
ways to make structures more environmentally friendly. Other beneficiaries include people in the
tourism and cultural heritage industry who need to stabilize ancient architectural remains or
reconstruct ruins to their previous form using their original materials (in this case earth mortars).
Replacement of failing building material such as mortars for pointing, bedding, and capping of
wall structures is necessary if they are to remain standing over time.
1.5 Scope and Objective
Ever since the emergence of lime and cement based mortars use of soil as a binding material in
mortars has been shelved. This once important and widely used mortar component has seen its
use in construction almost completely doused as a result of the emanation of much more superior
binders in the market.
With this in mind, this study was set up with the aim of showing that soil-based mortars can still
be relevant in today‟s construction industry. The primary aim of the study was to investigate the
fresh and hardened properties of cement stabilized murram mortar.
The project was accomplished by carrying out intensive and extensive research on past written
and published material. It also involved laboratory tests on the selected soil-based mortar so as to
establish its properties. This allowed comparisons to be made between the properties of the soil-
based mortar in the fresh and hardened state with those of ideal mortars. The results of these tests
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consequently allowed conclusions to be drawn as to whether the cement stabilized mortar met
the requirements of standard mortars.
Sample preparation and testing was carried out using standard procedures and equipment.
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Chapter Two
2.0 Literature Review and Theoretical Analysis
2.1 History of Soil-based Mortars
Soil-based mortars - alternatively referred to as mud mortars or earth mortars – have been used
since ancient times for different applications: masonry mortars between bricks or stones, mortars
as wall finishing materials internally (plaster) or externally (render), mortars as foundations for
flooring, rubble mortars for the infillings of walls, mortars as casings of water conduits or
jointing compounds from terracotta pipes, decoration mortars, etc.
Mud, lime and gypsum had traditionally been the three most common binder types during the
construction history of mankind until about two centuries ago, when their use was gradually
replaced by different natural cement types and later by Portland cement.
Lime has often been thought of as the most “traditional” binder material in a mortar. However,
history refutes this claim as hundreds of years before lime came into common use; mud was in
fact employed on majority of the buildings. Mud is probably the oldest binder type in mortars.
According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of human beings using a form of mortar was
at the ziggurat of Sialk in Iran, built of sun-dried bricks in 2900 BC. In early Egyptian pyramids
constructed about 2600-2500 BC, the limestone blocks were bound by mortar of mud and clay,
or clay and sand. The use of clay has also been identified for example in Catal Huyuk in Turkey,
6000 BC (Zinn 2005).
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Figure 1: Mortar time line chart (Source: Bates, 2006)
The use of earthen mortars in the Middle-East, central Asia and the south-western USA is also
well documented. In many parts of the world – such as Yemen and Bhutan – there remains a live
tradition of use of mud mortars in masonry works. Elsewhere these traditional uses of earth in
construction have either been lost to the methods or materials of modern building technology or
are under threat of dilution or diminution.
Plate 1: Earth pise, mud mortared stone, chite in Granada Spain (Source: Mud Mortars in
Construction, 2011)
Some of the most significant case studies in the extensive use of earth mortars are found in the
town of Malton, North Yorkshire. Malton began its life as a significant Roman garrison town.
The geology of the area is predominantly oolitic limestone and calcareous sandstone. Most of the
older buildings in the town – many of them dating, at least in part, to the 12 th /13th century – are
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built with the same Malton oolite limestone. For all this abundance of eminently suitable
limestone, until at least the mid-18th century earth mortars were the material of choice for
stonemasons and plasterers. These were commonly used in both high and lower status buildings
some of which are still standing to present day e.g. the York House, a late 15th century H-plan
house of high status and the gatehouse of Eure mansion.
Plate 2: South elevation, York House, Malton (Source: Copsey et al, 2010)
Its mud mortared walls clearly demonstrate that earth was a material of high and every status at
this and earlier times – it was not a mortar of the poor.
Plate 3: York House interior, mud mortared limestone to original wall (Source: Copsey et al,
2010)
Even early brickwork was laid in mud mortar. Mud bedding and jointing mortar were
encountered on the outside faces of buildings across town and in surrounding rural areas. It was
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also common for these mortars to be improved by the addition of grass, straw and sometimes ox-
hair as well.
From the later 16th century onwards, some of the higher status buildings in Malton were re-faced
using lime mortars though the re-faced walls still remained embedded in mud.
The fact that limestone was so abundant and available in this old town and yet the masons – who
were clearly highly accomplished – chose to use mud instead of limestone proves that it was fit
for its purpose. From the evident quality of their workmanship, masons in Malton, at least, were
highly skilled from the early medieval period onwards, with a deep understanding of their
materials. If not from their superior skills, Old Malton Priory, one of the finest early English
churches, would not have survived into the modern period. This is together with the many other
old structures in Malton.
Plate 4: Old Malton Priory (Source: Copsey et al, 2010)
It is therefore clear that use of soil-based mortars should not be a reserve of the old and new
ways of building with it and perfecting the old practice would be of great benefit to people in the
modern age. The fact that some of the buildings built with this technology are standing to date is
evidence enough that earth mortars can still be relied upon.
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2.2 Soil characterization
Soils used in mortars are characterized according to the following parameters:
 Colour
 Particle size distribution
 Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index)
 Soil density
 pH
 Carbonate (acid – soluble) content
 Soil particle description (and soil texture)
2.2.1 Colour
Soil color is measured in accordance with ASTM D1535-97, Standard Practice for Specifying
Colour by the Munsell System. Soil colours are specified according to three criteria: hue, value
and chroma. The hue notation establishes a soil color in reference to its closeness to the colors
red and yellow. The value indicates the lightness of the soil. Chroma is meant to indicate the
strength or neutrality of the soil colour for its given lightness.
2.2.2 Particle Size Distribution
Analysis of soil particle size distribution is performed according to ASTM D422-63, Standard
Test method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils. Also referenced is the ASTM C136-01, Standard
Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. Particle size designations
established by ASTM are followed in this characterization.
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Soil Type Particle Size

Gravel 76.2mm – 4.75mm
Coarse Sand 4.75mm – 0.075mm
Fine Sand 0.075mm – 0.02mm
Silt 0.02mm – 0.002mm
Clay < 0.002mm
Table 1: Particle size designations
Plate 5: ASTM sieve stack and mechanical shaker
The test method utilizes numbered sieves to collect particles larger than 75 μm (gravel and sand)
and sedimentation with a hydrometer to account for particles smaller than 75 μm (silt and clay).
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Plate 6: Soil sedimentation cylinders with control cylinder on the left
The sedimentation procedure for particles smaller than 75 μm can aid in the determination of the
presence and quantity of clays in soils since clay particles are in the smaller ranges of size.
The sedimentation procedure is theoretically based on Stokes‟ Law, the premise of which is that
the square of the diameter of approximately spherical particles is proportional to the particles‟
terminal velocity, i.e., the constant speed that a falling particle reaches when upward drag or, in
this case, fluid resistance matches the force of gravity, halting acceleration. Other inaccuracies
that can occur due to use of Stoke‟s equation are because of the following factors:
o Soil particles are not spheres;

o The fluid is not of infinite extent;
o The specific gravity of individual particles may vary;
o Turbulence caused by larger particles falling;
o Brownian movement of smaller particles;
o Disturbance due to insertion and removal of the hydrometer;
o The test is actually used for diameters as large as 0.07 mm.
While clay particles are not spherical, Stokes‟ law can be applied to their fall through liquid to
approximate the various sizes of the particles in the clay fraction of a soil. Sedimentation is
therefore a fairly accurate method of determining size distribution among clays.
Particle size distribution can, to some extent, indicate the suitability of soil or aggregate for use
in mortar. The data collected from this test can be expressed as ratios of one particle size to
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another. A well-graded soil or aggregate is one that contains equal proportions of multiple
particle sizes. This kind of soil is well suited for use in mortar since naturally occurring voids
between larger particles may be occupied by smaller particles; consequently ensuring a more
homogenous and consistent mortar.
2.2.3 Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil. Depending on the
water content of the soil, it may appear in four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. They
are determined according to ASTM D4318-00, Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic
Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils. The determination of the liquid and plastic limits of the soil
serves as an indicator of a soil‟s ability to retain water. Some soils, especially clays, expand in
volume when wet. The amount of expansion is related to the ability of the soil to take in water
and its structural make-up (the type of atoms present).
When water is added to a dry soil, each particle is covered with a film of adsorbed water. If the
addition of water is continued, the thickness of the water film on a particle increases. Increasing
the thickness of the water films permits the particles to slide past one another more easily. The
behavior of the soil therefore is related to the amount of water in the system.
The liquid limit also known as upper plastic limit is defined as the water content at which the soil
has such small shear strength that it flows to close a groove of standard width when jarred in a
specific manner. It indicates the point at which a soil, when mixed with water, has physical
qualities closer to those of a liquid than a solid. It is the boundary between the liquid and plastic
states.
The plastic limit, also known as the lower plastic limit is the water content at which the soil
begins to crumble when rolled into threads of specific size. It forms the boundary between the
plastic and semi-solid states. The plastic limit test uses soil samples that have been mixed with
water until they have reached plastic consistency and assesses the point at which, through loss of
water into the surrounding environment, the samples lose plasticity.
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Shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any
more volume reduction. It is the boundary between the semi-solid and solid states. The test used
for its determination is ASTM International D4943.
This data is then used to calculate the plasticity indices of the soils. Plasticity Index (PI) is the
range of water content over which a soil behaves plastically. It is calculated by subtracting liquid
limit value from plastic limit value of a soil:
PI = PL – LL
Characteristic Plasticity Index (PI)

Non-plastic 0
Slightly plastic 0–5
Low plasticity 5 – 20
Medium plasticity 10 – 20
High plasticity 20 – 40
Very high plasticity > 40
Table 2: Soil plasticity index ranges
Liquidity Index (LI) has the advantage that it is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil
sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content
(W), plastic limit (PL) and liquid limit (LL):
LI = (W-PL) / (LL-PL)
A Casagrande device named after Arthur Casagrande is used for testing liquid limits.
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Plate 7: Casagrande device with grooving tool
The value of the plasticity index of a soil is directly proportional to the clay content in the soil. A
higher plasticity index (which indicates high clay content) is an indication of greater strength
capabilities in the soil. Greater strength means more suitability as a material in mortars. The
liquid and plastic limits of soils are also significant in determining the amount of water necessary
to mix in mortar samples. The results of these tests can also be used in expressing the relative
consistency of the soils and in determining, to an extent, the weathering characteristics of some
clay soils.
2.2.4 Soil Density
This is the ratio of mass to volume of a soil. In simpler terms, it is a measure of the heaviness of
soil. The density of soils is determined according to ASTM D854-00, Standard Test Methods for
Specific Gravity of Soils by Water Pycnometer.
The density of the soils is used in the calculation of soil particle size distribution as specified in
ASTM D422-63.
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2.2.5 Soil pH
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a soil. pH is defined as the negative logarithm
of the activity of hydronium ions (H+ or, more precisely, H3O(aq)+) in a solution. It ranges from 0
to 14 with 7 being neutral, below 7 being acidic and above 7 being basic.
Denomination pH Range
Ultra acid < 3.5
Extreme acid 3.5 – 4.4
Very strong acid 4.5 – 5.0
Strong acid 5.1 – 5.5
Moderate acid 5.6 – 6.0
Slight acid 6.1 – 6.5
Neutral 6.6 – 7.3
Slightly alkaline 7.4 – 7.8
Moderately alkaline 7.9 – 8.4
Strongly alkaline 8.5 – 9.0
Very strong alkaline >9
Table 3: Classification of soil pH
Soil pH is measured in accordance with ASTM D4972-95a, Standard Test Method for pH of
Soils.
Soil pH is a master variable in soils as it controls many chemical processes that take place. The
analysis of soil pH can help to determine the content of soluble minerals in soils as well as the
degree of ion mobility in the soils. The higher the amount of soluble minerals in a soil then the
higher the demand of water will be for the soil‟s mortar. This value is therefore valuable in
determining to some extent what water proportions will be required for mortars made by various
types of soils.
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2.2.6 Carbonate (Acid – Soluble) Content
The carbonate content of the soil samples is tested using digestion by acid i.e. 15% hydrochloric
acid solution. It is an adaptation of a standard gravimetric mortar analysis procedure.
Most expansive clays are rich in calcium which is usually present as a carbonate. Smectite is an
example of such clays. Non-expansive clays such as chlorite, illite and kaolinite also contain
calcite (calcium carbonate), though in little amounts.
There is a lot of significance in the presence or absence of carbonate fraction in soils since this
can to some extent suggest the environmental response of the soil when used in mortar,
particularly in an acidic environment.
2.2.7 Soil Particle Description
The soil particle description is a qualitative method of soil characterization which can be used to
provide a good general overview of the physical characteristics of the soil. These characteristics
may be useful in the determination of the bonding properties of the soil when used in mortar.
2.3 Properties of Mortar
An ideal mortar:
• Adheres completely and durably to the brick, block or other masonry unit to provide
stability.
• Has to remain workable long enough in order to enable the operative to set the masonry
unit right to line and level; this implies good water retentivity.
• Stiffens sufficiently quickly to permit the laying of the units to proceed smoothly, and
provides rapid development of strength and adequate strength when hardened.
• Is resistant to the action of environmental factors such as frost and/or abrasion and the
destructive effects of chemical salts such as sulfate attack.
Page 18
• Resists the penetration of rain into its profile.

• Will accommodate any movement of the structure in which it is part of so as to enable the
release of stresses and prevent damage to the structure.
• Accommodates irregularities in size of masonry units.
• Should contribute to some extent to the overall aesthetic appearance of the structure it is
binding.
• Is cost effective.
The properties of mortar that are most important in mix design considerations are:
a) The Coefficient of thermal Expansion: this is the tendency of matter to change in volume
in response to a change in temperature. A stone for example, could see an annual
temperature low of -20oC and a maximum stone surface temperature of 70 oC. As a result
this stone could expand or contract as much as and half an inch; therefore the need for
something to accommodate this movement. If movement is not accommodated by the
mortar, the wall will crack.
b) Compressive strength: the ability of the mortar itself to hold a compressive load without
failure. This is normally tested after 28 days, i.e. 28 day strength, which is a standard for
Portland cement-based products but is of little relevance to earthen mortars. This is unless
they have cement additives.
c) Ductility: this is the mortar‟s ability to deform under stress without failure.
d) Porosity: the mortar‟s ability to pass moisture through it. In new mortars porosity is
minimal. The porosity of soil-based mortars enables the movement of moisture out of the
mortar‟s structure allowing it to dry and therefore harden.
e) Bond strength: this is the ability of the mortar to adhere to the masonry unit. The strength
of the mortar depends on the cohesion of the binder, its adhesion to the aggregate
particles and to a certain extent on the strength of the aggregate itself.
f) Modulus of elasticity: this is a mortar‟s ability to allow for minor movements without
cracking. It is an important factor in a building without construction joints or expansion
joints.
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g) Tensile strength: the mortar‟s ability to take a tensile force without failure. Most mortars
have very little tensile strength and require inclusion of additives so as to gain
considerable tensile strength.
The role of plastic (fresh) mortar during construction is a very important. The mortar must spread
easily and remain workable long enough to enable the accurate laying to line and level of the
masonry units. It must also retain water so that it does not dry out and stiffen too quickly,
especially when using absorbent masonry units. Another important trait that fresh mortar must
have is that it should harden in a reasonable time so as to prevent it deforming or squeezing out
under the weight of the units laid above.
2.3.1 Properties of fresh mortar
2.3.1.1 Workability
This is defined as the behaviour of a mix in respect of all the properties required during
application, subsequent working and finishing. The operative‟s opinion of workability is greatly
influenced by the flow properties of the mix, its cohesiveness and its retention of moisture
against the suction of the substrate.
Mortars with good workability usually have the following properties:
• Ease of use. This is determined by the way it adheres or slides on the trowel during
mixing and during its application.
• Ease at which it can be spread on the masonry units.
• Ease of positioning of the masonry units without movement due to their own weight and
the weight of additional courses above.
• Ease of extrusion between courses without excessive dropping or smearing.
If a mortar has poor workability it will reduce the output of the workmen in terms of quality and
quantity. Picking up the mortar and spreading it upon the masonry units will be much slower and
difficulty in placing the cross or perpendicular joints will be experienced. Obtaining a good
Page 20
finish will also be hard to achieve thereby resulting in an overall lower aesthetic appearance of
the masonry structure.
2.3.1.2 Water retentivity
This is the ability by which mortar resists water loss by absorption into the masonry units
(suction) and to the air through evaporation in conditions of varying temperature, wind and
humidity which are likely to be experienced during construction.
This property has a high relation to the workability of mortars. A mortar with good water
retentivity remains plastic long enough as to allow the masonry units to be aligned and plumbed
without breaking the intimate bond between the mortar and the masonry units.
Masonry units with low absorption that are in contact with mortar that has water retentivity that
is too high may float and move out of alignment and plumb which will result in wall faces that
are not „flush‟ with each other. Water retentivity should therefore be neither too low nor too
high.
Loss of moisture due to poor water retentivity, in addition to loss of plasticity may greatly reduce
the effectiveness of the bond to the masonry units.
2.3.1.3 Air content
In order to achieve good durability it is necessary that there is sufficient air content (entrained
air) to enable freeze-thaw cycles to be resisted without disrupting the matrix of the material. As
the water in the mix freezes and changes to ice it increases in volume, which generates disruptive
forces.
Allowing for the incorporation entrained air gives rise to the formation of air spaces/bubbles in
the mix that pervade the mortar matrix that act as expansion chambers. These bubbles allow
freezing water to expand without disrupting the mortar matrix.
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However, excessive air results in a gradual reduction in strength, particularly in bond and
flexure. Therefore controlled air content is important. BS 4721 prescribes entrained air content in
the range of 7-18%.
2.3.1.4 Stiffening and hardening
These two terms are defined as different properties. The progression of stiffening is referred to as
the gradual change from fresh or plastic mortar to set mortar. It is defined in the European
Standard as workable life. Rapid stiffening may interfere with the use of the mortar by the
craftsman, whilst a slow rate of stiffening may impede the progress of the work. A uniform and
moderate rate of stiffening will assist in the laying the masonry units and tooling of the joints to
give a consistent finish especially where coloured mortars are used.
Hardening refers to the subsequent process whereby the set mortar progressively develops
strength. The hardening is of interest to the engineer when considering the final design strength
of the mortar and how this develops.
2.3.2 Properties of hardened mortar
When hardened, the role of mortar in the finished structure is to transfer the compressive, tensile
and shear stresses between the units. It must be sufficiently durable to continue to do so over the
useful life of the structure.
The type of service the masonry is required to perform will determine the strength and durability
requirements of a mortar. For example walls which will be subjected to relatively severe stresses
or severe exposure conditions will need to be laid using a stronger and more durable mortar than
is required for general purpose applications.
Below are the principle properties of hardened mortar.
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2.3.2.1 Bond strength
According to BS EN 998-2, bond strength in mortar is referred to as the “adhesion perpendicular

to the load between the masonry mortar and the masonry unit”. Good bond is essential to
minimize ingress of water and moisture. The interface of the masonry unit and the mortar is
usually the most vulnerable part of the masonry construction to the ingress of rain; which is
detrimental to mortars especially soil-based ones.
Bond strength is required to withstand tensile forces due to wind, structural and other applied
forces, movement of the masonry units and temperature changes.
The greatest factor influencing bond strength is normally binder content. In general, the higher
the binder content the greater the bond strength. Air content, as stated previously, is also an
important factor as high air contents reduce bond at the brick/block and mortar interface.
Workmanship is also one of the factors that affect bonding. For example, the time lapse between
spreading mortar and placing of the masonry units must be kept to a minimum. The operative
should also avoid unnecessary movement of the masonry unit once it has been placed and
aligned so as to avoid interfering with the already begun bonding process.
Freshly laid masonry should be protected from extremes of wind and sun to avoid rapid drying of
earth mortars as this will encourage development of shrinkage cracks in the mortar.
2.3.2.2 Compressive strength
This is the most important property of mortar and is a property that is relatively easy to measure.
Adequate mortar strength is essential but the final strength of a mortar should not exceed that of
the bricks or blocks used.
Some of the important factors affecting compressive strength are binder content, sand grading,
entrained air content and water content. Increased binder contents will give higher strengths,
whilst increased fines content of sand, increased air content or increased water content will
reduce strength. Compressive strength is usually measured by using cube crushing tests.
Page 23
2.3.2.3 Durability
Durability of mortar may be defined as its ability to endure aggressive conditions during its
design life. Some of the potential destructive elements that earth mortars may have to interact
with during their design life include: water, frost, soluble salts and temperature changes.
Mud mortars are liable to increased erosion and loss in strength if used in humid or wet
conditions. For this reason they need protection from such conditions by appropriate building
design, by using them with complimentary water-resistant materials or by incorporating special
protective materials and structures in the building.
Where a mortar of lower strength than the masonry units is used, any water flow will tend to take
place preferentially through the mortar joint. This means that if any degradation due to freezing
and thawing occurs, it will mostly be felt along this joint therefore reducing the bond between
the mortar and masonry units due to alternate expansion and contraction.
Soluble salts may be present in the masonry units, the soil, or the atmosphere or may be
introduced extraneously. When the masonry becomes wet the sulfates may dissolve and can then
react with the mortar or recrystallize within the matrix of the mortar thus resulting to application
of stresses on the mortar which may cause it to degrade.
Temperature changes as discussed previously will cause the masonry units to expand and
contract cyclically thereby causing disruptive stresses on the mortar which will in turn lead to its
degeneration.
There is often a requirement to test mortar for durability, but satisfactory tests are difficult to
develop in practice and most suggested regimes are either too lengthy and complicated or do not
relate sufficiently well to site practice.
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2.3.2.4 Thermal properties
Energy efficiency has become more important in recent years, partly because of legislation on
energy use, global warming and thermal efficiency. Consideration should therefore be given to
the mortar joints as well as the units when considering heat loss and thermal efficiency (U value)
of walls.
The use of lightweight mortars improves the overall thermal efficiency of the masonry.
Alternatively, thin layer mortars may be used (i.e. joint thickness of 1-3 mm). One of the
advantages of the use of soil-based mortars is that earth tends to balance and improve indoor air
humidity and temperature thus improving thermal comfort.
2.3.2.5 Acoustic properties
The increase in population density in most urban areas where dwellings are close to each other
has made it is important to use materials with very good acoustic performance. Traditional earth
mortars have been known to provide great noise control.
2.3.2.6 Aesthetics
The colour and shade of the mortar joints greatly affects the overall appearance of a masonry
structure. Some 15- 25 % of the visual surface may be comprised of mortar therefore need for
selection of mortars with attractive colour and shades should be considered.
Careful measurement of mortar materials and thorough mixing are important in maintaining
uniformity which is paramount in improving appearance.
2.4 Clay as a Binder in earth mortars
Clays are the main binders of earth and are made up of very small mineral particles (< 2
microns), leached out during erosion of rock. The molecular structure of clays consists of sheets
Page 25
of silicate and aluminate ions. Electrostatic forces set up within such structures produce binding
properties.
Clay is a product of the erosion of feldspar and other minerals. Feldspar contains aluminium
oxide, a second metal oxide and silicon dioxide. One of the most common types of feldspar has
the chemical formula Al2O3 · K2O · 6SiO2. If easily soluble potassium compounds are dissolved
during erosion, then clay called Kaolinite is formed, which has the formula Al2O3 · 2SiO2 ·
2H2O.
Another common clay mineral is Montmorillonite, whose formula is Al 2O2 · 4SiO2. There also
exists a variety of less common clay minerals such as Illite.
Clay minerals are also found mixed with other chemical compounds, particularly with hydrated
iron oxide (Fe2O3 · H2O) and other iron compounds, giving the clay a characteristic yellow or
red colour. Manganese compounds impart a brown colour; lime and magnesium compounds give
white, while organic substances give a deep brown or black colour.
Most soils consist of clay together with proportions of silt, sand and gravel. The larger particles
give structure to a soil, while the clay holds it together and to a great extent provides the
cohesion.
When clay is mixed with water it becomes malleable, plastic or liquid, allowing it to be shaped.
When drying, clay sets and recovers its cohesive properties, and so can be used as a binder. The
binding properties of clay are generally low compared with cement.
2.5 Preparation and Application of Earth Mortars
The mixing of earth mortars in the field seldom adheres to standard procedure. In addition to the
varying preferences of masonry operatives for mortar consistency, the varying behavior and
capacity for water-absorption of soils used for earth mortars makes attempting to form standard
procedures of preparation somewhat impractical. For example the appropriate water content for
each mortar mix is highly dependent on the workability required for that type of soil.
Page 26
For laboratory use, what would be required is that the mortar is wet enough to have a thoroughly
plastic consistency, yet without having elastic properties that would cause them to resist being
molded with planar surfaces. Overly wet mortars tend to bulge outward, or slump, when molded
and appear to have a high surface tension that makes flattening the exposed surfaces difficult.
High clay content assures that these mortars would have appropriate adhesive capabilities when
mixed to plastic consistency. The comparatively low clay content soils allow for the mortars
formulated with these soils to have many properties similar to those of non-soil-based mortars.
The fresh mortars mixed with this soil are far less paste-like in consistency than those mixed
with high clay content soils.
Mud mortar is prepared simply mixing soil with water until it is in a plastic (workable) state.
Many different types of soil can be used in mortar preparation. Each type of soil has different
characteristics which make it suitable to a greater or lesser extent in particular applications.
However, optimum use can be made of most soils by choosing particular preparation techniques
and construction practices including, sometimes, the addition of stabilizers or other additives.
Ordinary earth mortars used for construction should not contain particles larger than one third the
thickness of the joints. To avoid possible shrinkage problems, the prepared mix should just be
workable enough for smooth and easy laying of the building elements. On the other hand, if there
has been addition of stabilizers in the mix, then it is necessary to get a good homogenous
distribution of the stabilizer in the mixture. It is also important that any lumps in the soil that are
bigger than 5 to 8 mm are crushed or sieved out. Mixing of materials in small batches is also
important so that the mortar mix can be used quickly and any significant setting of the stabilizer
before the mortar is used is then avoided.
If the stabilizer sets by reaction with water, Ordinary Portland cement for example, some
precautions have to be taken in order to avoid the applied mortar drying out too quickly. The
masonry units to be laid need to be wetted but not immediately before applying the mortar. This
is because the water will not be absorbed by the units and will remain as a surface film which
prevents good bonding between the mortar and the masonry unit.
Page 27
2.6 The Setting Process of Earthen Mortars
Water activates the binding forces of soil. Besides free water, there are three different types of
water in loam: water of crystallization (structural water), absorbed water, and water of
capillarity (pore water). Water of crystallization is chemically bound and is only distinguishable
if the soil is heated to temperatures between 400°C and 900°C. Absorbed water is electrically
bound to the soil minerals. Water of capillarity has entered the pores of the material by capillary
action.
If dry clay gets wet, it swells because water creeps in between the lamellary structure (a fine
plate-like structure of clay soils), surrounding the lamellas with a thin film of water. If this water
evaporates, the interlamellary distance is reduced, and the lamellas arrange themselves in a
parallel pattern due to the forces of electrical attraction. The clay thus acquires a “binding force”
if in a plastic state, and compressive and tensile strength after drying.
2.7 Earth Mortar Applications
Soil-based mortars can be used in the following applications:
i. Masonry structures: adobe blocks which are used in wall construction can be bonded
with earth mortars. Walls of field or cut stones, compressed earth blocks and fired clay
bricks can also be bonded with earth mortar since it is compatible to their surfaces.
ii. Mud mortars are also used for arches, vaults and domes built with the materials stated
above and the fact that they can be built without any form of shuttering is an
acknowledgement of the adhesive strength of soil-based mortars.
Page 28
Plate 8: Construction of vaults and cupolas without shuttering. (Source: CRATerra-EAG,

Practical Action Publishing)
iii. Plasters and renders: earth mortars can be applied to masonry, monolithic walls, wattle
and daub, vaults and even domes as a plaster. When used as external renders they are
liable to wear away depending on how harsh the environment they are in is; thus the need
to protect them from these conditions. An example of protection is to use a little cement
as key in masonry wall to protect the mortar on the inside. They may require regular
maintenance and periodic repair if not well protected.
iv. Wattle and daub: in wattle and daub construction earth mortar is used to fill in a
secondary framework supported by the primary structure of a building. This framework
can be single skin - the mortar simply applied to the panels of interlocking wood, cane or
bamboo strips; or double skin, with the mortar sandwiched in between two panels.
v. Cob walls: mortared mud balls can be used in the construction of cob walls in courses 40
to 80 cm high and with a drying period of several days in between the courses to allow
for buildup of strength.
Page 29
Chapter Three
3.0 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
The objective of this study was to investigate if the replacement of cement with soil in mortars
would result in desirable mortar properties such as; compressive strength, good plastic
consistency and workability, bond strength and sufficient setting time.
The tests to be carried out on the samples were those seen to be most crucial to mortars. They are
as follows:
 Setting time
 Compressive strength
The soil sample (murram soil) was extracted from a quarry in Isinya, Kajiado County.
Set time for any mortar can indicate how long the mortar is expected to maintain plastic
consistency and workability in the field. The knowledge of what set time to expect from a mortar
can influence what approach is used in its field application. The required set time for mortars
may be variable in different climatic conditions.
Compressive strength is important in determination of just how much loading in the

perpendicular direction a mortar will be able to withstand before it fails. This together with bond
strength is probably the most important property of hardened mortar.
3.2 Preparation of the Specimens
The number of formulations made was four including a control formulation of 3 parts sand and 1
part cement. Each formulation had a varying soil to cement ratio as shown below.
Page 30
Formulation Soil Cement
A 3 1
B 2 1
C 1 1
D 0 1
Table 4: Formulation soil-cement ratios
Formulation D was to be used as a control specimen for the comparison of normal cement based
mortars with the soil-cement mortars.
In accordance with BS 5628 part 3 clause 5.7.1.1; for building mortars, about one volume of
binder should be combined with three volumes of sand to give a workable mix, but a 1:3 cement
: sand mortar is stronger than is necessary for most uses. This was therefore the binder : sand
ratio that was picked for the entire lot of specimens. The number of samples for each formulation
was three so that an average value of the required results would be taken.
3.3 Setting Time
3.3.1 Introduction
This test is used to determine a nominal time period after which hydraulic cement mixtures can
be expected to harden and, in this case, to establish a comparison between the hardening times
required by each soil-cement formulation being tested.
The determination of the time of setting for the mortars was done according to ASTM C191-99,
Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle.
Page 31
3.3.2 Apparatus
Vicat apparatus shall consist of:
 Vicat apparatus with a movable rod of mass 300g.

 A removable straight steel needle with a diameter of 1mm and a length of no less than 50
mm.
 Flat trowel, having a sharpened straight-edged steel blade 100 to 150 mm in length.
 Mixer, bowl and paddle.
 Stop watch
 Conical ring, made of a rigid, non-corroding, nonabsorbent material having a height of
40mm and an inside diameter 70mm and an outside diameter of 80mm.
Figure 2: The Vicat apparatus
Page 32
3.3.3 Procedure
Samples of the mortar formulation were formed into a loose ball and tossed from one hand to
another six times whilst maintaining the hands about 150mm apart. The sample was then pressed
into a ring mould completely filling it without being compacted. Excess paste was sliced off at
the top of the ring so that it was flush with the ring. The top of the specimen was then smoothed
with two light touches of a trowel. The mould with the specimen was then left undisturbed for 30
minutes before the test began.
The samples were then set beneath the Vicat apparatus which consists of a 1mm needle attached
to a penetrometer able to indicate the extent of the needle‟s penetration into the sample to a depth
of 40mm i.e. the depth of the ring mould.
The Vicat needle was released just at the surface of the sample allowing it to pierce the samples
at regular intervals of 15 minutes until the setting of the mortar impeded the depth of the needle‟s
penetration to 25mm or less. However, as the early penetration readings were being taken, the fall
of the rod was slightly retarded in order to avoid bending the 1mm needle. This is because the
binder paste was still very fresh and therefore quite soft. The needle was allowed to settle for
about 30 seconds before any readings were taken.
Plate 9: Testing final setting time using Vicat apparatus
Page 33
The results of the penetration tests were then recorded and by interpolation. The time when a
penetration of 25mm was achieved was recorded.
Precautions taken during the test were as follows:
 The Vicat apparatus was kept free from vibrations during the penetration tests.
 The 1mm needle was kept straight and clean at all times. This was to prevent cement
from adhering to the sides of the needle and decreasing penetration, and to prevent
cement from adhering to the point therefore increasing penetration.
3.4 Compressive Strength
3.4.1 Introduction
This test is used to give the strength in compression of hardened mortar. The standard procedure
of cube tests according to BS 1881-116 was used. Load at failure of the specimens gives the
compressive strength of the mortar.
3.4.2 Apparatus
1. A standard vibration machine complying with clause 2 of KS 02-21: 1976

Appendix C “Test for compressive strength of cement using mortar cubes”.
2. A compression testing machine complying with clause 58 of BS 1881: 1952
“Methods of testing concrete” and also as stipulated in clause 4 of KS 02-21:
1976 Appendix C “Testing”.
3. Cube moulds for preparation of test specimens satisfying specifications given in
clause 3b of KS 02-21: 1976 Appendix C “Cube Moulds”.
Page 34
3.4.3 Preparation of cube specimens
100 x 100 x 100mm moulds cleaned and oil applied evenly in them. The mortar was then filled
into the moulds and compacted using a standard vibrating table until adequate compaction was
achieved. Cubes for formulation A however, were prepared in 150 x 150 x 150mm moulds due
to inadequate number of moulds in the lab. The top surface of the mould was then leveled and
smoothened with a trowel. The test specimens were then stored in moist air for 24 hours then
removed from their moulds. Due to the nature of the cubes (presence of soil), curing could not be
done by immersion in water since the soil would fail to cure. The specimens were instead
wrapped inside polythene bags so as to maintain their moisture content.
Plate 10: Curing of specimen cubes by wrapping in polythene bags
Formulation D was an exception to the rule since it did not contain any soil and was therefore
cured by immersion in water for the entire 28 days. After 28 days, the specimens were ready for
the cube crushing tests.
3.4.4 Procedure
The dimensions of the specimen were measured. The bearing surface (platens) of the
compression machine was cleaned and any grit or other extraneous material was removed from
the surface of the cube which was in contact with the machine platens. The specimen was then
placed in the machine in such a manner that the load was applied to the opposite sides of the cast
Page 35
cube. Care was taken to ensure the cube was placed centrally on the base plate of the machine.
Packing was used between the specimen and the platens for the 100 x 100 x100mm cubes but no
packing was used for the 150 x 150 x 150mm cubes.
The movable portion of the loading apparatus was then rotated gently by hand until it touched
the top surface of the specimen. The load was then applied gradually without shock and at a
continuous nominal rate within the range 0.2N/mm 2 to 0.4N/mm2 per second until no greater
load could be sustained.
The maximum load applied to the cube i.e. the load at failure was then recorded.
Page 36
Chapter Four
4.0 Results and Analysis
The results obtained from the laboratory tests on the samples done as described in the previous
chapter will now be displayed and analyzed.
4.1 Vicat Time of Initial and Final Setting
4.1.1 Introduction
Vicat initial setting time to the nearest 1 minute is calculated as follows:
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
Where:
E = time in minutes of last penetration greater than 25 mm,
H = time in minutes of first penetration less than 25 mm,
C = penetration reading at time E and
D = penetration reading at time H.
Page 37
4.1.2 Formulation A
(1 soil : 1 cement)
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Time Penetration Time Penetration Time Penetration
(min) (mm) (min) (mm) (min) (mm))
0 40.0 0 40.0 0 40.0
15 40.0 15 40.0 15 40.0
30 40.0 30 40.0 30 40.0
45 39.5 45 39.0 45 39.5
60 39.0 60 36.0 60 38.0
75 37.0 75 29.0 75 36.0
90 28.0 90 27.5 90 27.0
105 24.0 105 23.0 105 24.5
Table 5: Time-penetration table for formulation A
Vicat initial setting time for sample 1 is:
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
Page 38
4.1.3 Formulation B
(2 soil : 1 cement)
SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3
(min) (mm) (min) (mm) (min) (mm)
0 40.0 0 40.0 0 40.0
15 40.0 15 40.0 15 40.0
30 40.0 30 40.0 30 40.0
45 39.5 45 39.5 45 39.5
60 39.5 60 39.0 60 39.5
75 39.0 75 38.0 75 39.0
90 37.0 90 37.0 90 37.5
105 36.0 105 35.5 105 36.0
120 32.0 120 33.0 120 32.0
135 27.0 135 27.5 135 27.5
150 20.0 150 21 150 20.5
Table 6: Time - penetration table for formulation B
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
Page 39
4.1.4 Formulation C
(3 soil : 1 cement)
0 40.0 0 40.0 0 40.0
15 40.0 15 40.0 15 40.0
30 40.0 30 40.0 30 40.0
45 40.0 45 39.5 45 40.0
60 39.5 60 38.0 60 39.5
75 37.0 75 36.5 75 37.5
90 34.0 90 34.0 90 34.5
105 32.0 105 32.5 105 32.0
120 29.0 120 28.0 120 28.5
135 27.0 135 26.5 135 27.0
150 22.0 150 22.5 150 21.0
Table 7: Time - penetration table for formulation C
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
Page 40
4.1.5 Formulation D
(0 soil : 1 cement)
0 40.0 0 40.0 0 40.0
15 40.0 15 40.0 15 40.0
30 40.0 30 40.0 30 40.0
45 40.0 45 40.0 45 40.0
60 40.0 60 40.0 60 40.0
75 39.0 75 39.5 75 40.0
90 38.0 90 37.5 90 38.0
105 36.0 105 36.0 105 36.5
120 32.0 120 31.0 120 33.0
135 29.0 135 28.0 135 30.0
150 26.0 150 25.5 150 27.5
165 20.0 165 21.5 165 24.0
Table 8: Time - penetration table for formulation D
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
( )
{[ ⁄( )] ( )}
Page 41
4.1.6 Summary
Formulation Sample Number Vicat Initial Setting Vicat Final Setting

Time (min) Time (min)
A 1 101 230
A 2 98 215
A 3 102 225
Average 100 223
B 1 139 245
B 2 141 255
B 3 140 250
Average 140 250
C 1 141 250
C 2 141 255
C 3 140 250
Average 141 252
D 1 153 265
D 2 152 260
D 3 161 275
Average 155 267
Table 9: Vicat initial and final setting times
4.2.1 Introduction
Compressive strength is calculated as follows:
( )
⁄ ( )
The loaded area of all the formulations apart from formulation A was 10000mm 2. The loaded
area for formulation A was 22500mm2. This was due to the different cube moulds used for the
formulation.
Page 42
4.2.2 Formulation A
(1 soil : 1 cement)
Sample Number Load (kN) Average Load (kN) Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
1 127.5
2 145 135 6.0
3 132.5
Table 10: Load – compressive strength table for formulation A
4.2.3 Formulation B
(2 soil : 1 cement)
1 17.5
2 23 20 2.0
3 19.5
Table 11: Load – compressive strength table for formulation B
4.2.4 Formulation C
(3 soil : 1 cement)
1 12.5
2 17.5 15 1.5
3 15
Table 12: Load – compressive strength table for formulation C
4.2.5 Formulation D
(0 soil : 1 cement)
1 68
2 60 65 6.5
3 67
Table 13: Load – compressive strength table for formulation D
Page 43
1.2.6 Summary of Compressive Strengths
Formulation Formulation Average Failure Average Compressive

Number Load Strength (N/mm2)
(kN)
A 1 135 6.0
B 2 20 2.0
C 3 15 1.5
D 4 65 6.5
Table 14: Average compressive strength table for all formulations
6
Average Failure Load (kN)
0
1 2 3 4
Formulation
Figure 3: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Formulation
Page 44
Chapter Five
5.0 Discussion
5.1 Introduction
The primary aim of this project was to investigate the applicability of soil-based mortars in
today‟s construction industry. This was achieved by carrying out tests on different ratios of soil-
cement formulations. A sample of murram soil was chosen and modified with addition of
cement. Murram soil was picked due to its extensive local availability and low cost. The goal of
testing the earthen mortar amended with ordinary Portland cement was to explore how the
addition of the cement affected the critical properties of soil mortars when mixed in varying
proportions.
Due to lack of the required equipment in the laboratory some of the tests that should have been
carried out on the mortar formulations made for example bond strength, air content, thermal
properties etc. were not carried out. However, the most important properties in day to day
construction using mortar were investigated for both fresh and hardened mortar; i.e. setting time
and compressive strength respectively.
The following section of this chapter is an in-depth discussion of the findings of the tests carried
out on the specimens.
5.2 Setting Time
An ideal mortar should remain workable long enough to enable the operative to set the masonry
unit right to line and level but should also stiffen sufficiently quickly so as to permit the laying of
units to proceed smoothly. Therefore, a good balance between these two properties should be
achieved in order for the process of brick laying to be successful and the final product to be
sufficiently strong.
Page 45
From the results indicated in the previous chapter, it was seen that the ratio of soil to cement
does affect the Vicat initial and final setting time of the mortar produced. The formulation with
the greater soil content was seen to also possess the greater Vicat initial and final setting times.
This could be explained by the fact that cement is actually hygroscopic and requires water in
order to set owing to its hydrophilic character. In the presence of water, the aluminates and
silicates of which the cement is composed of, form products of hydration that are responsible for
the stiffening of cement paste.
In the case of soil-cement mixes, the soil competes with the cement for absorption of water
needed for the hydration of cement. Therefore, the water available for the hydration of cement is
reduced. This leads to an increased time of setting with the increase of soil content in the soil-
cement paste.
It is however important to note that the murram soil in the soil-cement mix sets by drying and not
by hydration. In the long run therefore, the soil will have to lose some of the water that it
absorbed during the setting process. This water will then be used in the continual hydration of
the cement and aid in its hardening process. It is important to note that there is a difference
between setting and hardening of cement. The term „setting‟ is used to describe the stiffening of
cement paste; it refers to the change of cement paste from a fluid to rigid state. The term
„hardening‟ on the other hand refers to the gain of strength of cement paste, although during
setting the cement paste acquires some strength. The initial Vicat setting time indicates the
approximate time at which the paste begins to stiffen considerably while the final Vicat setting
time roughly indicates the time at which the cement paste has hardened and can support some
load.
From the results, it was also noted that the setting times of formulation D which was meant to be
the control formulation for the tests were somewhat in contradiction to the explanation given
above for the difference in setting time. It would be expected that since there was no soil in the
formulation, the setting times would be much lower than the ones recorded in the results. In fact,
the setting times were expected to be lower than the ones recorded for the other formulations.
This is because the cement paste had no soil content in it to compete with it for water required in
its hydration process. The simple explanation for this disparity in the results to the expected
results lies in the water content of the paste. For purposes of uniformity and standardization of
Page 46
the procedure, similar volumes of the binder (solely cement or soil and cement) were used during
preparation of the specimens. Subsequently, a similar volume of water was used for the
preparation of the specimens for each formulation. The amount of water used was the percentage
of water required for normal consistency. In formulation D the water-cement ratio may have
been too high due to absence of the soil which would have absorbed some of it thus causing the
stiffening of the cement paste to be retarded. This consequently led to the higher setting times
recorded for formulation D.
According to BS 5628-3:2001 clause A.4.2.3.7, mortars should be used within 2 hours of mixing.
This means that the mortar formulations C and B above would be adequate for use within this
time period since their initial set is not until after 140 minutes. As for formulation A, the initial
set is much lower at 100 minutes but has not deviated too far from the required limit of 120
minutes. It therefore would also be adequate for use in normal construction.
At a final setting time of approximately 4 hours, the formulations proved to be adequate for
construction of masonry walls at an economic rate since they are able to withstand some loading
and assist in accommodating the strains arising from minor movements within the wall within a
short period of time.
After the examination of many specifications, it has been noted that compressive strength is the
most important property of mortar. However, this may not always be correct as workability and
bond are also of great significance. Furthermore, research has shown that in as much as
compressive strength is an important property of mortars, it has a relatively minor influence on
the strength of masonry construction when compared to the strength of the units i.e. the
brickwork or block work. As a matter of fact strengths increase by only about 10% when mortar
compressive strength increases by 130%. Moreover, as essential as adequate mortar strength is,
the final strength of a mortar should not exceed that of bricks or blocks used. Compressive strength
is frequently highlighted in specifications due to the relative ease with which it can be measured
Page 47
From the results of the laboratory tests in the preceding chapter, the compressive strengths of the
mortar formulations were seen to increase as the cement content in the formulation increased.
This was the expected trend. Comparisons were drawn to the control formulation D which had
only cement as its binding material and had a compressive strength of 6.5N/mm 2.
A notable observation was made in formulation A in which the ratio of murram soil to cement
was 1:1. Its compressive strength of 6.0N/mm 2 was a meagre reduction of 0.5N/mm2 from that of
the control formulation D. This clearly indicates that the cement content in a mortar could be
replaced with murram soil by an entire 50% and still maintain most of its compressive strength.
As the ratio of soil to cement increased the compressive strength drastically reduced. The
compressive strength for formulation B and C mortar reduced to 2.0N/mm2 and 1.5N/mm2
respectively from the 6.5N/mm2 compressive strength observed in formulation D. This is a
difference of 4.5N/mm2 and 5.0N/mm2 for formulations B and C respectively. This could be
attributed to the lower compressive strength of the cured murram soil which is in higher
proportion as compared to the much higher cement compressive strength which is lower in
proportion in these formulations.
In BS 5628-1:1992 table 1 the requirements for different mortar designations are given. The
following table is an excerpt of table 1 showing mean compressive strengths given for the
different mortar designations.
Mortar Designation Mean Compressive Strength at 28 days (N/mm2)

Preliminary (laboratory) tests Site tests
(i) 16.0 11.0
(ii) 6.5 4.5
(iii) 3.6 2.5
(iv) 1.5 1.0
Table 15: Table showing 28 day compressive strength for varying mortar designations
From the table above it can be concluded that formulation A mortar would satisfy the
compressive strength requirements of all the mortar designations apart from mortar designation
(i). Formulations B and C would comfortably satisfy the compressive strength requirements of
Page 48
mortar designation (iv). This further reinforces the idea of cement replacement with murram soil
in construction mortars.
The use of too much cement in mortars leads to the formulation of more rigid mortars. This may
result to vertical cracking passing through units and mortar joints as stresses are imposed. The
stresses may due to the thermal expansion and differential movement in site structures, whereby
stronger materials transfer stress to weaker materials, which are damaged in turn.
The use of soil as a cement replacement material in the mortar therefore helps in the reduction of
the amount of cement used thus mitigating against vertical cracking.
Plate 11: Vertical cracking in a masonry wall
Stronger mortars with higher cement contents also tend to have higher shrinkage. This may result
in an increased risk of rain penetration due to the greater potential incidence of fine crack
formation. This further justifies the use of soil-based mortars for construction.
One of the disadvantages of use of soil-based mortars in construction is that it may require
protection from ingress of water into the mortar structure. This is due to similar reasons as to
why the specimens during lab tests were not cured by spraying or immersion in water. The water
Page 49
also tends to drain out the soil grains from the mortar‟s structure thus weakening the mortar in
the process in terms of bond and compressive strength. This problem would especially be
expected for higher soil to cement ratios as in formulations B and C. This problem can be
mitigated by the application of a key on the surface of the mortar which will prevent water from
affecting the covered mortar.
Page 50
Chapter Six
6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusion
This purpose of this study was to investigate the applicability of cement stabilized murram soil
as a mortar for construction. The main objective of the study was to conduct tests on the chosen
soil-based mortar with the aim of drawing conclusions from the results that would support or
reject the use of soil-based mortars in construction today.
The experimental phase of this project involved quantitative testing of the properties of an
earthen mortar that was amended with ordinary Portland cement. The study was successful in:
 Quantifying the effects of varying the cement content of the formulations on the tested
properties.
 Measuring the critical properties of the earthen mortar amended with Portland cement.
Having successfully met the objective of the study, the findings of this study show that indeed
earthen mortars can still be relevant in today‟s construction industry if people are willing to
embrace their use. The tests carried out on the specimens showed that the earthen mortar
developed during the study was within the range of specifications used for mortars in terms of
the investigated properties.
The Vicat initial setting time of the formulations tested was found to be between 100 to 150
minutes which allows the mortar to be workable long enough to set the bricks or blocks in level
and line. This is a desirable property of fresh mortar. On the other hand, the compression
strength of the mortar formulations was in a reliable range as seen in the British Standard
specification – BS 5628, table 1. Where a higher compressive strength is required the mortar
formulation A would be ideal while where lower compressive strengths are required, the mortar
formulations B and C would be sufficient.
Page 51
Embracing the use of soil-based mortars in construction would bring a lot of benefits to both the
community and environment at large. The cost savings as a result of the reduction of the use of
cement would be very significant especially to people who cannot afford the high costs involved
in construction with cement. The average cost of cement in Kenya today is KES 700.00 per 50kg
bag (www.mjenzii.kbo.co.ke); for the same amount of murram soil in the Nairobi region
(including transport), one would only have to part with KES 9.30(www.mjenzii.kbo.co.ke). This
would be a significant reduction in the cost of construction especially if implemented in large
scale projects.
As discussed in the second chapter of this report, the environment too would not be left behind as
the production of cement has serious implications in matters pollution. Use of soil-based mortars
would spur a revolution in the construction industry and influence the reduction of cement
production which in turn would lead to less pollution.
It is therefore safe to conclude that the study was a success.
6.2 Recommendations
The field of earthen mortars is wide and a lot of improvements can be made in its application if
well studied. The following are some of the recommendations that can be made with regards to
the use of soil-cement mortars in construction:
i. Investigations into how other types of locally available soils apart from murram behave
when amended by cement and used as mortars can be carried out in order to see which
type of soil could be best suited for this purpose. This rests on the hypothesis that the
performance of soil-cement mortars is based primarily on the type and composition of the
soil used in the mortar formulation.
ii. Further studies and tests on the various properties of ideal mortars can be carried out on
soil-based mortars so as to provide a wider perspective on their performance during the
fresh and hardened states.
Page 52
iii. It is also recommended that tests be carried out on earthen mortars that are not amended
with Portland cement in order to have a clear view to what extent the amendment of these
mortars improves their performance.
iv. If the use of soil-based mortars is to be effectively applied, then standard procedures of
testing and specification of these mortars will need to be developed. This will provide a
platform in which more tests can be carried out and further improvement of the product
can be achieved.
v. Further studies can also be conducted to determine which additives can be added to soil-
cement mortars to aid in their performance. Straw for example can be added in some
mortars so as to reduce shrinkage without considerably decreasing their bond strength.
vi. It is important that whenever soil-based mortars are used in construction, great care is
taken to ensure that the mortar is well protected from ingress of water either from the
ground, in the case of foundation walls, from rainfall or from other sources. Measures
like the use of cement mortar keys and longer roof eaves can be employed to ensure
protection of the mortar structure.
Page 53
References
1. Mohammad, S.Z. and Dr. Lee, A., (2008). Contemporary Earth Construction in Urban
Housing – Stabilised or Unstabilised? University of Salford, United Kingdom.
2. Licker, M.D., (2nd Edition), (2003). Dictionary of Engineering, USA.
3. Zinn, A.W., (2005). Cement Modified Earthen Mortar: An Investigation of Soil-Cement
Performance Characteristics at Three Southwestern National Monuments. University of
Pennsylvania, USA.
4. www.mjenzii.kbo.co.ke
5. Minke, G., (2006). Building with Earth. Design and Technology of a Sustainable
Architecture, pp 11-18, Basel.
6. American Society for the Testing of Materials Standards. “C 191-99: Standard Test
Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle.”
7. Copsey, N., Gourley, B. and Allen, R., (2010). Mud Mortars in Masonry Construction:
Malton, North Yorkshire. University of York, United Kingdom.
8. http://www.practicalaction.org – Mud as a Mortar; Clay as a Binder.
9. Morton, T., (2008). Earth Masonry Design and Construction.
10. Walker, P., (2001). The Australian Earth Building Handbook, pp 2-11, Sydney.
11. Azeredo, G., Morel, J. and Barbosa, P.N., (2007). “Compressive Strength Testing of
Earth Mortars”, Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering, (March): pp 26-35.
12. Dwiantoro, D., Zhang, M. and Warkentin, K., (2013). Mortars for Earthen Masonry
Construction. University of Florida, USA.
Page 54
Appendices
Appendix A: Vicat Initial Setting Time Line Graphs
Appendix B: Compressive Strength Bar Graphs
Appendix C: Plates
Page 55
Appendix A
Formulation A
Time Elapsed (min) Depth of Penetration (mm)

0 40.0 40.0 40.0
15 40.0 40.0 40.0
30 40.0 40.0 40.0
45 39.5 39.0 39.5
60 39.0 36.0 38.0
75 37.0 29.0 36.0
90 28.0 27.5 27.0
105 24.0 23.0 24.5
45
40
35
30
Penetration (mm)
25
Sample1
20 Sample 2
15 Sample 3
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)
Figure 4: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation A
Page 56
Formulation B

0 40.0 40.0 40.0
15 40.0 40.0 40.0
30 40.0 40.0 40.0
45 39.5 39.5 39.5
60 39.5 39.0 39.5
75 39.0 38.0 39.0
90 37.0 37.0 37.5
105 36.0 35.5 36.0
120 32.0 33.0 32.0
135 27.0 27.5 27.5
150 20.0 21 20.5
45
40
35
30
Penetration (mm)
25
Sample 1
20
Sample 2
15 Sample 3
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (min)
Figure 5: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation B
Page 57
Formulation C

0 40.0 40.0 40.0
15 40.0 40.0 40.0
30 40.0 40.0 40.0
45 40.0 39.5 40.0
60 39.5 38.0 39.5
75 37.0 36.5 37.5
90 34.0 34.0 34.5
105 32.0 32.5 32.0
120 29.0 28.0 28.5
135 27.0 26.5 27.0
150 22.0 22.5 21.0
45
40
35
30
Penetration (mm)
25
Sample 1
20
Sample 2
15 Sample 3
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (min)
Figure 6: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation C
Page 58
Formulation D

0 40.0 40.0 40.0
15 40.0 40.0 40.0
30 40.0 40.0 40.0
45 40.0 40.0 40.0
60 40.0 40.0 40.0
75 39.0 39.5 40.0
90 38.0 37.5 38.0
105 36.0 36.0 36.5
120 32.0 31.0 33.0
135 29.0 28.0 30.0
150 26.0 25.5 27.5
165 20.0 21.5 24.0
45
40
35
30
Penetration (mm)
25
Sample 1
20
Sample 2
15 Sample 3
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)
Figure 7: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation D
Page 59
Appendix B
Formulation A
150
145
140
Failure Load (kN)
135
130
125
120
115
1 2 3
Sample Number
Figure 8: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation A
Formulation B
25
20
Failure Load (kN)
15
10
0
1 2 3
Sample Number
Figure 9: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation B
Page 60
Formulation C
20
18
16
14
Failure Load (kN)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3
Sample Number
Figure 10: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation C
Formulation D
70
68
66
Failure Load (kN)
64
62
60
58
56
1 2 3
Sample Number
Figure 11: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Sample of formulation D
Page 61
Appendix C
Plate 12: Preparation of mortar formulations
Plate 13: Preparation of cube moulds
Page 62
Plate 14: Well-oiled and prepared cube moulds
Plate 15: Preparation of soil-cement paste for Vicat setting time test
Page 63
Plate 16: Vicat setting time test
Page 64
Page 65

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Final Year Project 2014

An Investigation into the use of Cement Stabilized Murram Soil as a

Mortar for Construction

By Onchari Amos Onchiri

Supervisor: Dr. (Eng.) Simpson Osano

A project submitted as a partial fulfillment for the requirement for the

award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.6 The Setting Process of Earthen Mortars ............................................................................ 28

Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................ 45

Figure 1: Mortar Time Line Chart

Figure 2: The Vicat apparatus

Figure 3: Bar Chart Showing Failure Load for each Formulation

Figure 4: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation A

Figure 5: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation B

Figure 6: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation C

Figure 7: Penetration vs Time Graph for formulation D

Plate 1: Earth pise, mud mortared stone, chite in Granada Spain

Plate 2: South elevation, York House, Malton

Plate 3: York House interior, mud mortared limestone to original wall

Plate 4: Old Malton Priory

Plate 5: ASTM sieve stack and mechanical shaker

Plate 6: Soil sedimentation cylinders with control cylinder on the left

Plate 7: Casagrande device with grooving tool

Plate 8: Construction of vaults and cupolas without shuttering

Plate 9: Testing final setting time using Vicat apparatus

Plate 10: Curing of specimen cubes by wrapping in polythene bags

Plate 11: Vertical cracking in a masonry wall

Plate 12: Preparation of mortar formulations

Plate 13: Preparation of cube moulds

Plate 14: Well-oiled and prepared cube moulds

Plate 16: Vicat initial setting time test

Table 1: Particle size designations

Table 2: Soil plasticity index ranges

Table 3: Classification of soil pH

Table 4: Formulation of soil-cement ratios

Table 5: Time-penetration table for formulation A

Table 6: Time-penetration table for formulation B

Table 7: Time-penetration table for formulation C

Table 8: Time-penetration table for formulation D

Table 9: Vicat initial and final setting times

Table 10: Load – compressive strength table for formulation A

Table 11: Load – compressive strength table for formulation B

Table 12: Load – compressive strength table for formulation C

Table 13: Load – compressive strength table for formulation D

Table 14: Average compressive strength table for all formulations

This page has been intentionally left blank…

1.1 General Introduction

Definitions for soil

This study will mainly focus on earth masonry mortars.

1.2 Advantages of using earth as a construction material

iii. It encourages self-help construction.

1.3 Disadvantages of using earth as a construction material

a) Less durable as a construction material compared to conventional materials.

h) Need higher wall thickness.

1.4 Problem Statement

• The need to encourage the use of environmentally friendly „green‟ materials.

1.5 Scope and Objective

2.0 Literature Review and Theoretical Analysis

2.1 History of Soil-based Mortars

Figure 1: Mortar time line chart (Source: Bates, 2006)

Plate 4: Old Malton Priory (Source: Copsey et al, 2010)

2.2 Soil characterization

Soils used in mortars are characterized according to the following parameters: