CHAPTER 2
Universal Ethical Egoism - all people out to act in their own
ETHICAL RELATIVISM - the doctrine that the moral rightness
and wrongness of actions varies from society to society and
that there are no absolute universal moral standards binding on
all men at all times.
- Whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral
norms of the society in which it is practiced. The same action
may be morally right in one society but be morally wrong in
another.
One of the main factors that propel the acceptance of ethical
relativism is CULTURE. Whether we like it or not culture
diversifies our belief systems – it creates a demarcation/
separation line between societies among human beings. EX.
Polygamy having more that on wife or husband.
Optical Illusion - the difference between reality and what the
brain think it’s seeing. The information gathered by the eye is
processed in the brain to give an image that does not agree
with physical measurement of the source.
Three Main Types of Optical Illusion
 Literal optical illusion - create images that are
different from the objects that make them
 Physiological optical illusion - effects on the eyes
and brain of excessive stimulation of a specific type
(brightness, tilt, color, movement)
 Cognitive optical illusion - eye and brain make
unconscious inferences
EGOISM - the ethical norm that puts the “self” at the center of
all
• Selfishness is a virtue and the idea “ every man is an
island”
• It places self-interest as the most fundamental basis of
morality.
• Philosophical view that human beings do, or
should, always act for their own benefit. Egoists believe you
should sometimes help others, but only because it is in your
interest.
ETHICAL EGOISM - an ethical position declaring that moral
agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. And this is
not a choice, it is a compulsion
“The rough idea behind ethical egoism is that the right thing to
do is to look out for your own self-interest. We are morally
required only to make ourselves as happy as possible. We
have no moral obligations to others.”
TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS - outcome or consequence of the
act
DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS - centers on the act itself
Three types of Ethical Egoism
1. Personal Ethical Egoism - maintain that they are going to
act in their own self- interest
2. Individual Ethical Egoism - everyone else should act in my
self-interest
3.
self- interest
SELF-INTEREST - sole parameter of what morality is for me
UTILITARIANISM - the doctrine that an action is right insofar
as it promotes happiness, and that the greatest happiness of
the greatest number should be the guiding principle of conduct
Jeremy Bentham – one of the pioneers of utilitarianism as a
school of thought in the Modern Era. He famously held that
humans were ruled by two sovereign masters – pleasure and
pain. We seek pleasure and the instance of pain, they govern
us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think.
• Principle of Utility - standard of right action on the part of
government and individuals. Actions are approved when they
are such as to promote happiness, or pleasure, and
disapproved of when they have tendency to cause
unhappiness or pain.
John Stuart Mill – Bentham’s godson, proposed a major
reformulation of the utilitarian position by arguing that utility
define in terms of happiness rather than pleasure;
eudaimonistic utilitarianism
Criticism of Ethical Egoism
1) Essentially public in character
2) Friendship
3) Morally insensitive
CHAPTER 3
ARISTOTLE and EUDAIMONIAN ETHICS
• Happiness is our perpetual battle cry, its letters comprise our
sigil and its syllables are lyrics to our songs. It is the primary
and ultimate object of our decisions and acts.
• Aristotle takes on the matter of the good life, with the
purpose of finding a universal human end upon which the
notion of happiness is to be determined and having made such
resolve, make this good and happy life as the basis and
foundation of morality.
• Aristotle is one person whose name resonates through
almost all era and school of thought in the realm of philosophy.
His influence is defiant to the limitation of time, and is affiant to
a sundry of disciplines other than philosophy such as science,
art, theology and politics.
THE EUDAMONIA
Nicomachean Ethics
• He starts his notion of ethics by working on the presumption
that all nature is theological, purposive.
• “Every act and every inquiry, and similarly every action and
choice is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the
good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things
aim”.
• And in as much as the goodness of things are determined by
the fulfilment of their functions, so are human beings.
 Aristotle avoids this quagmire by arguing that there is
a chief good; a purpose or end not left within the
caprice and whim of each person that is the ultimate
criterion of morality.
 For Aristotle, this chief or highest good is an innate
end; a preordained essence.
  “Act is a good or bad depending on whether it
contributes to or deters us from our proper human end
– the telos or final goal at which all human actions
aim”.
 “Happiness is not merely a subjective state of
pleasure or contentment but the kind of life we would
all want to live if we understood our essential nature.
Just as knives and forks and wheels have functions,
so do species, including human species”
HUMAN NATURE
3 Characteristics of variety that they need to properly
perform:
• Good for human beings
• The entire proper function of human life as a whole
• Activity of the soul
Reason - is the true self of every person
“Irrational passions would seem to be as much a part of human
nature as is reason”
— Aristotle
“Human beings are rational animals”
“Our function (essence) is to live according to reason and
thereby to become a certain sort of highly rational, disciplined
being.”
GOLDEN MEAN - The morally virtuous life consist in living in
moderation, and by this he means the mean between the
opposing vices of excess and deficiency. It is the middle
between too much and too little, for both extremes, to Aristotle,
is always wrong. Virtue lies in the middle.
What makes a right act right? If the result of your actions are
good, then it is right; If not, then the vice versa is the answer-
as can be gleaned from the principles ushered by egoism and
utilitarianism.
“Moral rightness and wrongness are determined by nonmoral
values”
Kant's theory is an example of a Deontological Moral Theory
according to these theories, the rightness or wrongness of
actions does not depend on their consequences but on
whether they fulfill our duty. Kant believed that there was a
supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it as
The Categorical Imperative
“An act is right or moral because it is its nature, and you do it
not for some selfish motive but because it is your duty”
CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
• Used as a characterization of his basic moral precepts
• Self-determining and free agents
 Goal – END
 Actions we used to achieve such - MEANS
• Inclination – habitual empirical desire
• Setting an end – the most basic normative act
HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE
Setting an end thus subjects me to a normative principle
commanding me to perform the action required as a means to
the end
IMPERATIVE – command of reason
HYPOTHETICAL – command governs our action only on the
condition that we will the end in question
CATEGORICAL – has no such conditions
MORAL IMPERATIVE – categorical because it commands us
to act irrespective of our wants or our contingent needs
THREE PROPOSITIONS OF MORALITY
1) An action must be done from a sense of duty; if it is to have
moral worth.
2) An action done from duty derives its moral worth, not from
the purpose which is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by
which it is determined, and therefore does not depend on the
realization of the object of the action, but merely on the
principle of volition by which the action has taken place, without
regard to any object of desire.
3) Duty is the necessity of acting for the law.
Kant is consistent with his goal of universalizing morality and
removing it from the shackles of individualism and contingency.
“Always act in such a way that you can will that the maxim
behind your action can be willed as a universal law.”
MAXIM – general rule in accordance with which the agent
intends to act. The measure of a maxim is whether it survives
the test of being translated from a maxim to a categorical
imperative
THREEFOLD RELATIONSHIPS OF MAXIM
1) To the motivating reasons of the agent
2) To the act itself
3) To a universal system of reasons
HUMANITY AS AN END IN ITSELF
RESPECT FOR HUMANITY - highlights the intrinsic value of
human beings which is equally helpful in humanizing the
concept of ethics
GROUNDWORK OF A METAPHYSICS OF MORALS - Act in
such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your
own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a
means, but always at the same time as an end
AUTONOMY – the ability to make up one’s own mind on the
basis of relevant information
1) Not allowing the access to information relevant to their own
decisions
2) Not allowing them to act on the basis of such information
RESPECT – involves recognizing the unique value of each
individual, and the fact that each person is priceless
CHAPTER 4
Put in mind! Our moral and social responsibilities are not
limited to the avoidance of evil but extends more importantly to
the pursuit of the common good and welfare
CORPORATE WORLD - a formal place where work counts
more than anything else
Three recognized basic manners through which a person
may conduct a business in the Philippines:
Single/Sole Proprietorship
• A person personally conducts business under his name or • Macro level - National and International Organization.
business name. Political and Social System

• This kind of business has no personality separate and distinct • Corporate level - Ethical issues facing individual corporate
from the proprietor. entities (public or private sector) when formulating and
implementing strategies
•The owner and business are one and the same
• Individual level - Individuals within organizations. Ethics
Moreover: which depending on factors like personality, peer pressure and
the socio political environment
• Single ownership
THE FOUNDATION OF BUSINESS ETHICS: PRINCIPLES
• No sharing of profit and loss AND VALUES

• One man's capital • Accountability

• Unlimited liability • Integrity

• Less legal formalities • Fairness

• One man control • Transparency

Partnership STANDARDS OF BUSINESS AND CONDUCT ETHICS

• One where two or more persons bind themselves to • Compliance

contribute money, property or industry to a common fund with
intention of dividing the profits among themselves • Competition and Fair Dealing

• Has a separate and distinct personality from that of a partner • Confidentiality of Information and Proper Use of Property

Moreover: • Conflicts of Interest and Corporate Opportunities

• Trust, performance, teamwork, plan, collaboration, win-win, • Disclosure

business, success
• Risk Management
Corporation
• Relations with Shareholders and Investors
• A separate and distinct personality from its stockholders and
directors.

• Entitled to its own properties, and conversely, its properties

are not the properties of its stockholders, directors and officers.

•It can also incur obligations which are not the obligation of its
stockholders, directors and officers.

Business ethics - set of principles and standards that

determine acceptable conduct in business organizations.

Business ethics is portant because it influences and

contributes to:

• Employee commitment

• Investor and customer loyalty and confidence

• Legal problems and penalties

• Customer satisfaction

• The ability to build relationships with stakeholders

• Cost control

• Performance, revenue and profits

• Reputation and image

Levels of Business Ethics