LESSON: SOCIALIZATION AND ENCULTURATION

SOCIALIZATION
- It is the lifelong process of by which an individual is oriented and taught by his/her society’s norms
- It is a continuing process whereby an individual acquires a personal identity and learns the norms,
values, behavior and social skills that are needed for his social life; a standard pattern of behavior that is
considered normal/acceptable in a society
- It takes place when man interacts with another man and through this man learns culture.
- Through the process of socialization, man forms his principles in life as well as his personal outlook of
his social environment
- It is through interaction/socialization where an individual establishes and develops his/her ideology in
life: the beliefs, the values, the attitudes, the behavior and his views about the world

ENCULTURATION
- It is the process whereby individuals learn their group’s culture, through instruction, observation and
experience
- It is the process of being socialized into a particular culture.
- You were enculturated to your specific culture by your parents and other people who raised you and had
an interaction with.

 Early childhood is the period of the most intense socialization.

- Infants are born without any culture; they must be transformed by their parents, teachers and - others
into cultural and social beings; and it is thru socialization that they acquire culture
- During socialization, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to
play in life

 In instances when a person does not get socialized or enculturated, it is possible that his or her
behavior would resemble to that of the other animals. FERAL CHILD (wild children)

 “Feral child” is a term used to describe youngsters who grew up isolated from human communities
and have never been accustomed or exposed to fundamental conventions such as language,
education and rules for socially acceptable behavior.

Agents Of Socialization
The significant people, groups and institutions that shape our sense of self and social identity, help us
realize our human capacities, and teach us to negotiate the world in which we live.
- Joan Ferrante (2014)

• FAMILY
- This is the most important agent of socialization because it is the family where all individuals started
their social lives
- Basic social concepts such as religion, morality, norms and customs are introduced first in the family.

• RELIGION
- It encompasses all moral standards contained within the entirety of ethical beliefs
- It affects our judgments on what is moral or immoral, good or evil.
- House bill 5907 or the act instituting absolute divorce in the Philippines or the divorce law has not yet
been passed because of the strong clamors against it. In which, Christianity greatly influenced lawmaking
body as regards virtues in the Philippine culture.

• SCHOOL
- A community of academicians students and teachers alike united in the pursuit of intellectual endeavors
- The school is composed of heterogeneous mixture of different people having different personalities and
cultural orientation.
• PEER GROUP
- This is a group of people more or less of the same age and status in life who are together in a particular
activity and such activity creates a social bond among them
- Man is inclined to be in the company of others in order to fulfill social needs.

• GOVERNMENT
- It is the instrumentality by which the will of the sovereign state is realized and formalized
- It influences the conduct of the people through the enactment and the enforcement of the law.

• MASS MEDIA
- It helps connect people even in the far flung places
- Information are disseminated through the use of different medias where it reaches all kinds of people.

LESSON: Identity Formation and Cultural Competence

IDENTITY FORMATION
- The set of values, attitudes, and beliefs that individuals receive from their family, peers and community,
enables them to create a personal identity that simultaneously separates them from the other members of
the group and incorporates them in its system.
- The lessons, interactions and experiences you get from your family and people around you greatly affect
the formation of your identity as a unique individual

• INDIVIDUATION (PERSONAL IDENTITY)

- this is the differentiation from the general social template
- What makes you unique and different from the other members of the society you belong is your physical
traits like name, age, sex, what skin tone, color and kind of your hair you do have, as well as your
personal traits (your belief, attitude, behavior, values, skills

• SOCIAL IDENTITY
- the person’s notion of who he or she is in society
- includes the roles and statuses in accordance to what the society expects of him or her
- as a child gets enculturated and socialized with his or her society’s norms, he or she participates in the
construction of his or her secondary identity

*PRIMARY IDENTITY – this consists of the roles and statuses that an individual learns as a child.
(sex, age, and ethnicity)

*SECONDARY IDENTITY – roles and statuses that are achieved such as occupation,
educational background, economic status and gender

MODEL OF CONSCIOUSNESS (WILBER, 1997)

Primary
“I” - My being and my existing - the existential “I”
“I” “Me” “ Me” - My behavior and my activity - the doing “me”

Secondary
“I” “Me” “I” - My meaning - making and my values - the cultural “I”
“ Me” - My social roles and public persona - the performing
“Me”

The duality of identity produces the dichotomy of I and me that humans have
CULTURAL COMPETENCE
- It is the ability to understand, communicate with and effectively interact with people across cultures
- We become culturally competent when we learn culture, internalize it and transmit it to others
This encompasses:
*being aware of one’s own world view
*developing positive attitudes towards cultural differences
*gaining knowledge of different cultural practices and world views
*developing skills for communication and interaction across cultures.

To become culturally competent, you must…

1. LEARN ABOUT YOURSELF

- Self-assessment makes participants realize the pervasive role of culture plays in their lives
It also makes people aware of their own biases while sparking open-minded curiosity about other
cultures.

2. LEARN ABOUT DIFFERENT CULTURES

- “One of the most minds-expanding experiences is to learn a word or concept that doesn’t exist in your
own language, plus, learning a language means you’re more able to reach out and connect with people
who speak that language” - Pamela Hays

3. INTERACT WITH DIVERSE GROUPS

- Instead of solely interacting with members of diverse groups who are seeking for help, get a fuller
picture by interacting with them as peers at parties, religious services and cultural events.
- “Put yourself in social situations where you’re the only one of your cultural group.” -Pamela Hays

4. ATTEND DIVERSITY-FOCUSED CONFERENCES

- Instead of solely interacting with members of diverse groups who are seeking for help, get a fuller
picture by interacting with them as peers at parties, religious services and cultural events.
- “Put yourself in social situations where you’re the only one of your cultural group.” - Pamela Hays

5. LOBBY YOUR DEPARTMENT

- If your program isn’t giving you the training, push the faculty to do better. In that way, the program gets
the message that it is something important to students.
“You have to keep finding ways to expand your learning.” - Helms
LESSON: NORMS AND VALUES

VALUES
- This concept of cultural values refers to all those ideas held in the society that are considered good,
acceptable, and right.
- These values inform the types of aspirations that members of society aspire for which is referred to as
social goals.

NORMS
- It is a cultural product which represents individual basic knowledge of what others do and think that they
should do. (values, customs, and traditions)
- Arguably the most important concept in sociology
- Sociologists believe that norms govern our lives by giving us implicit and explicit guidance on what to
think and believe, how to behave, and how to interact with others
- This consist of the rules and regulations on behavior
- Collective group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group conduct

How do we learn norms?

 We learn norms in a variety of settings and from various actors, including our families, from teachers
and peers in school, through the media, and simply by interacting with others as we go about our
daily business
 Although societies may have similar values and goals, the norms that are created in reference to
these values may vary.
 The values place on family are displayed differently across cultures. The act of placing an aging
family member in a nursing home may be a norm Western societies, but Is almost unacceptable, or
even unthinkable, in most Asian societies.

CATEGORIES OF NORMS
by American sociologist William Graham Sumner

1. FOLKWAYS
- socially approved behaviors that have no moral underpinning
- are the customs or conventions of daily life
- emerged out of repetition and routines
- We engage in them to satisfy our daily needs, and they are most often unconscious in operation, though
quite useful to the ordered functioning of society folkways are norms that stem from and organize casual
interaction
- are mildly enforced social expectations
- distinguish between proper and rude behavior

2. MORES
- norms related to moral conventions.
- are more strict than folkways, as they determine what is considered moral and ethical behavior
- are met with severe punishments from society
- The reactions to violation of social norms, including folkways and mores, are called sanctions
- mores are strictly held beliefs about behaviors
- Mores dictate right and wrong, while

3. TABOOS
- behaviors that are absolutely forbidden in a specific culture
- It must be noted that some taboos are not universal, meaning some societies do allow behaviors that
are considered repugnant in others.
4. LAWS
- rules and regulations that are implemented by the state, making them the prime source of social control.
- Violations of laws are met with punishments, fines, ostracism and imprisonment.

Social Norms Regarding Public Behavior

 Do not curse in polite conversation
 Be kind to elderly, like opening a door or giving up your seat
 Do not stand close enough to someone to touch arms or hips
 In the Philippines, drive on the right side of the road.
 Don’t invade someone’s personal space

Social Norms on Using the Phone

 Say hello when answering the phone and goodbye when you hang up
 Do not refuse to take messages
 Do not lie if someone has the wrong number
 Do not pretend you are an answering machine

Social Norms When Dining

 Chew food with your mouth closed
 Men usually pay for dinner, unless invited by the woman
 Do not order something that is not on the menu
 Do not eat soup with a fork
 Leave a tip for the waiter, if you can afford

Social Norms on Elevators

 Nod or say hello to others on the elevator
 Never push extra buttons, only the one for your floor
 Face the front
 Do not say “I’ll wait for the next one” if only one person is on board
 Do not go elevator surfing

Social Norms in the Classroom

 NEVER USE CELL PHONE
 Come to class prepared with paper, book and pen
 Never read other materials during class
 Do not stare (for most of the time) at the teacher

Social Norms Regarding Personal Behavior

 Pay groceries after you shop
 Shower or bathe
 Brush your teeth
 Apply sun screen at the beach

Consequences Of Ignoring Social Norms

- It can make people very uncomfortable being around them and can mark them as “weird” or different.
- Normative behavior is what is required to maintain the cohesion of society
- If you are somehow inclined into breaking social norms, be prepared for criticism and opposition.
- Breaking social norms may not have any legal trouble for breaking them, but it can have a major impact
on a person’s social life.
- By breaking social norms, you will isolate yourself from the society, and it shall invariably hit back at a
rebel
- You will encounter the true arrogance of mankind
You will end up alone because the society is not comfortable of you
LESSON: STATUS AND ROLES

STATUS
- This is an individual’s position in his or her society, which carries with it a set of defined rights and
obligations.
- This is to say that we speak and behave differently toward different sets of people.
- A person can hold a number of statuses at the same time

Two Types of Status

1. Ascribed Status
- It is assigned to a person by society without regard for a person’s unique talent or characteristics
- It takes place at birth thus; a person’s racial background , gender , and age are all ascribed statuses

2. Achieved Status
- It comes to us largely through our own efforts
- We must do something to acquire an achieved status

ROLES
These are the sets of expectation from people who occupy a particular status
- It is a cluster of norms which tells us how to carry out the status
- It serves important functions for society

1. Roles regulate behavior

- As a student , I need not to be reminded of wearing my ID every time I enter the campus
2. Roles allow me to predict other’s behavior
- As a teacher , I expect that as I enter the classroom , all my students will stand and greet me
3. Roles facilitate social control
- When I am to pay and get my examination permit at the accounting office , I have to wait in line until it is
my turn

CONFORMITY

Why do people conform to the group before making decisions?

 Every person in the group eventually conforms to some decisions, or the group remains to
standoff/stalemated
 Normative systems prescribe the behavior required of members to maintain order and stability and to
coordinate the people’s activities in the pursuit of group goals and objectives.

- It is an act of following the roles and goals of one’s society

- This is often met with rewards and acceptance from the other members of the society.
- This occurs when members choose the course of action that the majority favors
- Since members of a social group are bound together by their adherence to a common culture, it is easy
to understand why some degree of conformity to group norms is necessary.
- Socialization effectively develops conforming citizens
However, human nature and society are too complex for us to expect absolute uniformity. Deviation does
occur.
LESSON: DEVIANCE

DEVIANCE
- The act of violating the prescribed social norms and this act is often associated with stigma
- STIGMA is a strong sense of disapproval of nonconforming behavior from members of society
- Deviance is relative to time and place

The actions that are considered deviant vary per society and per social status.
 TRADITIONAL SOCIETY
- Individuals are often shunned and/or isolated by group members.
 DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY
- Individuals are tolerated and have some chance to influence the values of the group.
 AUTHORITARIAN SOCIETY
- Individuals become frustrated or persecuted victims of strict adherence to traditional norms and
standards.

DEVIANCE IN DIFFERENT CONTEXT

• Class Context
- If a poor woman shoplifts, people call her a common criminal
- On the other hand, if a rich woman steals; her deviant status is kleptomaniac - a form of mental illness

• Sexual Context
- If a woman is promiscuous, she might find herself labeled as a nymphomaniac. While a man is a stud,
macho, swinger, etc

• Time Context
- People used to be burned at stake for engaging in such behavior that most twentieth-century people see
as normal

• Sociological –Cultural Context

- Describes actions or behavior that violate social norms
- Deviance is an alleged breach of social order
- It is any act that violates social expectations
- Deviance is universal, every society establishes rules and regulations to punish offenders
- In Eskimo societies, the practice of “sexual hospitality” – offering one’s wife to a guest is normal, but in
our society it is an abnormal act
- Horton and Hunt (1984) classify them as individual or group deviants, cultural or psychological deviants,
primary or secondary deviants

THEORIES OF DEVIANCE

• BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
- Biological abnormalities provided valid explanations for deviance
- Genetic predispositions create inborn tendencies to commit deviant acts
- Deviant behavior is dictated by forces beyond the control, or even the awareness, of individuals
- Deviance is assumed not just as social pathology (disease) or mental illness but an unhealthy biological
organism as well
- This assumption may be attributed to certain defects or weaknesses of an individual’s physical condition

 Biological theories of deviance are most likely referred to Italian physician-psychiatrist Cesare
Lombroso (1835-1909). He became interested in the scientific study of crime and believed that the
physical characteristics of the criminal should be thoroughly analyzed.
His findings were that the prisoners displayed physical abnormalities such as deviations in:

1. Head size and shape

2. Eye defects
3. Receding chins
4. Excessively long arms

 William Sheldon attempted to link body type to behavior by classifying people into three categories
a) endomorphs- who are soft,round, and usually fat
b) mesomorphs- who are mascular, stocky and athletic
c) ectomorphs who are skinny and fragile

• PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
- Focus on factors such as personality, learning, goals, interests, motivations, will power, frustrations and
other psychic conditions
- The psychological theories of deviance are often rooted in a person’s mind rather than in his body
- It associates deviance with a sickness which is the result of a psychological abnormality or a mental
illness
- Not all deviant acts account to people who are mentally ill but also to people who are not fulfilled that
results to frustration which leads to anti-social deviant behavior
- People with weak egos are unable to control their impulses
- Sigmund Freud linked deviances to defects of the super ego (conscience)
- These psychological theories, however, are not very useful, because theories involving instincts
(reflexes) and unconscious needs are difficult to test empirically

• SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
- Sociological theories of deviance look at the socio-cultural processes and organizational structures of
society (Durkheim and Merton)
- In sociological theories, the argument is that the differences in social status and cultural belief in the
society create deviant behaviors among individuals

1. The Anomie Theory

- “a” (without) “nomos” (law)
- The cause of deviance is found in disturbances in the social norms, structure and goals
- Individuals tend to violate the accepted social goals (norms) because they do not want the means to
achieve the goals
- For example is during exam, the goal is for you to have a high grade and in order for you to achieve this,
you must have to undergo tedious review (which is the means) but you opt to seek another means that
lead to deviant behavior

2. The Control Theory

- An assumption of Control Theory is that people have a strong desire to be deviant
- Significant others reinforce the idea that deviance is wrong

Other sociological theories of deviance:

The Neutralization Theory
The Labelling Theory
Conflict Theory
Functionalist Theory
FORMS OF DEVIANCE

A. According to Violation of a Societal Norm

1. Primary and Secondary Deviance

- the individual disagrees with the prescribed norms but is tolerated by others or his behavior is concealed
by others
- In the Secondary deviance, the individual is labeled as a criminal or deviant because of his previous
behavior – that forces him to commit delinquent acts.
- Compliance with norms has not been permanent in their minds and actions, there will always be
deviance and crimes that abound anywhere. So there must be some measures to control this actions.

2. Individual and Group Deviation

- the person commits a deviant behavior of his own group or sub-culture.
- In group deviance, the individual may conform to the group’s norm which is in disagreement or in
contradiction to the expectation of the larger society.

B. According to Acceptance of the Cultural Goals and the Means to Achieve Them

1. Conformity - both goals and means is considered as acceptable to the individual

2. Innovation - accept social goals and reject the prescribed means of achieving them
3. Ritualism - rejects society’s goals, but accept society’s institutionalized means
4. Retreatism - considered by sociologist as more drastic behavior ; they reject both the goals and the
means to achieve them
5. Rebellion - some how similar to retreatism, because rebellion also rejects both the cultural goals and
means, but they go one step further

SOCIAL CONTROL
- Social control is the process by which conformity and adherence to socialization and approved values
are ensured
- To maintain social order and stability, social control is needed
- Social order can be maintained only if social life is organized and regulated through folkways, customs,
mores, rules and laws
- In the course of socialization, the individual learns to be sensitive to the judgement, opinions, and
expectations of others. These serve as effective instruments of social control
LESSON: SOCIAL GROUPS

SOCIAL GROUPS
- This consists of two or more people who regularly interact on the basis of mutual expectations
and who share a common identity
- Two or more people in patterned interaction with a feeling of membership and sharing of norms
and values which builds a feeling of solidarity among members

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP
1. Members of a group share interests, values and norms.
2. Members of a group interact.
3. People identify with a group.
4. Groups have structure.
SOCIAL CATEGORY
- A social category is a collection of individuals who have at least one attribute in common but
otherwise do not necessarily interact.
- People who share common social characteristics, but they do not occupy the same territory, nor
do they interact
- Women is an example of a social category.
- All women have at least one thing in common, their biological sex, even though they do not
interact

SOCIAL AGGREGATE
- It is a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time but do not necessarily
interact, except in the most superficial of ways, or have anything else in common.
- Falling between a social category and a social group is the social aggregate
- Two or more people who are gathered at the same place at the same time but are not
communicating in patterned communication.
- The crowd at a sporting event and the audience at a movie or play are common examples of
social aggregates.
- These collections of people are not a social category, because the people are together
physically, and they are also not a group, because they do not really interact and do not have a
common identity unrelated to being in the crowd or audience at that moment.
- They are social aggregate

PRIMARY GROUPS
- A primary group is usually small, is characterized by extensive interaction and strong emotional
ties, and endures over time
- Members of such groups care a lot about each other and identify strongly with the group
- Charles Horton Cooley, whose looking-glass-self-concept called these groups primary, because
they are the first groups we belong to and because they are so important for social life
- The family is the primary group that comes most readily to mind, but small peer friendship
groups, whether they are your high school friends, an urban street gang, or middle-aged adults
who get together regularly, are also primary groups
SECONDARY GROUPS
- Groups that are larger and more impersonal and exist, often for a relatively short time, to
achieve a specific purpose
- Secondary group members feel less emotionally attached to each other and do not identify as
much with their group nor feel as loyal to it.
- Although primary groups are the most important ones in our lives, we belong to many
more secondary groups
- This does not mean secondary groups are unimportant, as society could not exist without them,
but they still do not provide the potential emotional benefits for their members that primary
groups ideally do.
- Other secondary groups include religious, business, governmental, and civic organizations. Their
emotional ties and intensity of interaction generally remain much weaker than in primary
groups

PRIMARY GROUP
- It is a relatively small.
- It is held together by strong ties of affection
- It is where we are emotionally invested.
- It gives us emotional and social support
- We feel strong personal identification with our primary group.
- It is characterized by multidimensional relationship.
- It depends on continuous face-to-face interaction
- It is very durable group that can even be called a permanent group.
- It is based on trust.
- Social control is based on informal means.
- Example – members of our respective family, close friendship with the people of our same
gender, parent-child relationship, BFF (Besfriend Forever) etc.

SECONDARY GROUP
- It is relatively large collection of people.
- It is held together by weak ties of affection.
- It involves little or no personal identification.
- It is one-dimensional relationship.
- It is characterized by limited face-to-face contact.
- It is not permanent group.
- We do not put the same trust in the people in our secondary group that we do in our primary
group.
- It uses formal sanctions to ensure conformity.

REFERENCE GROUPS
- Primary and secondary groups can act both as our reference groups and as groups that set a
standard for guiding our own behavior and attitudes.
- Some of our reference groups are groups to which we do not belong but to which we
nonetheless want to belong. A small child, for example, may dream of becoming an astronaut
and dress like one and play like one.
- The family we belong to obviously affects our actions and views, as, for example, there were
probably times during your adolescence when you decided not to do certain things with your
friends to avoid disappointing or upsetting your parents.
 - On the other hand, your friends regularly acted during your adolescence as a reference group,
and you probably dressed the way they did or did things with them, even against your parents’
wishes, precisely because they were your reference group.
- Some high school students may not belong to the “cool” clique in school but may still dress like
the members of this clique, either in hopes of being accepted as a member or simply because
they admire the dress and style of its members

IN-GROUP
- It refers to any group or category to which people feel they belong that comprises them being
regarded as “we or “us”.
- It may be as narrow as teenage clique or as broad as the entire society
- Its very existence implies that there is an out - group viewed as “they” or “them”
OUT-GROUP
- It refers to a group or category to which people feel they belong
IN-GROUP OUT-GROUP
PRIMARY GROUP My Family “The Asistores”
SECONDARY GROUP My USL Family Saint Paul University Phils.

TYPES OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

by FERDINAND TONNIES (A German sociologist who introduced gemeinschaft and gesselschaft)
GEMEINSCHAFT
- It is a community - oriented society in which the relations are personal and informal.
- Tradition is very important in holding the society together
- Family life is very strong, and everyone knows, or knows of, everyone else
- It is commonly found in village and town life
- These two terms were used by German Sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies in order to categorize
social ties into two dichotomous sociological types

GESELLSCHAFT
- A community of which relationships are impersonal and based on contract
- It shares the characteristics of secondary group
LESSON: SOCIAL CONTROL OF DEVIANCE

SOCIAL CONTROL
- Social control is the process by which conformity and adherence to socialization and approved
values are ensured
- To maintain social order and stability, social control is needed.
- Social order can be maintained only if social life is organized and regulated through folkways,
customs, mores, rules and laws
- In the course of socialization, the individual learns to be sensitive to the judgment, opinions, and
expectations of others. These serve as effective instruments of social control
- Since society and socialization of an individual is not perfect at all, there would always be social
ills and chaos.
- There must be some kind of measures or control to restrain the actions of people to commit
deviant behavior.

TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

1. Formal Social Control
- This is a restraint in a form of arrest, by law enforcement agencies investigation, to potential
deviants.
2. Informal Social Control
- Rewards such as shaking hands, smiles, clapping of hands, word of approval, and kiss are involve
to conforming individuals.

FORMS OF INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL FOR NON-CONFORMING INDIVIDUALS

 GOSSIP
- is an idle talk or rumor especially about the personal or private affairs of others
- Its act is known as dishing
- Gossip lets people monitor cooperative reputations and maintain widespread indirect
reciprocity
- Robin Dumber have said that gossip also aids bonding in a large group

 OSTRACISM
- This includes shame, ridicule, criticism, and disapproval which can cause an individual to stray
towards the social norms that can lead to discrimination and exclusion.
- Social values are internalized and become an aspect of individual personality

 SOCIAL REJECTION
- occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship
- Rejection by an entire group can have a negative effects such as social isolation, loneliness, low
self-esteem, aggression and depression.
- This also heightens sensitivity to future rejection

 PUNISHMENT
- is the authoritative imposition of an undesirable outcome to a group or individual on a particular
action that is deemed unacceptable
- The unpleasant imposition may include fine, penalty or confinement, removal or denial or
something pleasant
- The study and practice of the punishment of crimes especially as it applies to imprisonment is
penology or corrections
- The punishment process is called as the correctional process: Sentencing
 MIND CONTROL
- Social control developed together with civilization, as a rational measure against the
uncontrollable forces of nature.
- For example rulers have legitimately used torture as a means of mind control as well as murder
to remove from the public who is deemed undesirable
 LAW
- These are the formalized social norms enacted by people who have been vested through the
machinery of the state
- A rule is a form of a law that regulates local behavior.
LESSON: KINSHIP

The Institutions
• Particular segments of society where social, cultural and political roles exist
• Units of society where behavior patterns are shared and played by members
• The goal of these institutions is the satisfaction of basic group needs

Routine Functions of Institutions

1. Provide ready-made form of social roles and social relations to an individual
2. Tend to control behavior by social pressures
3. Provide the means of security
4. Largely regularized and pre-arranged the child’s thinking and actions

Negative Functions of Institutions

1. Obstruct social progress since they are rigid and stabilizing social behavior
2. Frustrate the social personality of the individual
3. Diffuse social responsibility

KINSHIP
• Refers to the “web of social relationships” that humans form as part of a family
• Ferraro and Andreatta defined family as a social and economic unit that consists of one or more
parents and their children

1. A family is a socioeconomic unit. What makes a group of individuals a family is their dependency
on one another with regard to their social and economic activities
- This implies that the family acts as the primary support group for its members as they
participate in the social processes within the society
2. A family can have one or more parents. The norm for other societies permits to have multiple
parents due to multiple marriages
3. A family can have parents who are not married. Marriage of parents is not a prerequisite in
other societies
- As long as individuals are socially and economically interdependent, they can be considered
a family
- This puts into perspective the concept of common law marriage
- Common law marriage is an informal union of two individuals who present themselves as a
couple
- Cohabitating couples “live-in”
4. A family can have parents with same gender. Although same sex marriage is illegal in most
countries, some societies allow for the marriage of individuals with the same sex
- Adoption is a way to become a family
5. A family should have at least one child. One of the most crucial elements of a family is the
existence of children.
- Without a child, a couple remains to be a couple and not a family
Kinship as Social Institution
• It establishes on the family ties to the surrounding community
• It is an integral part of its social structure and it is found in all known societies in the Philippines
• Kinship plays a very important role in the social system
Kinship by Blood
• Connections between people that are traced by blood are known as consanguineal
relationships, also known as blood relatives
• This type of kinship links individuals based on their genetic relations (bloodline)
• All human beings are connected to others by blood or marriage
• This is one factor that allows an individual to identify another individual as a family member
• This is also referred to descent or the socially accepted connection between an ancestor and its
succeeding generation

Descent Rules
1. Unilineal Descent (Unilineality)
- This allows an individual to be affiliated to the descent of one se group only – either the
male or female
- One’s descent is traced either exclusively thru male ancestors (patriline) or female ancestors
(matriline)
- Main types of Unilineal descent groups are lineages and clans
- 1st: Kinship connections are perceived to be of great importance in some societies; due to
this, descent rules are created and followed
- Both patrilineality and matrilineality are types of unilineal descent
- A lineage is a unilineal descent group that can demonstrate their common descent from a
known apical (top) ancestor

2. Matrilineal Descent
- The tracing of descent thru the female line
- It is a line of descent from a female ancestor to a descendant (of either sex) in which the
individuals in all intervening generations are mothers
“mother line”
- This descent pattern is in contrast to the more common pattern of descent from which a
family name is usually derived
- In Asia, the Minangkabau ethnic group of West Sumatra (Indonesia), practices
matrilinealage
- In this society, land and property ownership is passed from mother to daughter, leaving the
men to deal with political and religious affairs
- Matrilineal descent is also referred to as enatic descent and/or uterine descent

3. Patrilineal Descent
- In patrilineal descent, an individual traces his or her kinship through male’s line only
- This promotes a passing down of name and inheritance to the male offspring only, while
allowing the female offspring to be part of another family through marriage
- Patrilineal descent is also known as agnastic descent
- A lot of societies in Asia are patrilineal, the most popular are the Chinese who are highly
patrilineal, enforcing a strict kinship relations traced thru male’s line

4. Bilateral Descent
- Allows an individual to trace kinship ties on both sides of the family
- Relatives on the mother’s or father’s side are equally important for emotional ties or for
transfer of property and wealth
 - This means that an individual can recognize both his or her parents’ relatives as his or her
relatives
- Families who use this system trace descent thru both parents simultaneously and recognize
multiple ancestors
- Under bilateral descent, every tribe member belongs to two clans
- Bilateral descent, unlike unilineal, can only trace immediate family
- In some cases, ties with the nuclear family can be extended to family members of the
spouses (this kinship grouping is known as kindred)
- Most families in the Philippines practice bilateral descent grouping

Kinship by Marriage
1. Monogamy
- A form of relationship in which an individual has only one partner during his or her lifetime
- 1st: Under this classification, families may either monogamy o polygamy
- Scientists use the term monogamy for different relationships:
a. Marital monogamy refers to marriage of only two people
b. Social monogamy refers to two partners living together, having sex with each other, and
cooperating in acquiring basic resources such as shelter, food and money
c. Sexual monogamy refers to two partners remaining sexually exclusive with each other and
having no outside sex partners
d. Genetic monogamy refers to sexually monogamous relationships with genetic evidence of
paternity
- Biologists, biological anthropologists, and behavioral ecologists often use the term monogamy in
the sense of sexual
- When cultural or social anthropologists use the term monogamy, the meaning is social or
marital monogamy which can be distinguished between:
a. Marriage once in a lifetime
b. Marriage with only one person at a time (serial monogamy) in contrast to bigamy or
polygamy
 Endogamy – the practice of marrying within one’s own group
 Exogamy – the practice of marrying outside one’s own group
 Homogamy – is the practice of marrying someone similar to you in terms of background,
social status, aspirations, and interests

2. Bigamy- the act of entering into a marriage with one person while still legally married to
another
3. Polygamy
From the Greek word “polygamia” w/c means marriage to many spouses
- Involves marriage with more than one spouse
- a marriage which includes more than two partners, either on the part of the man or woman
 Kinds of Polygamy
a. Polygyny – a form of marriage in which men have more than one wife
• Polyandry – a form of marriage in which woman have more than one husband
• Polyamory- is the practice, desire, or acceptance of having more than one intimate relationship
at a time with the knowledge and consent of everyone involved.
• Cenogamy (Group Marriage) - All of the men and women in a group are simultaneously married
to each other.
• Polygamy is widely accepted among different societies worldwide
• According to the Ethnographic Atlas, 1, 231 societies are noted to be polygamous
• Within polygynous societies, having multiple wives often becomes a status symbol of wealth and
power
• International human rights organizations and women’s rights group in several countries have
called for the abolition of polygamy

Cross-Cultural Relationships
- Both parties come together from different families to build a new unit together
- For many couples this will be a natural set of compromises to which both partners will adjust
naturally over time, but for others the differences can be fundamental (finding it difficult to
understand the others way of looking at the world
- The loyalty we often feel towards our own culture and traditions can sometimes mean we find it
difficult to understands another’s culture
- Cross-cultural issues faced by couples includes loss of identity, conflicts over differences in
fundamental beliefs, clashes in parenting tactics, and struggles with unsupportive families
- Counseling for cross-cultural relationship issues can help couples step outside or their restrictive
cultural identities to see one another with greater clarity as individuals

Tips for Protecting Your Cross-Cultural Marriage

1. Prioritize your spiritual identity as a Christ follower over your cultural identity.
2. Prioritize understanding over judging.
3. Everything important to you should be explained to your spouse rather than assumed.
4. Honor and value your spouse’s parents and extended family.
5. Negotiate boundaries with your extended families that are acceptable to each of you. (In a
healthy marriage, parental loyalty should never exceed spousal loyalty)
6. Give your spouse the benefit of the doubt. (Assume the best of your spouse rather than the
worst)
7. Pray daily for wisdom, grace and patience necessary to treat your spouse with trust and respect.
LESSON: FAMILY & THE HOUSEHOLD

Household and Family

 Household refers to those who dwell under the same roof and may or may not compose a
family
- A household is composed of one or more people who occupy a housing unit
- Not all households contain families

Family vs. Nonfamily Households

 Family household consists of 2 or more individuals who are related by birth, marriage or
adoption, although they also may include other unrelated people
 Nonfamily household consists of people who live alone or who share their residence with
unrelated individuals
- Households that consist of unmarried couples living together and gay and lesbian couples, for
example, would be counted as nonfamily households even though they might share many
characteristics of a family
- But if these couples live with children, this household moves into the family category

FAMILY STRUCTURES

 Nuclear Family
- The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure
- Also called elementary family
- Nuclear families typically center on a married couples; they may have any number of children

 Single Parent Family

- A single parent family is a mother with her children, although there are single fathers as well
- The single parent family is the biggest change society has seen in terms of the changes in family
structures.

 Childless Family
- Childless families consist of a husband and wife living and working together
- The childless family is sometimes the "forgotten family“ because they don’t have children.

 Stepfamily
- Over half of all marriages end in divorce, and many of these individuals choose to get remarried
- This creates the stepfamily, it consists of a new husband and wife and their children from
previous marriages or relationships.

 Grandparent Family
- Many grandparents today are raising their grandchildren for a variety of reasons and the parents
are not present in the child's life.

 Extended Family
- The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are related, either by blood or
marriage, living in the same home.
 - A family that extends beyond the nuclear family
- An example is a married couple that lives either the husband or the wife’s parents
- In extended family, the family changes from immediate household to extended household

 Types of Extended Family

1. Stem Family – parents will live with one child (married or not) and his or her spouse (if married)
2. Joint Family – Parents and their children’s families live under a single roof
- In some circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in a place of a member of
the immediate family (an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children due to old age)

 Reconstituted Family
- Also known as blended family
- Joining of two adults via marriage, cohabitation or civil partnership, who have children from
previous relationships
- In this type of family, the current spouses were previously married and had children
- Upon the dissolution of their previous marriages, these individuals remarried and created a new
family by bringing in their children from their past marriages and often birthing their own

 Transnational Family
- Members reside separately across territories
- The OFW phenomenon contributes to the growing number of transnational families as Filipino
parents reside outside the country to work while their children remain in the home country to
study

POST-MARITAL RESIDENCY RULES

- The rules within the society that determine where a child of a group resides after they get
married

3 Main Forms of Post-marital Residency (PMR)

1. Neolocal Residence
- Neolocal is the pioneer stage of nuclear family
- A group consisting of parent(s) and child(ren) move away from existing family compounds
- They will have isolated conjugal house not aggregated or formally situated with other dwellings
- This is an arrangement that requires both spouses to leave their households and create their
own at times even in a different locality
- This supports the creation of nuclear households

2. Unilocal Residence

a. Patrilocal Residence – when the boys of the family stay in the family compound when they
marry, bringing in spouses from elsewhere
• Virilocal residence is a less complex rule that merely requires the wife to move in to her
husband’s residence without consideration for the creation of patrilineal descent
- Upon marriage, the woman is expected to transfer to the residence of her husband’s father; her
children will be raised by her husband’s family and be integrated in their lineage, allowing for
the creation of patrilineal descent
 - Resources are owned by men in the family, and although spouses reside with the family, they
are still part of the clans where they were born

b. Matrilocal Residence – when the girls of the family stay in the family compound when they
marry, bringing in spouses from elsewhere
• Uxolirical residence is a less complex rule that merely requires the husband to move in to his
wife’s mother’s household without consideration for the creation of a matrilineal descent
• Upon marriage, the man is expected to take residence with his wife’s mother area, where they
are expected to raise their children and integrate them to the maternal line, creating a
matrilineal descent
• Resources are owned by the women of the family and, although the spouses can reside with the
family, they are still part of the clans where they were born

3. Multi-local Residence
- Multifamily dwellings

Other PMR Rules

1. Avuncolocal Residence
- Upon marriage, the couple practices a form of virilocality and raises their children in the
household of the husband’s father
- However, upon reaching adulthood, these children will have to be relocated with their mother’s
brother and live with him and his household which may consist of his wife and children and the
other adult male offspring of his sisters
- A complex residency pattern as it requires two residence transfers
- This practice allows for the creation of a patrilineage

2. Natalocal Residence
- This arrangement allows both spouses to remain with their own households after marriage
- The couples will have to arrange for meetings as the 2 are not living under one household
- Their children are allowed to choose which household they would join; should they choose to
join their father’s household, they will be integrated in a patrilineal descent and vice versa

3. Matrifocal Residence
- Arises when the father is economically and physically unable to provide support for the family,
thereby ascribing the role of sole provider and caregiver to the woman
- In this situation, all of the children reside with their mother who is part of her mother’s
household

4. Ambilocal Residence
- Allows the couple to choose to live either with the wife’s mother’s area or the husband’s
father’s area
- This often creates an extended family

Referred Marriage Partners

- Refers to the partnership relationship of gay or lesbian marriages and those living together
(heterosexual) and not married
- Live-in partner
Kinship by Ritual
- This refers to the relationship between and among godparents and godchildren
- Compadrazgo is a Spanish term meaning “kumpare” or “kumare”
- In this situation, individuals not originally part of the family are made extended family members
by being godparents of a child of one of the actual family members

Politics of Kinship
- Refers to the political relationship among the politicians who have one common agenda

 Aspects of Politics of Kinship

a. Political Dynasty
b. Political Alliance
- The relationship may either be by blood, affinity, compadrazgo or simply allies
LESSON: POLITICAL & LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
- Any entity that is involved in the political process
- It includes political institutions, political parties & political groups
- Engaged in political activities aimed at achieving clearly defined political goals
- Political institutions like the government and its instrumentalities
- Political groups like advocacy groups & interest groups such as non-government advocacy
groups and labor unions
- Political parties are enlisted with election authority and typically focus on supporting candidates
for public office, winning election and forming government

 Band Society
- Least complex form of political organization, as it has neither rigid form of governance nor a
structured form of leadership
- Typically consists of 20-50 individuals who are usually related to one another by virtue of kinship
- Decision-making is often made by the entire group with the eldest member acting as the
facilitator
- This band is chiefly based on foraging, which is also known as hunting and gathering
- This type of economic subsistence allows for greater mobility of the group as they follow
animals and other food resources
- The eldest in the band takes responsibility as facilitator in which this form of leadership is
informal
- The extent of leader’s power lies only upon his capacity to influence the course of dialog in the
group
- Bands are egalitarian in social composition
- Individuals in the group have equal access to resources and values
- Reciprocity is a primary form of exchange among the members
- Individuals who have lesser capacity to hunt or gather have equal access to the food that other
members are able to produce
- The drawback of this setting is the emergence of free riders or those who would partake of their
share of the community’s resources without any attempt to contribute

 Tribes
- A political organization that consist of segmentary lineages
- This type of kinship is marked by loyalty per family cluster or segment
- Segmentary lineages are composed of immediate families then cousins, and then distant
relatives and cousins
- This type of kinship grouping allows for the creation of interdependent generations
- Tribes are less mobile than bands, as their form of economic subsistence requires a degree of
settlement
- Most tribes are either horticultural (shifting agriculture) or pastoral (tending animals)
- These types of economic systems require individuals to settle in one are for a specific period
either to let their animals graze or to harvest their crops
 - The leaders that are chosen in tribes are individuals who are believed to possess special skills
and aptitudes that relate to the economic activity
- Hence, should a younger and an older hunter be in a debate about a decision, the decision-
making power shall be accorded by the members to the person with greater skills in hunting
without considering age
- The segmented nature of tribe’s social dynamics allows for an economic system that uses
redistribution of commodities among social segments through the process of tribute
- A tribute is a form of gift that may consist of wealth, food, or other materials given to a central
figure who in turn redistributes the accumulated goods to the other members of the society
- Through this process, the products of one group is shared and consumed by the other groups

 Chiefdoms
- More complex than tribes, as these political organizations consist of a few local communities
who subscribe to the power and rule of a leader who has absolute power on them
- The ancient Mayans where known for their complex and elaborate political system that
incorporated religion, kinship and politics
- It embodied characteristics that include a political leader with an advisory council, a leader who
exercises power that is based on legacy, and the existence of social stratification
- The absolute power is derived from the perceived relation of the leader to supernatural forces
and powers, which is a form of legitimizing factor
- As long as the members of the communities believe that their leader is a direct descendant of
their gods, this leader maintains his sovereignty over the land
- Once the belief of people shifts, this leader almost instantaneously loses power
- Similar to tribes, chiefdoms are tied with horticulture and pastoralism
- What distinguishes a chiefdom from a tribe is the existence of social stratification that
segregates society into the elite and commoner
- The same economic process of redistribution through tribute collection is practiced in chiefdom,
just like in a tribe
- The elites are often the relatives of the ruler and are also believed to have divinity or
connections to the supernatural

 States
- Consists of four inherent elements
- Uses absolute power in directing the path of a society

THE ELEMENTS OF STATE

1. People
- Refers to the number of people living within a state
- It must be small enough to be governed and large enough to be self-sufficing
- There is no law requiring the number of people a state must have but it should neither be too
small nor too large
- This involves all the citizens of a state, but at certain point, it even includes the foreigners
staying in the state since they are also covered by the sovereignty and protection of the state
- It is said to be the most essential and indispensable element of the state
 2. Territory
- This is where the people of a state live
- It refers to the jurisdiction of the state and basically it has 3 domains
 Aerial – air
 Fluvial – sea
 Terrestrial – land
- The determination of territory can be seen in UNCLOS

3. Government
- Refers to the aggregates of persons or institutions which rule the society
- agency of the state wherein the will of the state is manifested
- It refers to the organization in charge of the management, administration, and governance of
the people within the jurisdiction of the state and the resources within it
 Legislative Branch – enact and create law
 Executive Branch – approval of laws
 Judicial Branch – interpreter of laws
- THE NEED FOR A GOVERNMENT:
 Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit of the people governed
- A WORLD WITHOUT GOVERNMENT:
1. There will be anarchy and disorder
2. General feeling of fear and insecurity will prevail
3. Progress and development will not be possible
4. Values will be taken for granted
5. Truth, freedom, justice, equality, rule of law, peace and human dignity can never be
enjoyed
- Hobbes’ view was that, government provides us with protection from the harm that we would
otherwise inflict on each other in our quest for gain and glory
- Governance denotes the activity of making collective decisions

4. Sovereignty
- Refers to the supreme power of the state

Two Aspects/Dimensions of Sovereignty

1. Internal Sovereignty – The absolute power of the state to rule its people, supreme power of the
state to command obedience within its territory
2. External Sovereignty – The freedom or independence of the state from foreign and external
control
 To attain societal goals and objectives, a state uses complete political coerciveness, which may
come in the form of armed personnel, strict laws, and rigid governmental policies
 The primary form of economic subsistence in this political organization is market exchange
 Standardized currencies are used to exchange commodities
LESSON: AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY

AUTHORITY
- Is the state of possessing power
- It is noncoercive because it is based on legitimacy
- This is the situation wherein you are given the power over someone to do something that that
someone would otherwise not do

LEGITIMACY
- Legitimacy is an important concept related to authority
- It is a situation wherein the authority of someone is legitimized by some way
- Meaning, Authority is being recognized by the people or by the ruled because the authority is
legitimized by some way like election (in a democratic country) or by succession (in monarchy)
- To understand it better, let us see the idea of Max Weber with regards to authority and
legitimacy

MAX WEBER
outlined three types of authority throughout history

1. Traditional Authority
- This refers to the kind of authority wherein you are legitimized by traditions and customs
- On the other side, ordinary people believe that the monarch has been chosen by God to lead
- Monarchies often hold this form of authority
- Deriving their legitimacy from the masses’ belief that a particular family deserves the throne or
even that the monarch has a “divine right to rule”
- You become a leader because it is part of a tradition and not because people want you to
become the leader

Ex: with the help of Russian Orthodox Church, Russian tsars presented themselves as a link between
God and the general population
- In this kind of setting, one can certainly understand why the masses follow the political system’s
rule
- To disobey them would mean to disobey God

2. Legal Authority
- Here, legitimacy is based on an established constitution – a political system’s set of rules for
making new rules – to which the political leaders adhere
- It can also involve selecting leaders through elections
- In this kind of authority, one becomes a leader because there is a process that was followed for
him to be recognized as the leader
- The process of selecting leaders through election adds to the legitimacy of the policies that the
government produces
3. Charismatic Authority
- In this case, a leader and the system as a whole becomes legitimate because of the leader’s
ability to inspire or because the people like or feel attached to the leader
- To Weber, this is the most difficult kind of authority because there is no clear reason why your
authority is legitimized, the only explanation is that you become a leader because of your inner
charisma which is God’s given grace
- Thus, you become a leader not because of any tradition or legal process, you become a leader
because of who you are
- The danger of relying on this form of legitimacy is it is closely tied to an individual leader If the
leader dies, or somehow falls out of favor with the masses, the system as a whole is in trouble
- This kind of authority allows the state to impose its will on the people because they believe that
you are the legitimate authority
- Example of a charismatic leader, regardless of what he did, was Hitler. Due to his charisma, he
was able to rise to power and implement whatever he wanted because people believed in his
charisma
- Among the 3 kinds of authority, this is the ideal authority according to Weber