RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Course No. : BITS G661

Instructor-in-Charge : D Purnima

1
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE OF THE COURSE:

This course introduces the student to the scientific method of conducting research and will
provide a practical framework on which a student can base his/her research.

The objective of this course is to inculcate a systematic approach to research:

 formulating a research topic,
 testable hypothesis,
 designing experiments,
 collecting and analyzing data and
 presenting their research in the form of reports, articles, thesis and seminars.
 projects in which they can integrate the concepts learnt in class.

The course also introduces the student to various analytical instruments and equipment
commonly used in research laboratories as well as tools for data analysis. As part of the
course, students will work on

Textbook:
C. George Thomas “Research Methodology and Scientific Writing”, Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.,
2015.
2
Course Plan:

Chapter in the
Lecture No. Learning objectives Topics to be covered
Text Book
Need for academic research
Describe the elements of research and the Introduction to the scientific method
1-2 1
scientific method Research methodology and research methods

Formal and informal approaches to research

Basic versus applied research,
Identify the approaches to research
3 Qualitative and Quantitative research, Experimental 3
Differentiate between types of research
research, Variables in research

Cause effect relationships, hypothesis, experiments,

Formulate a hypothesis errors, use of controls,
4-11 Design experiments using statistical tools Statistical design of experiments, Taguchi methods 4, 5
Understand the significance of controls Framing a hypothesis

Data collection and record keeping

Collect relevant data Data analysis
Analyze data using statistical tests Statistics – commonly used tests, Grey relational
12-20 Represent data appropriately in tables, graphs, analysis (GRA) 6, 11
etc. Representing data – tables versus figures
Illustrations, Types of graphs
Use of tools such as MS Excel, Origin

3
Course Plan:

Lecture Chapter in the

Learning objectives Topics to be covered
No. Text Book
Scientific writing – grammar, writing styles,
Write a paper
Writing research papers, review papers, thesis
Describe the elements of a journal
Selecting a journal
article, thesis
Editing, formatting, Referencing
25-30 Make clear and well defined 10, 13, 14
Review and peer review, Proofreading
presentations
Presentations, posters, How to present in
Present ideas, data and results in a
seminars
forum
Ethics in research, Plagiarism
Understand the ethical aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
31 15
research Unscientific practices, Whistle blowing

Demonstrations of equipment such as DSC, TGA,

Explain the principle involved in various FTIR, Microscopes, spectrophotometer,
32-38 Lab manuals
analytical instruments and equipment chromatography systems, UTM, XRD, SEM and
others. Analysis of data and images.

4
Evaluation Scheme:

Duratio Weightag Nature of

Component Date & Time
n e (%) Component
90 3/3, 9:00 – 10:30
Mid term 20% CB
minutes AM
Quizzes TBA 10% OB
Assignments TBA 15% OB
Seminars TBA 15% OB
Comprehensive
3 hrs 40% 04/05 , FN CB
Examination

 Presentations by the students and panel discussions among the students.

 Individual Assignments and mini projects.

Chamber Consultation Hour: Monday, Wednesday 3 PM to 4 PM

Email:dpurnima@Hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
5
What is research and what is the benefit of academic
research?
In a general: Research is gathering information for any project, literary work, cinema,
documentary etc.

In academic fields: Defining, redefining and solving problems, observing facts and their
interpretation, formulation of hypothesis, and testing of the hypothesis through
experiments, revision of existing theories and laws, and practical application of information
already generated.

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular situation, material, process, systems
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs (studies with this object in view
are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
6
Some definitions:
Research is a quest for knowledge through diligent search or investigation or
experimentation aimed at discovery and interpretation of new knowledge, usually
using a scientific method. Research may lead to discovery of facts and information
which increases our understanding of the universe and aid in betterment of our life.

Scientific method is a systematic body of procedures and techniques applied in

carrying out investigation or experimentation targeted at obtaining new
knowledge.

Methodology may refer to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that
underlie a particular study relative to the scientific method.

7
Motives of Doing Research
External motivating factors:
 For higher degree.
 Easiest or the only way to earn a living/ Pursuit of Prestige.
 Publishing papers is important for progressing in an academic career.
 Obtaining patents is a good way to become rich and famous.
 Peer pressure: my friends are all doing research and so should I.
 Looking up to someone or trying to be like someone.

Internal motivating factors:

 Inner beauty of the subject/ In depth knowledge of the subject.
 Intellectual pleasure/bliss.
 Inherent human spirit of adventure, curiosity and discovery.
Palash
 Competitive spirit. Wanting to do better than what has been achieved.
 Improve the state-of-the-art in technology.
 Contribute to the improvement of society.
8
Challenges that can demotivate researchers:

 Surroundings is non-appreciative.
 Inadequate infrastructure to carry out the work.
 Non-availability of books, journals and sophisticated laboratories.
 Peer-pressure/ family pressure.
 Gap between expectations and effort.
 Non-fulfillment of short-term objectives.
 Getting stuck on a specific problem and being intellectually
drained out.
 Lowering of self-esteem/having self doubt.

9
Logical Reasoning
Varun is older than Suraj.
Chetan is older than Varun.
Therefore Chetan is older than Suraj.

Method of Induction:
Inductive reasoning is the ability to reach general conclusion based on perceived
patterns observed in specific events or any experience. Inductive logic is often used
in everyday life. Specific → General (Bottoms-Up approach)

Method of Deduction:
Deductive reasoning involves a general rule or principle that leads to a specific
conclusion. General → Specific (Top-Down approach)
In such cases, the major premise is based on theory, rule, law, or general
understanding.

Inductive-deductive method: Propose a Hypothesis through induction and then

deduce the probability that it is false through empirical evidences

10
• Scientifically acceptable statements:
Conjecture, Hypothesis, Theory, Law, Fact, Axiom and Theorem, Model

• The Scientific Method:

A broader, general outlook

1. Make observations
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Prediction of results
4. Design of experiments to falsify the hypothesis
5. Conduct experiments and collect data
6. Evaluation and Conclusion
7. Accept, modify, or reject the hypothesis

11
• Research Methodology and Research Methods
Research Method: What we do in lab; methods and procedures we follow to accomplish
a research goal.

Research Methodology deals with general approaches; science and philosophy behind
research methods.

• Research Process

12
Approaches to Research:
• Intuition in Research
Be creative, open minded but always prepare, work hard, have a strategy and follow it.
• Unconventional ways to intuition: Serendipity, unexpected results, newcomers

Types of Research/Approaches
Basic vs. Applied Research

Descriptive vs. Analytical

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Conceptual vs. Empirical

Experimental vs. Non experimental

Retrospective or prospective

Cross sectional vs. Longitudinal

13
Basic and Applied Research
 Basic research may not have immediate application. Most fundamental.
 Generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
 “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
 Research concerning some natural phenomenon, pure mathematics, research
studies concerning human behaviour, understanding fundamental life processes.
 Pure Basic Research and Strategic Basic Research
 Finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

 Applied research is application of theory to direct solution of various problems

 Finding solution for immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organisation.
 Evaluation research and Developmental research

14
Descriptive and Analytical Research
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present.
 Observation and description.
 Ex post facto research.
 In natural sciences: describe nature, anatomy, astronomy, taxonomic studies.
 Social sciences: Census, surveys, analysis.
 Knowledge base for generation of a hypothesis.

 In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already

available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Why the state of affairs is a certain way.
 Cause and effect relationship.
 To provide answers.

15
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
 Collection of numbers and analysis: Statistical data analysis.
 Deduction approach.
 Relationship between dependent and independent variables.
 What, where and when of decision making.
 The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
 Physical sciences, economics, social sciences and biology.

 Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. collection

of data in a narrative form to understand a particular process.
 Not numerical.
 Inductive approach: Reality is subjective.
 Qualitative approach followed by Quantitative approach.
 Why and how of decision making.

Example: If one wishes to investigate why certain data are random then it is a qualitative
research. If the aim is to study how random the data is, what is the mean, variance and
distribution function then it becomes quantitative.
16
Conceptual and Empirical Research
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
 Split down a theory to get better understanding of deeper issues.
 Used in combination with other methods of research.

 Empirical research relies on experience, observation and experiments, often

without due regard for system and theory.
 It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
 Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables
affect other variables in some way.
 Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered
to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
 Empirical research commonly used in scientific studies.

17
Experimental and Non-Experimental Research
 Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into experimental and Non-
Experimental research.
 Introducing cause and studying the effect: Experimental approach
 Independent variables are observed, introduced and manipulated to observe their effect
on other variables.
 Experiments reveal ultimate truth.

 Understand a phenomena and determine the cause: Non Experimental approach

 The cause has already occurred: retrospect.
 Non experimental approaches are useful in many situations: variation of independent
variations is not possible.

Prospective and Retrospective Research

 Gather data at a particular time and trace it into past: retrospective study.
 Start in the present and wait for results in future: prospective study.

Cross sectional and Longitudinal Research

 Data collected at one point of time: Cross sectional study. Eg: Present health of
people drinking ground water in a village with a new factory
 Data collected over a period of time: Longitudinal study. Eg: Over a period of time
18
if their health is getting affected.
Variables in Research

• Independent and dependent variable

• Qualitative and Quantitative variable
• Nominal and Ordinal variables
• Continuous and discrete variables
• Extraneous variables

19
Experimental Research
Experiments generate empirical knowledge.

Experiment can be defined as tests designed and

conducted by deliberately changing some variables in a
system with the intention of falsifying a hypothesis
involving selected variables.

The process of examining the truth of a statistical

hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known
as an experiment

“It doesn't matter how beautiful your theory is, it doesn't matter how
smart you are. If it doesn't agree with experiment, it's wrong.”
― Richard P. Feynman 20
Cause Effect Relationship
 Select a cause variable, vary cause variable and measure the effect,
eliminating any other factors (hold other variables constant).
 Falsification if hypothesis through experimentation.

Some Terminologies:
• Experimental plot/experimental unit: Experimental
area.
• Treatments: Objects under comparison, different
conditions under which experimental groups are put.
• Factors: Independent variables.
• Level: Intensity of a factor.
• Blocks: Categories within a treatment group.
21
  Variability in experiments: Statistics

 Limitations of experimental research

Hypothesis in Experiments:
• Possible or probable answer to a specific question.
• Two types of experimental hypothesis statements
• Research hypothesis H1: Positive statement
(Rate of reaction changes with change in temperature)
• Statistical/ Null hypothesis H0: Negative statement
(Temperature has no effect on the reaction)
• Level of significance of Null hypothesis

A good hypothesis is Testable, Falsifiable and Simple 22

Validity of Experiments
 Experimental results must have wide range of validity.

 Internal validity: Independent variables have genuine effect

on dependent variable.

 External validity: The results apply to the real world i.e.

valid in any other settings at other times (Generalizability).

23
Problem: Is density of water different from density of solid
ice? How and Why?

What steps or research methods you will use to find an

answer?

24
Control Experiments
 Standard Treatment or No treatment – Control Experiment or
Control group.

 Alternative Treatments – Research Experiment.

 The two samples/groups must be identical in all other aspects

other that the treatment being studied (must be identical
before treatment).

 A ‘CONTROL’ is a must in all kinds of experiments. But control

treatment depends on your experiment.

25
Errors in Experiments
 Difference between truth and measurement.

 Experimental Errors

 Reproducibility

 Possible errors:

 Random Errors: By Chance,

 Statistical methods to account for random errors.
 Representative sampling.

 Systematic Errors: Faulty technique, calibration errors,

unit variations.
26
Threats to Internal and External Validity

• History • Population validity

• Maturation • Ecological Validity
• Testing effects
• Instrumentation
• Sampling bias
• Attrition
• Selection bias

27
Principles of Experimentation to reduce errors

Influential ides for experimental design

Sir Ronald A. Fisher

Statistical methods for design of

experiments
(1)Principle of Replication;
(2)Principle of Randomization;
(3)Principle of Local Control or blocking.

28
Replication
 To provide an estimate of experimental error.
 Reduce the effect of uncontrolled variation (i.e., increase precision).
 Quantify uncertainty. A related point: An estimate is of no value without some
statement of the uncertainty in the estimate.

How Many Replications?

• The number of replications (sample size) is the number of experimental units that
receive each treatment.

• The sample size should be small enough that negligible treatment differences are
not declared statistically significant and large enough that meaningful treatment
differences are declared statistically significant.

• Degrees of Freedom

• Repeated measurements on the same experimental unit may or may not constitute
true replications; treating dependent observations as if they were independent is
one of the most common statistical errors found in the scientific literature.
29
Randomization
 Randomization Experimental subjects (“units”).

 Example: Lady tea tasting

 Should be assigned to treatment groups at random.

 At random does not mean haphazardly.

 Process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different

groups in an experiment, so that each individual of the population has
the same chance of becoming a participant in the study.

 Avoid bias.

 Normal Distribution.

 Control the role of chance. – Randomization allows the later use of

probability theory, and so gives a solid foundation for statistical analysis.
30
Blocking/ Local Control
 Blocking is the non-random arrangement of experiments into
groups (blocks/lots) consisting of units that are similar to one
another.

 Blocking reduces known but irrelevant sources of variation

between units and thus allows greater precision in the
estimation of the source of variation under study.

 Takes account of the difference between periods in your

analysis.

 Performing the experiment with more care is one way to exert

local control. For example, the treatments should be applied
uniformly and under standardized conditions.
31
Basic Experimental Design
How to verify the hypothesis in an efficient and economical way?
Experimental design includes both
• Strategies for organizing data collection
• Data analysis procedures matched to those data collection strategies

Same field, same treatment, but

plant performance is uneven...

Fisher’s Solution:
Replicate and
randomize to spread
variation evenly
At Rothamsted Agricultural Experiment
Station, Fisher recognized problems with some
among treatments.
32
of the agricultural experiments.
Basic Experimental Design
Fisher’s Solution
– Old Problematic Design: One large field receiving high nitrogen
(N), one large field receiving low nitrogen (N).

– New Improved Design: Many small plots, randomly receiving

high N or low N; plots can also be blocked to help tease out the
variation due to location and local conditions.

Fisher invents
• Basic principles of experimental design
– Replication, Randomization and Blocking
• Control of variation by randomization
• Analysis of variance
33
 EXTRA
Fisher: Randomization, Replication & Blocking SLIDE
• No replication (or pseudoreplication) (pre-Fisher):
Field with
Field with
Low N
High N

• Replicated with complete randomization:

Treatments are applied to plots
Field broken
rather than to an entire field;
up into
this improves replication &
smaller plots
interspersion of treatments.

• Replicated, randomized and blocked design: Dashed rectangle

is a block
Field broken
up into Plots are blocked by
smaller plots location or other
& plots are condition; treatments
grouped. are applied randomly to
plots within blocks.
 Given a cup of tea with milk, a lady claims she can EXTRA
SLIDE
discriminate as to whether milk or tea was first added to
the cup.
 To test her claim, eight cups of tea are prepared, four of which have the milk
added first and four of which have the tea added first.
 Question: How many cups does she have to correctly identify to convince us
of her ability?

For example, the probability that she would correctly identify all 4
cups is 1 in 70 .
Suppose the lady correctly identifies all 4 cups.
Conclusion: Either she has no ability, and has chosen the correct 4 cups purely by
chance, or she has the discriminatory ability she claims.
Since choosing correctly is highly unlikely in the first case (one chance in seventy),
we decide for the second.

Note: if she got 3 correct and 1 wrong, this would be evidence for her ability, but not
persuasive evidence since the chance of getting 3 or more correct is 17 70 = 0.2429.
Note: typically, a result is considered statistically significant if the probability of its occurrence
is less than 0.05, that is, less than 1 out of 20. 35
Dan Sloughter (Furman University)
Basic Experimental Design
Different Classifications
Based on applicability of randomization and manipulation of
treatments
• True Experiments
• Quasi Experiments
• ex post facto experiments

Informal experimental designs (based on treatment introduction and

control group; less sophisticated form of analysis )
• Before-and-after without control design.
• After-only with control design.
• Before-and-after with control design.

Formal experimental designs (precise statistical procedures for

analysis)
 Single Factor Experiments
 Multiple Factor Experiments
36
 Single Factor Experiments

Complete Block Design Incomplete Block Design

For large number of
treatments,
characterized by
Completely Latin Square blocks that contain
Design only fraction of the
Randomized treatments under test.
Design
Randomized
Block Design

37
 The Completely Randomized Design
• Each experimental unit is randomly assigned to one of two
treatments.
• Each unit has the same probability of getting any one
treatment
New
Treatment A to Standard
Experimental Treatment B to
Group Control Group

Unit 1 Unit 1
Unit 2 Unit 2
…

Unit n Unit n
38
 The Completely Randomized Design
• All experimental units are considered the same and no division or grouping
among them exist.
 All the variability among the experimental units goes into experimented
error.
 CRD is used when the experimental material is homogeneous.

• In CRD, the 𝜈 treatments are allocated randomly to the whole set of

experimental units, without making any effort to group the experimental
units in any way for more homogeneity.
 Design is entirely flexible in the sense that any number of treatments or
replications may be used.
 Number of replications for different treatments need not be equal

• CRD is often inefficient.

• CRD is more useful when the experiments are conducted inside the lab.
• CRD is well suited for the small number of treatments and for the
homogeneous experimental material.
39
Following steps are needed to design a CRD:

 Divide the entire experimental material or area into a number of

experimental units, say 𝜈.
 Fix the number of replications for different treatments in advance
(for given total number of available experimental units).
 No local control measure is provided as such except that the error
variance can be reduced by choosing a homogeneous set of
experimental units
Let the v treatments are numbered from 1,2,...,v and be the number of replications
required for ith treatment such that

 Select units out of n1 units randomly and apply treatment 1 to n1 to these units.
(Note: This is how the randomization principle is utilized is CRD.)

 Select n2 units out of (n-n1) units randomly and apply treatment 2 to these units.
 Continue with this procedure until all the treatments have been utilized.
 Generally equal number of treatments are allocated to all the experimental units
unless no practical limitation dictates or some treatments are more variable or/and of
more interest.
40
 The Randomized Block Design
In the R.B.D the principle of local control can be applied along with the other two principles
of experimental designs.

Block 1 … Block m

Individual 1 Individual 1
Treatment

…
1 …

Individual n Individual n
Individual n Individual
+1 n+1
Treatment
…
…

…
2

Individual 2n Individual 2n

41
If large number of treatments are to be compared, then large number of experimental
units are required. This will increase the variation among the responses and CRD may not
be appropriate to use. In such a case when the experimental material is not homogeneous
and there are v treatments to be compared, then it may be possible to

 group the experimental material into blocks of sizes v units.

 Blocks are constructed such that the experimental units within a block are relatively
homogeneous and resemble to each other more closely than the units in the different
blocks.

Example: Suppose there are 7 treatment denoted as T1, T2,…,T7 corresponding to 7

levels of a factor to be included in 4 blocks. So one possible layout of the assignment of 7
treatments to 4 different blocks in a RBD is as follows

42
 The Randomized Block Design
The RBD utilizes the principles of design - randomization, replication and local
control - in the following way:
1. Randomization: - Number the 𝜈 treatments 1,2,…, 𝜈.
- Number the units in each block as 1, 2,..., 𝜈.
- Randomly allocate the 𝜈 treatments to 𝜈 experimental units in
each block.
2. Replication:
Since each treatment is appearing in the each block, so every treatment will appear
in all the blocks. So each treatment can be considered as if replicated the number
of times as the number of blocks. Thus in RBD, the number of blocks and the
number of replications are same.

3. Local control: Local control is adopted in RBD in following way:

- First form the homogeneous blocks of the experimental units.
- Then allocate each treatment randomly in each block.
The error variance now will be smaller because of homogeneous blocks and some
variance will be parted away from the error variance due to the difference among
the blocks.

43
Latin square design
• The treatments in the RBD are randomly assigned to b blocks such that each treatment
must occur in each block rather than assigning them at random over the entire set of
experimental units as in the CRD. There are only two factors – block and treatment effects
– which are taken into account and the total number of experimental units needed for
complete replication are bv where b and v are the numbers of blocks and treatments
respectively.

• If experimental units are in two directions, ie two types (or if there are more extraneous
factors)
Say k units, then the total number of experimental units needed for a complete replication
are bvk. This increases the cost of experimentation and the required number of experimental
units over RBD.

 In Latin square design (LSD), the experimental material is divided into rows and
columns, each having the same number of experimental units which is equal to
the number of treatments. The treatments are allocated to the rows and the
columns such that each treatment occurs once and only once in the each row and
in the each column.

44
Latin square design

For each standard Latin square

of order p, the p rows can be
permuted in p! ways. Keeping a
row fixed, vary and permute (p -
1) columns in (p - 1)! ways. So
there are p!(p - 1)! different
Latin squares.
45
Latin square design Example
• An experiment has to be made through which the effects of five
different varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a certain crop, say
wheat, it to be judged. In such a case the varying fertility of the soil
in different blocks in which the experiment has to be performed
must be taken into consideration; otherwise the results obtained
may not be very dependable because the output happens to be the
effect not only of fertilizers, but it may also be the effect of fertility
of soil. Similarly, there may be impact of varying seeds on the yield.
To overcome such difficulties, the L.S. design is used when there
are two major extraneous factors such as the varying soil fertility
and varying seeds.

• the treatments in a L.S. design are so allocated among the plots that no treatment occurs more than once
in any one row or any one column. The two blocking factors may be represented through rows and
columns (one through rows and the other through columns).

• The field is divided into as many blocks as there are varieties of fertilizers and then each
block is again divided into as many parts as there are varieties of fertilizers in such a way
that each of the fertilizer variety is used in each of the block (whether column-wise or
row-wise) only once.
Latin Square Design Example
Suppose different brands of petrol are to be compared with respect to the mileage per liter
achieved in motor cars.
Important factors responsible for the variation in the mileage are
- difference between individual cars.
- difference in the driving habits of drivers.
We have three factors – cars, drivers and petrol brands. Suppose we have
4 types of cars denoted as 1, 2, 3, 4.
- 4 drivers that are represented by as a, b, c, d.
- 4 brands of petrol are indicated by as A, B, C, D.

Now the complete replication will

require 4x4x4 = 64 number of
experiments.

Or To choose such 16
experiments, we take the help of
Latin square.

47
Latin Square Design

In RBD, the experimental units are divided into homogeneous blocks according to the
blocking factor. Hence it eliminates the difference among blocks from the experimental
error.
 In LSD, the experimental units are grouped according to two factors. Hence two
effects (like as two block effects) are removed from the experimental error.
 So the error variance can be considerably reduced in LSD.

Limitation
• Although each row and each column represents equally all fertilizer varieties, there may
be considerable difference in the row and column means both up and across the field.
This, in other words, means that in L.S. design we must assume that there is no interaction
between treatments and blocking factors.

• Another limitation of this design is that it requires number of rows, columns and
treatments to be equal. This reduces the utility of this design.

48
Latin Square Design
In designing a LSD of order p,

• Choose one Latin square at random from the set of all possible Latin squares of order p.
• Select a standard latin square from the set of all standard Latin squares with equal
probability.

• Randomize all the rows and columns as follows:

• For Latin squares of order less than 5, fix first row and then randomize rows and then
randomize columns. In Latin squares of order 5 or more, need not to fix even the first row.
Just randomize all rows and columns.

49
Randomization Procedures
R.A. Fisher on how to randomize an experiment with small
sample size and 5 treatments

A satisfactory method is to use a pack of cards numbered

from 1 to 100, and to arrange them in random order by
repeated shuffling. The varieties [treatments] are numbered
from 1 to 5, and any card such as the number 33, for example
is deemed to correspond to variety [treatment] number 3,
because on dividing by 5 this number is found as the
remainder. (Fisher, 1935, p.51)
 Randomization Procedures
Randomization has to be done as an explicit process devised by
the experimenter

• Haphazard is not the same as random

• Unknown assignment is not the same as random
• “Essentially random” is technically meaningless
• Alternation is not random, even if you alternate from a
random start

This is why R.A. Fisher was so explicit about randomization

processes
 Randomization Procedures
Completely Randomized Design
(2 treatments, 2n individuals)

Make a list of all individuals

For each individual, pick a random number from 1 to 2 (odd or

even)

Assign the individual to treatment 1 if even, 2 if odd

When one treatment is assigned n individuals, stop assigning

more individuals to that treatment
 Randomization Procedures
Randomized Block Design with 2 Treatments
(m blocks per treatment, 2n individuals per block)

Make a list of all individuals in the first block

For each individual, pick a random number from 1 to 2 (odd or
even)
Assign the individual to treatment 1 if even, 2 if odd
Stop assigning a treatment it is assigned n individuals in the
block
Repeat the same process with every block
Factorial designs
Multiple Factor Experiments:

• In a single-factor experiment, only one factor is studied. And the levels of the factor are
the treatments.

• When the number of factors involved in the experiment is more than one, it is known as
factorial experiment.

• In factorial experiments, combination of two or more levels of more than one factor is the
treatment.

• When all the possible treatments are studied, we call it a full factorial experiment.

• If number of factors and levels of each factor is large, its cumbersome to conduct
multiple number of experiments. In such situations, fractional factorial design is
adopted.

54