Theorist and Theory
of the theory to real
1. Aristotle; Virtue Ethics
- (384-322 B.C.) made
significant and lasting
contributions to nearly
every aspect of human
knowledge, from logic to
biology to ethics and
aesthetics. Though
overshadowed in classical
times by the work of his
teacher Plato, from late
antiquity through the
Enlightenment, Aristotle’s
surviving writings were
incredibly influential.
Main Points Opposition/Criticism Wellbeing/Relevance
life
• The highest good Virtues are more than just Virtue ethics enables
and the end inclinations to behave in people to preserve vital
toward which all certain ways, for which personal and
human activity is laws and principles may interpersonal
directed is always be stated. relationships for living a
happiness, which Furthermore, they include successful life. Aristotle
can be defined as perceptual and contends that through
continuous articulation abilities, as cultivating these virtues, a
contemplation of well as situation-specific person might live a happy
eternal and "know-how," all of which life. The virtuous life may
universal truth. can only be learned by be lived to the fullest.
• One attains recognizing and acting on
happiness by a what is relevant in actual
virtuous life and moral circumstances as
the development they happen. Even the
of reason and the brightest minds may make
faculty of poor decisions. There are
theoretical times when a man's
wisdom.. decision is based on the
• Moral virtue is a finest knowledge
relative mean available, his goals are
between honorable, and his
extremes of conduct is not at all out of
excess and character. Despite this, his
deficiency, and in best made intentions may
general the go awry. However,
moral life is one because its conceptual
of moderation in system is based on the
all things except concept of a decent
virtue. No human person, virtue ethics is
appetite or unable to accurately judge
desire is bad if it the sometimes
is controlled by (inevitable) tragic effects
reason according of human actions.
to a moral
principle. Moral
virtue is acquired
by a combination
of knowledge,
habituation, and
self-discipline.
• Virtuous acts
require conscious
choice and moral
purpose or
motivation. Man
has personal
moral

2. John Stuart Mill;
Consequentialism- Rule
Utilitarianism (1806–73)-
was the most influential
English language
philosopher of the
nineteenth century. He
was a naturalist, a
utilitarian, and a liberal,
whose work explores the
consequences of a
thoroughgoing empiricist
outlook. In doing so, he
sought to combine the
best of eighteenth-
century Enlightenment
thinking with newly
emerging currents of
nineteenth-century
Romantic and historical
philosophy. His most
important works include
System of Logic (1843),
On Liberty (1859),
Utilitarianism (1861) and
An Examination of Sir
William Hamilton’s
Philosophy (1865).
3. Jeremy Bentham;
Consequentialism- Act
Utilitarianism - jurist and
political reformer, is the
philosopher whose name
is most closely associated
with the foundational era
of the modern utilitarian
tradition. Earlier moralists
had enunciated several of
the core ideas and
responsibility for
his actions.
Moral virtue cannot be
achieved abstractly — it
requires moral action in a
social environment. Ethics
and politics are closely
related, for politics is the
science of creating a
society in which men can
live the good life and
develop their full
potential.
Mill developed a One problem with rule- The most important
systematic statement of utilitarianism is this: it advantage that rule
utilitarian ethical theory. invites us to consider the utilitarianism as an ethical
He modified and consequences of the theory has over act
defended the general general following of a utilitarianism lies in its
principle that right actions particular rule. Critics ability to give full
are those that tend to object to utilitarianism by recognition to the moral
produce the greatest claiming that the theory and social importance of
happiness of the greatest justifies treating people individual rights and
number of people, being unjustly, violating their personal obligations.
careful to include a rights, etc. This criticism
distinction in the quality only stands up if it is
of the pleasures that always wrong and thus
constitute happiness. He never morally justified to
emphasizes that it is not treat people in these ways
the quantity of pleasure,
but the quality of
happiness that is central
to utilitarianism, the
calculus is unreasonable --
qualities cannot be
quantified (there is a
distinction between
'higher' and 'lower'
pleasures)
(1) Recognizes the Critics object to It has a wide coverage and
fundamental role of pain utilitarianism by claiming helps emphasize equality.
and pleasure in human that the theory justifies Utilitarians don’t just
life, (2) approves or treating people unjustly, focus on their friends or
disapproves of an action violating their rights, etc. family, or their fellow-
on the basis of the This criticism only stands citizens. They are
amount of pain or up if it is always wrong concerned about distant
pleasure brought about and thus never morally strangers. They are
i.e, consequences, (3) justified to treat people in concerned about future
equates good with these ways generations (so
pleasure and evil with utilitarianism tells us why
characteristic terminology pain, and (4) asserts that climate change matters,
of utilitarian philosophy, pleasure and pain are for example And “all
most notably John Gay, capable of quantification affected” includes all
Francis Hutcheson, David sentient beings, so the
Hume, Claude-Adrien suffering of animals
Helvétius and Cesare matters too. It gives us a
Beccaria, but it was single answer to each
Bentham who rendered moral problem without
the theory in its further generating more
recognisably secular and moral dilemmas, and it
systematic form and takes a kind of scientific
made it a critical tool of approach to ethics. It is
moral and legal also impartial in that it
philosophy and political doesn't distinguish
and social improvement. between individuals.
4. Immanuel Kant; • Kant believes The main problem is that Deontologists require us
Deontology/Duty Theory that morality different societies have to follow universal rules
- (1724–1804) is the must be rational. their own ethical standard we give to ourselves, thus,
central figure in modern • an action is and set of distinct laws; it promotes fairness,
philosophy. He considered but the problem exists consistency, & morally
synthesized early modern morally good that if in fact there is a equal treatment of all
rationalism and because of some universal law, why people for they are
empiricism, set the terms characteristic of different societies not intrinsically valuable. It
for much of nineteenth the action itself, have the same set of also teaches us that we
and twentieth century not because the ethical and moral should think before acting
philosophy, and continues product of the standards. One critique of on something or posses
to exercise a significant action is good. deontology relates to who the will to do something
influence today in a good will is one that decides the norms of and urges to do what is
metaphysics, wills to act in accord with behavior. Second, morally right.
epistemology, ethics, the moral law and out of deontology can
political philosophy, respect for that law rather potentially lead to
aesthetics, and other than out of natural posthoc justification for
fields. inclinations. many different behaviors.
If what is considered the
correct behavior depends
solely on the context,
then one could argue the
reason they behaved in a
certain way was based on
contextual factors that
others did not observe or
consider.
5. Joseph Francis • Moral judgments The absence of Situation ethics, examines
Fletcher; Situation Ethics are decisions, not consistency from one the critical nature of the
-(1905-1991) was a conclusions scenario to the next is undesirable
philosopher widely • Decisions ought caused by situation ethics. medical condition, and
recognized for his work in to be made It may be easier, as well call for an urgent
moral theory and applied situationally, not as more just and application of situation
ethics. Best known for the prescriptively compassionate, to treat theory; this would
method of • We should seek comparable enhance prompt decision
consequentialist moral the well-being of circumstances similarly; making
reasoning espoused in his people, rather consequently, situation
book Situation Ethics, than love ethics should not be
Fletcher was also principles. considered as a free-for-
acknowledged as the • Only one thing is all, but rather search for
father of modern intrinsically good, precedents while rejecting
biomedical ethics. namely, love: inflexible ethical norms.
nothing else
• Love, in this
context, means
desiring and
acting to
promote the
wellbeing of
people
• Nothing is
inherently good
or evil, except
love (personal
concern) and its
opposite,
indifference or
actual malice
• Love and justice
are the same, for
justice is love
distributed
Love and justice both
require acts of will
6. Carol Gilligan; Theory Gilligan argued that it emphasizes justice to Gender variations may
of moral development- women’s moral the exclusion of other play a role in the
Feminine morality - judgments necessarily values and so may not projection and
American developmental include feelings of adequately address the accumulation of morality
psychologist best known compassion and empathy arguments of those who of a person, so it is
for her research into the for others, as well as value other moral aspects important to look into it
moral development of concern for commitments of actions. before making any
girls and women. that arise out of assumptions. Gilligan’s
relationships. Women theory is an example of it
engage in “care leading us to a society
reasoning,” not “justice free of bias and geared
reasoning,” and thus towards gender equity.
consider their own and
other’s responsibilities to
be grounded in social
context and interpersonal
commitments.
7. John Locke; Natural Locke believed that the Bentham believed that no Natural law is applied to
Law - is a British most basic human law of government can possibly moral, political, and
philosopher, Oxford nature is the preservation meet the standards ethical systems today. It
academic and medical of mankind. To serve that demanded by the has played a large role in
researcher. Locke’s purpose, he reasoned, doctrine of natural law. the history of political and
monumental An Essay individuals have both a philosophical theory and
Concerning Human right and a duty to has been used to
Understanding (1689) is preserve their own lives. understand and discuss
one of the first great
defenses of modern
empiricism and concerns
itself with determining
the limits of human
understanding in respect
to a wide spectrum of
topics.
8. John Rawles; Theory of
Justice- Justice as
Fairness - was an
American political
philosopher in the liberal
tradition. His theory of
justice as fairness
describes a society of free
citizens holding equal
basic rights and
cooperating within an
egalitarian economic
system. His theory of
political liberalism
explores the legitimate
use of political power in a
democracy, and envisions
how civic unity might
endure despite the
diversity of worldviews
that free institutions
allow. His writings on the
law of peoples set out a
liberal foreign policy that
aims to create a
permanently peaceful and
tolerant international
order.
9. Jürgen Habermas;
Discourse Ethics -
currently ranks as one of
the most influential
philosophers in the world.
Bridging continental and
Anglo-American traditions
of thought, he has
Individuals have a duty to human nature. Locke’s
respect the property (and theory, specifically,
lives and liberties) of encourages us to respect
others even in the state of each other in order for us
nature, a duty he traces to to live in a better society.
natural law. Natural law
and natural rights coexist,
but natural law is primary,
commanding respect for
the rights of others.
Certain features Veil of Ignorance may With Rawle’s theory, it
characteristic of free exclude some morally has helped the society to
societies, as well as some relevant information. the assign fundamental rights
specific ideas about how theory excludes in order and duties, and benefits
society and people should to promote rationality and burdens, within a
be understood. Rawls and is biased in favor of society, to determine a
believes that even people rationality. There is also proper balance between
with different beliefs can the difficulty in applying competing claims to the
agree with the theory to practice. It advantages of social life. A
some principles to resolve is difficult if not well-ordered society is
basic conflicts over the impossible for people to one governed by a public
distributional effects of place themselves under conception of justice.
social institutions. the Veil of Ignorance in
Secondly, he draws on the the Original Position in
contract theory tradition order to formulate what
in political philosophy, conduct would be
arguing that consent in required of them by the
some sense is necessary MAXI MIN Principle.
for the legitimate exercise
of state power
Political and
civil rights must be
protected, and that all
individuals with the same
abilities and efforts must
be guaranteed equal
opportunity to achieve
different positions. Within
this framework, those
social groups who are
most disadvantaged are
given decisive weight in
the distribution of
economic benefits.
• Jürgen Discourse ethics seeks to
Habermas’ describe the conditions
theory of for a free and democratic
discourse ethics debate on significant
contains two norms that influence all
distinctive members of a community.
characteristics: It intends to do so in ways
(I) it puts forth as that are immediately
 engaged in debates with its fundamental applicable to the actual
thinkers as diverse as tenet a and serious issues
Gadamer and Putnam, prerequisite of confronting both local and
Foucault and Rawls, participation in larger populations. It
Derrida and Brandom. His argumentation holds it to be possible to
extensive written work for testing the justify universal moral
addresses topics validity of a norm norms on the basis of
stretching from social- and (ii) it rational argumentation in
political theory to transforms the practical discourse
aesthetics, epistemology individual nature
and language to of Kant’s
philosophy of religion, categorical
and his ideas have imperative into a
significantly influenced collective
not only philosophy but imperative by
also political-legal reformulating it
thought, sociology, to ensure the
communication studies, expression of a
argumentation theory and general will and
rhetoric, developmental by elevating it to
psychology and theology. a rule of
argumentation.
• Habermas’
theory of
discourse ethics
contains two
central
distinctive
elements – the
insistence on
practical,
participatory
discourse and a
principle of
universalization
that guides
argumentation.

References

Ball, Laura. (2010). Carol Gilligan. Psychology’s Feminist Voices. Retrieved from:
http://www.feministvoices.com/carol-gilligan/
Bohman, J., & Rehg, W. (2014, August 04). Jürgen Habermas. Retrieved May 7, 2021,
from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/habermas/#HabDisThe
Dimmock, M., & Fisher, A. (1970, January 01). Chapter 5. fletcher's SITUATION Ethics.
Retrieved May 7, 2021, from https://books.openedition.org/obp/4423?lang=en

Ethics - introduction to ethics: Situation ethics. (n.d.). Retrieved May 7, 2021, from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/situation_1.shtml

Justice as fairness. (n.d.). Retrieved May 7, 2021, from

https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialsciences/ppecorino/intro_text/Chapter%208%20Ethics/Jus
tice_as_Fairness.htm

OpenStax. (2018, September 20). Utilitarianism: The greatest good for the greatest number.
Retrieved May 7, 2021, from
https://opentextbc.ca/businessethicsopenstax/chapter/utilitarianism-the-greatest-good-for-
the-greatest-number/

Science, J. (n.d.). Justice and fairness. Retrieved May 6, 2021, from

https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.polisci.1.1.425

Situation ethics. (n.d.). Retrieved May 7, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/situation-

ethics

Team, G. (2011, November 11). Carol Gilligan. Retrieved May 6, 2021, from
https://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/carol-
gilligan.html#:~:text=In%20her%20own%20research%2C%20Gilligan,caring%20in%20m
oral%20decision

Tuckness, A. (2020, October 06). Locke's Political Philosophy. Retrieved May 6, 2021, from
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke-political/