CHINHOYI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

STUDENT NAME : MUHENYERI WAYNE

DEPARTMENT : PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

STUDENT NUMBER : C17132004Q

SUPERVISOR : MR MARADZIKA

RE-USE OF CLAY BASED PRODUCT WASTE: CASE STUDY OF SUNNY YI FENG

PVT LIMITED ZIMBABWE
Dedication
I would like to dedicate this project to my parents, who believed in me from when I started my
first year . My father for always offering a much-needed ear whenever I needed it and for
helping me intellectually even when he may not have known. My mother for always praying
for me and giving me the strength to carry on even when it became difficult to .Both of them
are an inspiration beyond words to me.

I would also like to dedicate this project to my loving husband Eng Misheck Nhakura for his
unwavering support. His knowledge in the field has also helped me tremendously as I carried
out my project. He was my biggest source of support and I appreciate all the financial, physical
and moral support he gave tirelessly. Thank you.

ii
Abstract

The research paper is based on observations of the researcher whilst touring companies that
use clay in their manufacturing processes. One company that manufactures a lot of clay-based
products is Sunny Yi Feng which is one of the biggest ceramics companies in Zimbabwe. The
company manufactures tiles, pots, plates and cups. A lot of waste was observed on site. The
waste was due to breakages during material handling as well as defects. While the company
sells some of its defective products for example, some broken cups or plates to reduce on site
waste, a large percentage of the defective products still goes to waste as it is unusable.

This project will consist of various chapters which will show how clay mining as well as
continuous buildup of clay-based product waste has caused detrimental effects to the
environment. The introductory chapters will mostly highlight these effects whilst the
methodology seeks to come up with a way to abate the problems that clay harvesting as well
as clay wastes have brought about.

iii
Acknowledgements

Firstly I would like to acknowledge the input of my academic supervisor Mr Maradzika for
his input in the step by step proceedings of this project, miss Miriam Magavhe for her
assistance in running tests as well as result interpretation, as well as Mr D. Munemo for his
assistance with the practical aspect of my project. All the academic staff whose hands I have
gone through in my five years at CUT as my project was based on not one, but a combination
of what knowledge they have passed on to me in all courses of my learning. Their assistance
was in every bit the guidance that was necessary to bring this project to its completion. I
would like to acknowledge the assistance of my best friend Jacqueline Monalisa Donga who
is also a production engineer herself. Her support was as important as her questions, her
affirmations as well as her general input. My dear husband Eng Misheck Tawanda Nhakura
whose knowledge in the area was much appreciated. He has been of great support physically ,
financially as well as spiritually in all the 5 years I have spent at CUT and throughout my
project.

iv
Table of Contents
Dedication ............................................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ iv
Chapter 1:Introductory chapter .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1Background of the problem. .............................................................................................................. 1
1.2Problem statement ............................................................................................................................ 6
1.3Aim ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4Objectives .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.5Significance of the study .................................................................................................................... 7
1.6Limitations ......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.7Delimitations ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.8GANTT CHART FOR PROJECT PROCESS................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2:Literature review .................................................................................................................... 9
SEM (scanning electron microscope) analysis ...................................................................................... 17
Effect of temperature on physicomechanical properties of bricks ...................................................... 19
Chapter 3:Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 25
3.0Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 25
3.1Research methods ........................................................................................................................... 25
3.2Apparatus ......................................................................................................................................... 26
3.3Material processing. ........................................................................................................................ 26
3.4 Firing temperature and composition selection .............................................................................. 31
3.5Compositions ................................................................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER 4:RESULTS ............................................................................................................................. 35

v
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 35
CNTL .................................................................................................................................................. 36
Br3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 38
Br4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

vi
Chapter 1:Introductory chapter

Introduction

The global trends have been shifting to promote sustainable use of natural resources. Although
some of these resources ,particularly minerals are currently found in abundance, their formation
takes millions of years. In the past nature had the opportunity to replenish itself as use of
minerals was at its minimum. With the advancements in science and technology the use of
minerals has become broader, hence pushing for a race in the extraction of these minerals. This
means depletion of these resources is an imminent reality if no action is taken. It is important
therefore to ensure that the rate of harvesting of these resources by the present generation does
not surpass the natural formation of these resources, thereby compromising future generations
from being able to meet their own basic need of the same resource. Sustainability has three
main pillars which are social ,economic and environmental, all of which will be highlighted in
this paper.

1.1Background of the problem.

Clay is a type of soil with very fine particles which can be smaller than two micrometres in
size. These particles may be composed of magnesium and iron as well as a hydrous layer
silicate of aluminium. This is why clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water. The use of
this soil dates back to 14,000, BC. It has found its way into modern engineering due to its
characteristics which have made it an alternative to most materials. There are four main types
of industrial clay which are kaolinites, fibrous clays, common clays as well as bentonites.
1. Kaolinite

Figure 1

Also known as china clay. This type of clay is used in manufacture of porcelain and chinaware.

It is also used widely in the making of paper as well as an ingredient in rubber. It can also be
used in brick making. This type of clay has good toxin absorbing properties because of the
nature of its particles and is used in the medical field as an ingredient in stomach smoothers .

2
1. Fibrous clays

Figure 2

These have granules which can be less than 0.1 micrometers. They are useful in the
manufacturing of advanced nano structural materials. Examples are sepiolite [Mg4Si6
O15(OH)2.6H2O] and palygorskite (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH).4(H2O)

2. Common clays

Figure 3

3
The most abundant types of clay. They exhibit plasticity when mixed with water and have
good workability which means they can be worked into different shapes and sizes. These clays
are used in the manufacturing of tiles, bricks, pottery as well as vitrified pipes.

3. Bentonites

Figure 4

It is a type of clay that has a soft white texture. The paste that it forms with water is used in the
cosmetic industry , particularly in face and hair masks.

The uses of clay stated above are proof that clay is a resource that is on high demand. This
growing demand has pushed for a race in the extractive industry of clay. More and more clay
is being mined each year. A study has shown that 50million tons of china clay is produced
each year worldwide. This data shows that the current reserves globally can last up to about
300 years. This is only an estimate, as this time frame can be reduced given that more uses of
clay are yet to be discovered. . Although it is currently found in abundance, the formation of
clay takes a very long time. Rock forming minerals such as silica are exposed to various
physical and chemical conditions over thousands of years for clay to be formed. Therefore,
there is need to use clay sustainably.

4
Sustainable use of resources means using what we have presently but without compromising
future generations from using those resources as well. The harvesting of clay brings about
erosion, the formation of permanent scars to the landscape, siltation of water bodies and many
other undesirable effects. Clay therefore should be mined sparingly and used efficiently so as
to mitigate environmental problems which arise from clay mining.

Mining activity is a strong instrument of environmental degradation, especially when practiced

in a disorderly and irregular manner (Sanches, 2010) (Mechi, 2010). According to MECHI and
SANCHES, (2010) Clay extraction in alluvial flat terrain is one of the most impactful forms of
mining, because it is carried out in the open and in areas close to water sources. In Zimbabwe
clay is mostly used in manufacturing of tiles, pottery, ceramics as well as brick-making. A lot
of advancement has been noted in efforts to reuse and recycle plastic and paper waste. Not
much has been done to ensure that clay products and their waste can be reused or recycled
instead of using virgin clay for all manufacturing processes.

This study will be based on Sunny Yi Feng , a company that was established in the year 2008.
The company is located near the Manyame River some 30km from the capital, Harare. It sits
on an estimated 100 hectares of land and has the capability to produce 10million square metres
of tiling material each year as well as 30 million pieces of sanitary-ware and porcelain. The
company exports 70% of its produce yet 90% of the raw materials it requires are obtained from
the country. All the clay needed for their manufacturing process is found through clay
harvesting in Zimbabwe. In February 2022 the company was in the media spotlight for
dumping industrial as well as general waste in its surroundings. This industrial waste is what
the researcher hopes to be able to reuse in order to reduce the harsh effects of clay harvesting
and clay waste disposal.

5
1.2Problem statement

Zimbabwe collects about 2,4 million tonnes of waste per year. There is widespread
sensitization on the importance of recycling paper and plastic yet very little is said about the
recycling or reuse of clay-based products. The continuous harvesting of clay in the production
of clay products has resulted in changes in soil profiles which is detrimental to agricultural
activities. It has also caused open pits, erosion as well as siltation of rivers. The waste from
clay products has presented challenges in disposal. Most of the waste is found in landfills as it
is of no economic value.

1.3Aim
This project aims to promote the re-use of clay-based products in industry.

1.4Objectives

• Make aggregates of 75% ground ceramic waste with bone ash and cement as binders.
• Make bricks using the aggregates and test if the compressive strength is above the
minimum recommended 3.5N/mm2 (3500kPa) or not.

6
1.5Significance of the study
Currently there is not much study done on the effects of clay harvesting in Zimbabwe. This
means there is no clear data that is easily accessible, showing how much clay mining and waste
disposal is affecting the environment. This study looks at the harvesting of clay on a global
scale and interprets the results in relation to Zimbabwe. This helps to have an appreciation of
what to expect in Zimbabwe if the problems caused by clay mining are not abated.

1.6Limitations

• Financial limitations may not allow visiting of clay-based products manufacturing sites.

• Most of the research is based on other countries which are not physically accessible as
not much has been documented about the area of study in Zimbabwe .

• Companies are not willing to share their waste disposal methods due to legal reasons.

• Due to the pandemic, researcher may not be able to visit the company for investigative
purposes.

• Apparatus to conduct experiments may not be readily available.

1.7Delimitations
• Researcher will use personal funds wherever possible.

• Extensive use of different sources from the internet will help with improving the
accuracy of findings.

7
1.8GANTT CHART FOR PROJECT PROCESS

Table 1.8.1

ACTIVITY JAN JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

INTERVIEWS

RESEARCH
WORK
RAW
MATERIAL
PROCESSING
MAKING
BRICKS
STRENGTH
TESTS
PRESENTATION
OF FINDINGS

8
Chapter 2:Literature review

Human activities have over the years caused dramatic negative impacts to the environment.
These activities include mining, deforestation and agriculture just to mention a few. Mining is
a way of harvesting clay , usually carried out using open cast mining. The extraction of clay
in alluvial flat terrain has one of the worst effects since it is done in the open and also in areas
that are likely to have water bodies nearby MECHI and SANCHES (2010). The diagram below
shows an open crater where clay mining has taken place

Figure 5

9
Mining of clay from the extraction sites is not carried out in a regular manner. Factors such as
the distance from river beds are not factored in and this causes the collapse of the slopes,
resulting in silting of nearby water bodies. This directly affects human and animal life that
relies on these water bodies. Clay mining also causes changes in the soil profile which affects
agricultural activities.

Tailings are the waste or superficial part of the soil which is removed in the riverbed during
clay mining. Where the clay is taken from a crater as seen in figure 5 is formed, causing the
area to become inhospitable for the development of vegetation. The tailings are in the form
of loose soil. They are thrown into the river and when the flood comes in the rainy season it
is swept away by the current of the water contributing to the silting of nearby water sources.

Figure 6

10
Observing the images above, it is verified that soil losses, the silting process and the
destruction of vegetation are actually occurring in the regions where the clay extraction
activity is done.

Currently not much has been done by both the public and supervisory bodies to conserve this
natural resource. Although it is a way of income new strategies have to be developed so as to
minimise the damage on the environment.

After clay is mined it is taken for grinding and sorting, clay can be found in different forms at
this stage.

1. Slip

It is clay with added water. It becomes a paste which has various uses in industry.

Some of the uses of slip include joining pieces of leather hard clay as well as wet clay
together. It can also be used for decorative purposes when some colour is added to it. It is
also used for slip casting when chemicals which make it extra runny are added to it.

2. Wet clay

Is widely used to in pottery making.it is workable which is a characteristic that clay has when
wet. Because of this it is used to make an infinite array of pieces.

3. Leather hard clay

This is when wet clay is almost completely dry. The strength of leather hard clay is generally
more than that of wet clay although it is still in a workable state. It is in this state that slabs of
clay are then put together to form 3D structures.

11
 4. Dry clay

It is also known as greenware. A lot of waste may be produced at this stage as it it the stage in
which clay is at its most fragile. Careful handling is needed so as to prevent or minimise
breakages.

5. Bisque

At this stage the clay has been fired once. This increases the strength of the dry clay. The clay
goes through chemical and physical changes which strengthen the bonds within it.

6. Glaze ware

After the first firing the products can either be dipped into glaze or have glaze poured over
them. They are then fired for a second time to fuse the glaze with the clay.

In the manufacturing of ceramic products, a lot of waste is produced. Figure 04 below shows
waste products in the making of china.

12
Clay waste

Figure 7

Large volumes of clay waste are lost in the manufacturing, handling as well as distribution of
chinaware . This is because chinaware is very fragile therefore difficult to handle in large
volumes without breakages occurring. Examples of chinaware are cups, plates, spoons, pots
etc.

13
Figure 8

Clay can also be used in the manufacturing of tiles. Waste is also produced in tile production
. tiles are produced in large volumes making them susceptible to breaking. Although some
have commercialized broken tiles before, it is important to note that this is not their intended
state and companies like Sunny Yi Feng have to throw them away.

14
Figure 9

Ceramic based waste can also be found in non-production settings such as in homes and
schools. This can be common during renovations or simply due to breakages during
construction. This type of waste is very common in landfills surrounding urban residential
areas. It is detrimental to the environment.

To help curb the problems that arise from the dumping of clay waste industry encourages
recycling and reuse of the waste. There has been revitalisation of the valorisation of by
products and waste in industry so as to prevent landfilling and as a framework of the circular
economy, Pomponi and Moncaster (2017); Ghisellini et al.(2018); Andreola et al.(2020).

In an effort to recover the waste, manufacturing other products using the waste has been
proposed in recent studies. Building blocks are generally less demanding products as waste
materials have been used in the past to make bricks. Eggshells, rice husks, agro waste as well
as sugarcane as some wastes that have been known to be used in construction, Bohara(2019)

15
Pollution of the environment as well as climate changes has become a major cause of concern
for environmentalists. In recent years the construction industry has become one of the major
causes of CO2 emissions in the world. According to the Global status report(2018) , the
construction sector contributed up to 39% of the world’s CO2 emissions. Most of this CO2
comes from the manufacturing of cement. Alternative binding materials are therefore a
necessity in clay brick making. One such example is bone ash.

Aluminium silicate and calcium both of which are components of clay bricks are
predominantly present in clay and bone ash. The hydrous aluminium silicate layers formed
when water is added means that both can be worked on with ease. The formation of bone ash
also produces very little carbon dioxide therefore reducing the undesirable effects of the gas on
the environment. Bone ash is also an eco-friendly building material because it is a way of
reducing animal bones from landfills and putting them to good use. The alumina in the bone
ash increases the compressive strength of the brick when fired at a temperature above 10000C.
Obianyo et al.(2002) conducted an experiment in which he dried clay bricks with bone ash in
them at low temperature of below 1000C and a low 5MPa compressive strength was noted.
Higher temperatures are therefore necessary for increasing compressive strength.

16
SEM (scanning electron microscope) analysis
Hydroxyapatite(Ca5(PO4)3OH) is a major component of bone ash. The presence of CaO is
shown in the image below as the white particles in the image below

Figure 10

17
When mixed with water CaO has cementitious properties. The increase in temperature also
increases these properties. This is illustrated in the micrographs shown below

Figure 11

As the firing temperature was increased the bone ash particles eventually fused with those of
clay. This increases the packing density of the particles which also has direct implications to
the density as well as the porosity of the brick produced.

18
Effect of temperature on physicomechanical properties of bricks

Bulk density

The bulk density of the brick is the mass per unit volume of that brick. The standard bulk
density of clay bricks is between 1.59-1.81g/cm3 . It is important to ensure that bricks are not
too dense. The image below shows how the firing temperature affects the bulk density of clay
bricks. Twenty-four bricks with 3 pieces specimen 1-3 being fired at same temperature were
studied

Figure 12

According to the graph above the most favourable bulk density of 1.71g/cm3 was achieved
when heating the bricks at 9500C.

19
Bulk density increases with the addition of bone ash ( due to the additional hydroxyapatite).
As stated above high temperatures of above 10000c improve the cementitious properties of the
hydroxyapatite. More hydroxyapatite results in more fusion between the clay and the bone ash.
However, the presence of a fluxing agent such as CaO greater than 10% will form a liquid
phase when fired at 9500C. Therefore, when firing at 9500C the composition of hydroxyapatite
should be not more than 10%.

Apparent porosity

This is the percentage volume of voids over the total volume of the brick. It is an important
parameter to consider when producing building material . The apparent porosity is also affected
by firing temperature as shown in the diagram below

Figure 13

20
Temperatures above 7000C result in an apparent porosity that is on average higher than the
average apparent porosity. This is caused by the fusion of the particles at the temperatures.
However, at temperatures higher than 11000C there is loss of organic compounds which
results in the formation of pores, increasing the porosity.

When bone ash is added as a binding agent and fired at 9000C the packing efficiency of the
particles is increased due to the fusion of the clay with the bone ash. This means interstices are
reduced therefore there are less pores with the brick.

Water absorption

This parameter is important because the absorption of water by the break is inversely
proportional to the durability of the brick. This means it is important to ensure minimum
absorption. More bone ash results in the formation of more calcium silicate hydrate bonds .
when fired, these together with the calcium oxide improve packing efficiency and decrease the
absorption abilities of the brick.

Compressive strength

This is the most important property of building blocks. This is because it is the most influential
in determining the integrity of the building . the diagram below shows how the compressive
strength can be affected by the firing temperature

21
Figure 14

In the making of clay bricks firing causes a process called vitrification to take place. This is a
permanent process in which the chemical structure of the clay is transformed. The weak Van
Der Waals forces become strong covalent bonds which are irreversible. The physical form of
the clay is also altered as the clay physically merges its particles together in a process known
as fusion. These processes increase the compressive strength of the brick as the bonds are not
easy to break. However, this increase has been noted to cease at 11000C because clay has
minerals that are flux materials. These form a liquid phase when fired to such high temperature.

A test was conducted with 5%,10%,15% and 20% bone ash at different temperatures to find
the effect on compressive strength of clay bricks. The results obtained where as follows

22
Figure 15

From the figure above it is evident that there where improvements on the strength properties
of the ceramic clay bricks(CCB) when as little as 5% of bone ash was used as compared to the
control with 100% clay. There was a gradual increase in the strength as the temperature as well
as the composition of the bone ash was increased. The highest compressive strengths where
achieved when the composition of bone ash was between 10-15 % at temperatures ranging
from 600-9000C. the most favourable conditions for highest compressive strength are firing at
6000C with a percentage of about 10% of bone ash.

The physical and mechanical properties exhibited by fired bricks are interrelated. Since all of
them are directly linked to the firing temperature , the temperature is a very important aspect
when making bricks. Studies have shown that it was one of the key factors in modulating the
physical and mechanical properties of different types of ceramic materials such as bricks
Karaman et al.,( 2006). The firing rate is however not an influential factor, Njoya et al., (2017)

23
The water absorptivity as well as the porosity of the bricks decrease as the firing temperatures
are increased. This is because of the increase in the density. The porosity and absorptivity are
there inversely proportional to the density. This relationship also stands true with the young
modulus. When the temperature is increased the young modulus increases Yongue-Fouateu et
al., (2016). The flexural strength of the brick is mostly influenced by the porosity. 10 % volume
porosity can decrease the flexural strength of a brick by 50% ,Coble and Kingery, (1956).

24
Chapter 3:Methodology

3.0Introduction

This is a chapter showing the steps and the procedures taken during the research work from
the beginning to its end. It is mostly derived from what the researcher came up with in the
second chapter of the paper. It is also reflective of courses that researcher has taken prior to
the research.

3.1Research methods
1. Interviews
Researcher carried out interviews with a member of the Environmental Management Agency to
ascertain how the mining of clay has affected the environment and also the communities who live in
the affected areas. From the interview, researcher was able to draw some valuable information. The
EMA agent revealed that brick making This chapter serves as an outline was one of the leading
causes of land degradation. Although some city councils have banned the use of farm bricks, the practice
has not stopped in Zimbabwe.

2. Observation
Researcher also used observation as a data collection technique. Large volumes of ceramic waste were
being thrown into landfills even by reputable companies. This was done by companies which
manufacture ceramic products or those that sell them. Researcher concluded that there is need therefore
to come up with ways of reducing this waste as it affects the environment negatively.

25
3.2Apparatus
• 10L bucket
• 3* mixing containers
• Brickmaking mold
• 3* measuring cups
• Oven/furnace
• Compression and tension test machine
• Ball Mill
• Hammer

3.3Material processing.

The ceramic waste selected was of similar material so as to avoid distorting the results due to
differing compositions of different materials. The ceramic waste was crushed using a ball mill.
To produce the bone ash cattle bones are used. For the purposes of conducting this research,
the bones were collected at Mzimba shops in Chinhoyi.

26
The bones are cleaned to make sure there is no meat or oil on them. This was done in a water
bath with liquid soap in it.

Figure 16

After the cleaning process they were left out for 24 hours in the sun to ensure that they lost
much of their moisture.

Figure 17

27
After drying they were then heated in the furnace with the furnace slightly opened to allow
any remaining moisture to exit the furnace.

Figure 18

The firing of the bones ended at 3500C due to technical fault in the furnace.

28
Figure 19

Researcher managed to grind the bones and sieve them

Figure 20

The tiles were crushed in the ball mill and sieved

29
Figure 21

Figure 22

30
3.4 Firing temperature and composition selection

Characteristics that are desirable in a brick may include but are not limited to compressive
strength, water absorption , tensile strength , low thermal conductivity as well as have minimal
soluble salts e.g., calcium sulphate. These can be affected by the temperature at which the
bricks are to be fired in the kiln as well as the percentage of bone ash present. It is important
therefore to come up with the most appropriate combination so as to bring out good quality
bricks.

The figure below shows selection criterion used to select the most appropriate composition .
This was derived from texts which show the relationship between bone ash and compressive
strength at given temperatures. At the time of the experiment higher temperatures above 900
0
C could not be reached within the schools facilities. Research was therefore only made for
6000C and 9000C.

60

50
Compressive strength (MPa)

40

30

20

10

0
0% B-ash 5% B-ash 10% B-ash 15% B-ash

600degrees 900degrees

31
The highest compressive strength was achieved when there was 10% bone ash, therefore 10%
bone ash will be used in this experiment.

The research entails that the alternative aggregates made should mimic the control in both
composition as well as firing conditions. The table below shows the data derived showing the
different characteristics of the clay bricks against the firing temperatures.

Table 3.4.1
1000C 6000C 9000C Above
9000C
Compressive 1 4 5 3
strength

Bulk density 2 3 3 3

Impermeability 1 4 5 4

Total score 4 11 13 10

o 1 -very poor
o 2-poor
o 3-satisfactory
o 4-good
o 5-very good

32
According to the table above the best temperature to fire clay bricks would be 9000C. However,
at such high temperatures the presence of a fluxing agent which is the CaO in the
hydroxyapatite would form a liquid phase as the hydroxyapatite decomposes. There is also the
risk of losing some organic material in the bone. This will result in more interstices forming
during firing and this increases the porosity of the brick. Therefore, a temperature of 6000C
was selected as it desirable effects including a relatively high compressive strength when used
with bone ash.

3.5Compositions

The researcher will be making 5 blocks with different material compositions. The first block
which will be the control( ctrl) which will be a standard clay brick made from virgin clay, sand
and cement. The other block(Br1) will be made from ground ceramic waste with cement and
sand and the last (Br2) will be made from waste, sand and bone ash. These will be fired in a
kiln. Br3 will be made from ceramic waste sand and cement whilst Br4 will have the ceramic
waste as the base material with both cement and bone ash as the binders. These will be sun
dried. The compositions by percentage volume of each brick are listed in the table below

Table 3.5.1

ctrl Br1 Br2 Br3 Br4

Material
Virgin clay 75 0 0 0 0
Sand 10 10 10 10 10
Cement 15 15 0 15 10
Crushed 0 75 75 75 70
ceramic
Bone ash 0 0 15 0 10

33
After mixing according to the percentages stated in the table, the bricks were then cast and left
to dry for a week after which some were fired for 2 hours. Unfortunately, the kiln used could
not be adjusted to 6000C but could only fire at a constant temperature of 7200C. researcher
proceeded with this temperature after finding literature that supported these temperatures for
clay brick firing. Br3 and Br4 were sun dried and taken for testing without firing.

34
CHAPTER 4:RESULTS
INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the results found during the experimentation stages of the project. The
results obtained are also explained . Changes in the initial experiment are also noted down in
this chapter.

Results

The two bricks which were fired Br2 and Br3 both did not make it to the testing machine as
they crumbled on impact with each other. The other three were tested and the results obtained
are as follows

35
 CNTL
Customer name Muhenyeri

Specimen type Flat

Specimen size(mm2) 60*60

So 3600

Lo(mm) 40

36
Maximum force = 7.958 kN

Yield force=4.795 kN

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 7958

Compressive force= =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚𝑚2_ 3600

2.24kN/mm2 =2.24MPa

The control brick had a strength of 2.24MPa which is less than the recommended 3.5Mpa.
Researcher ascertained that this was due to poor compression of the bricks since compression
is done mechanically in industry.

37
 Br3
Customer name Muhenyeri

Specimen type Flat

Specimen size(mm2) 50*40

So 2000

Lo(mm) 35

38
Maximum force before failure=3.716

Yield force=1.833

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Compressive force= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚𝑚2_

3716
=2000

=1.86*1000=1.86MPa

The strength is below the recommended which may also be due to poor compression. The time
for drying was also less than that recommended for cement to reach 90% 0f its strength due to
time constraints.

39
 Br4
Customer name Muhenyeri

Specimen type Flat

Specimen size(mm2) 50*40

So 2000

Lo(mm) 20

40
Maximum strength =3.307

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Compressive force= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚𝑚2_

3307
=2000

=1.65MPa

Strength was less than the recommended 3.5MPa. the conditions in which the bone ash where
made were not the desired conditions due to problems with the kiln. The bone ash was also not
fired so its strength may not have been able to be accomplished.

2.5

2
compressive strength

1.5

0.5

0
cntl br1 br2 br3 br4

Control brick=2.24Mpa

Br1=not recorded

Br2=not recorded

Br3=1.81MPa

Br=1.65MPa

41
CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the researcher presents what she recommends after carrying out the research
project. Researcher noted some process deviations which were beyond her control . these may
have caused variations in the results obtained from the desired results.

Br2

This brick had waste powder as the base material and cement as the binder. Initially researcher
subjected this brick to heat treatment. The strength of the heated brick was not recorded. This
was later discovered to have been a result of heating the cement. Before firing the brick kept
its integrity but after firing it kept as one piece initially and then cracked before the impact test
could be carried out. Researcher decided to repeat the procedure but eliminate the firing stage
so as to improve the strength properties of the cement by watering and sun drying only.

Br3

This brick had clay waste as the base as well as bone ash as the binding agent. The
recommended temperature for firing this brick was 6000C due to the percentage of bone ash
being above 10%. However due to challenges in adjusting the temperature of the furnace this
brick collapsed whilst removing it from the furnace. Researcher attributes this to the
disintegration of the bone ash bonds or the hydroxyapatite in the bone ash.

Binders

Researcher recommends that instead of using bone ash as a binder on its own another traditional
binder such as cement can be used. However, the percentage of the cement must be lower than
that of the bone ash as the bone ash will require firing to help fuse the hydroxyapatite bonds to
the base material whilst the cement strength increases with watering the bricks only.

Researcher also recommends the use of other alternatives to cement which may be fired but
still maintain their cementitious properties for example fly ash or slag.

Waste

42
The waste material must be carefully sieved before use. Researcher initially used the waste
without sieving but quickly realized that the differences in particle sizes would become points
of failure. Researcher managed to re do the process using sieved product.

Conditions

The temperature of firing bricks was a major part of the experiment. This did not go well as
the temperature which researcher required was not achievable due to mechanical constraints.
Researcher recommends the department to look into making the kiln adjustable so as to cater
for different temperature needs during experiments.

The bricks in industries are mechanically compressed. Researcher did not have facilities to
mimic this and had to compress by hand. This has negatively affected the result of the research
as the strength became lower than that recommended. Researcher recommends that more
materials be availed for experimental research projects.

43
HTTPS://CIVILTODAY.COM/CIVIL-ENGINEERING-MATERIALS/BRICK/69-CHARACTERISTICS-AND-

QUALITIES-OF-GOOD-BRICKS-FOR-CONSTRUCTION

https://www.google.com/search?q=BENTONITES&sxsrf=ALiCzsadfmaYb503JRi1fi5PCikI
gv3now:1669141457964&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj-
6rm9tML7AhXMQEEAHa-iCw4Q_AUoAXoECAIQAw

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232405469_Assesment_of_clay_bricks_compressiv
e_strength_using_quantitative_values_of_colour_components

HTTPS://WWW.CORNWALLS.CO.UK/HISTORY/INDUSTRIAL/CHINA_CLAY.HTM

https://www.google.com/search?q=how+much+china+clay+is+produced+each+year&oq
=how+much+china+clay+is+produced+each+year&aqs=chrome..69i57.12415j0j7&sour
ceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

https://www.google.com/search?q=china+clay+produced+per+year&oq=china+clay+pr
oduced+per+year&aqs=chrome..69i57.16331j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

https://www.google.com/search?q=kaolinite&sxsrf=ALiCzsabb6cVahYSYu8oM45Uwag_sr
3rwA:1666715489151&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwizmbCF5_v6AhXai
VwKHcLJBD4Q_AUoAXoECAIQAw

https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/brick/69-characteristics-and-qualities-of-
good-bricks-for-
construction#:~:text=They%20should%20be%20sound%20and,20%25%20of%20dry%20we
ight).

https://www.google.com/search?q=clay+bricks+compressive+strength+with+temperature&o
q=CLAY+BRICKS+COMPRESSIVE+STRENGTH+WITH+TE&aqs=chrome.1.69i57j33i1
60l4.32781j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

file:///C:/Users/Asus/Downloads/kaolin-einrohstofff_rproduktedest_glichenlebensteil1-
englisch-kopie.pdf

44