Physical Science

Grade 11-CSS

Carbohydrate
The word carbohydrate may be broken down to carbon and hydrate. From the chemical formula of carbohydrate, notice
that the ratio of C:H:O is 1:2:1, which can be rewritten as Cn(H 2O)n. Carbohydrates can be seen as hydrates of carbon. This is a
traditional but incorrect understanding of carbohydrates but it still presents a useful picture of the molecule. Another term for
carbohydrate is saccharide. This term is derived from the Latin word saccharum referring to sugar--a common carbohydrate.
Carbohydrates are classified either as simple or complex. Simple sugars are monosaccharides and disaccharides. Complex
sugars are polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates are the primary energy source of the human body. The different saccharides that humans eat are converted
to glucose which can be readily used by the body. Around 4 kilocalories is derived from one glycogen which is stored in the liver and
in muscles. Glycogen is a slow-releasing carbohydrate.

Monosaccharide (one saccharide)

Glucose Used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form utilized by the human body
Galactose Found in milk and milk products
Fructose Found in fruits and honey
The above monosaccharides all have the same chemical formula of C 6H12O6 and its structure is the one that made the difference in
its properties. For example, galactose (163-169 oC) has a higher melting point than glucose (148-155 oC). Glucose is sweeter than
galactose.

Haworth Structure of Glucose

Disaccharide (two saccharides)
Maltose Glucose + Glucose Found in malt
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Found in regular table sugar, sugarcane, and sugar beet
Lactose Glucose + Galactose Found in milk and milk products
Individual saccharides are connected via glycosidic bonds. A water molecule is released when
two saccharides are combined.

Polysaccharide (many saccharides)

Starch / Amylose Composed of 250 - 400 glucose molecules connected via α-1-4-
glycosidic bond
Storage form of glucose in plants
Amylopectin Like amylose but has more branches attached via α-1-6 glycosidic bond
Storage form of glucose in plants
Glycogen Composed of more glucose, more highly branched (same type of bond as amylopectin)
Storage form of glucose in animals, stored in the liver and muscles
Cellulose Composed of glucose units connected via β-1-4 glycosidic bond,
linear chain arranged in a parallel manner
Structural material in plants--cell wall in wood, wood fiber
Cannot be digested by humans
Protein
The word protein came from the Greek term proteios meaning first. One can think of protein as
the beginning of life. From egg albumin being pure protein to sperm and egg cells, we all start from
proteins. Proteins are composed of four elements, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Sulfur and other metals are sometimes also found in proteins. If carbohydrates are made up of
saccharides, proteins are made up of amino acids. An amino acid is a molecule that has an
amine and a carboxyl group. Below is the structure of an amino acid:

There are 20 amino acids. The combination of many amino acids creates protein.
Amino acids are joined together with a peptide bond. Proteins are also called polypeptides.
The diagram beside shows that water is released in the formation of peptide
bonds. This is similar to the formation of complex saccharides.

Different types of proteins are composed of different combinations of amino acids

arranged in a specific way. Depending on the order of the amino acids, the protein will
acquire a certain configuration and function. The configuration is governed by several
factors, namely:

a. H-bonding between amino acids which creates either a helical structure or a pleated sheet
b. Disulfide bonds for amino acids containing sulfur
c. Salt bridges
d. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic tendencies

Protein can acquire many configurations. Common examples are α-helix and β-pleated sheets. Examples of proteins and their
structure and functions are:

Keratin
Keratin is a structural protein found in hair, skin, and nails. It is a highly cross-linked protein containing α-helix and β-pleated sheets.
Sheep’s wool is made largely of keratin.

Fibroin / Silk protein

Fibroin is found in silk. Silk has a smooth and soft texture. It is one of the strongest
natural fibers that have high resistance to deformation. It is also a good insulation. Silk
is primarily composed of β-pleated sheets. The long polypeptide chain doubles back on
its own running parallel connected together by H-bonds.

Collagen
Collagen is a major insoluble fibrous protein found in connective tissues such as
tendons, ligaments, skin, cartilage and the cornea of the eye. It comprises as much as
30% of proteins in animals. Its strength is attributed to its triple helix structure comprising of α-helices braided together. When
several triple helices combine, they form the fibrils that make up connective tissues.

Enzymes function to catalyze chemical reactions. They either speed up a reaction, lower the needed energy for a reaction to take
place, or bind substances to their specific partners. Enzymes themselves are very specific as can be seen in their shape. Examples of
enzymes are below:
1. Lipase - help in digestion of fats
2. Pepsin - help in breaking down proteins into peptides (smaller units)
3. Sucrase - also called invertase, help in the digestion of sugars and starches

Myoglobin
Myoglobin is a polypeptide that stores oxygen in muscles. It is a globular protein comprised of 153 amino acids in a single
polypeptide chain. It contains a heme group which has an iron (II) ion at its center. This is where the oxygen is stored.

Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a globular protein that carries oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream. It is composed of four sub-units, each
containing a heme group that enables it to transport four oxygen molecules at a time.

Lipids
The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos which means fat. Lipids are a family of biomolecules having varied
structures. They are grouped together simply because of their hydrophilic property (water-fearing). They are soluble in non-polar
solvents such as ether, acetone, and benzene. Lipids can be classified into four categories:
a. Wax
b. Triglycerides
c. Phospholipids
d. Steroids
Fatty acids
Understanding fatty acids is essential to understanding lipids. Fatty acids are long-chain
carboxylic acids that are insoluble in water. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated fatty acids contain single bonds in its hydro-carbon chain whereas unsaturated
fatty acids contain double bonds.
Saturated fatty acids allow their molecules to fit close together and form strong attraction.
They usually have high melting points and are solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acids are bent because of the double
bond and are therefore, not as close together as saturated fatty acids.

Triglyceride
Fat and oil are the most common examples of lipids. They are under triglycerides because they are composed of glycerol and three
fatty acids.
Fat refers to solid triglyceride usually from animal sources such as meat, milk, butter, margarine, eggs, and cheese. Oil refers to
liquid triglycerides from plant sources. Examples are olive oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, and soybean oil. Animal fat contains high
percentages of saturated fatty acids while plant oil are mostly unsaturated fatty acids.

Phospholipids
Phospholipids contains glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. Unlike other lipids, phospholipids have a polar and non-
polar end. This property allows it to transport molecules in the bloodstream. It is also a major component in the cell membrane. The
two parts of a phospholipid can be termed as the hydrophilic head (phosphate group) and hydrophobic tail (fatty acid group). This
dual property allows phospholipids to form a phospholipid bilayer. In this configuration, the hydrophilic head sticks out while the
hydrophobic tail is tucked in and away from the watery environment. This is why phospholipids are suitable as cell membrane.

Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids play an essential role in the storage, transfer, and expression of genetic information. Nucleic acid was discovered by a
twenty-four year-old Swiss physician named Friedrich Miescher in 1868. He was puzzled that an unknown substance in white blood
cells did not resemble carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. He was able to isolate the substance from the nucleus and initially called it
nuclein. He eventually was able to break down nuclein into protein and nucleic acids. He found out that nucleic acids contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

The most common examples of nucleic acids are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA is a nucleic acid that
carries the genetic code of organisms. It is fondly termed as the blueprint of life. RNA, on another hand, carries the information from
the DNA to the cellular factories for the synthesis of proteins. If carbohydrates are composed of saccharide units, proteins of amino
acids, and lipids of fatty acids, nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are also known as polynucleotides. A
nucleotide has three parts:
a. Nitrogenous base
b. Five-carbon carbohydrate or sugar
c. Phosphate group

The drawing above shows that DNA is double stranded and RNA is single stranded. The bases are paired up as can be seen in DNA.
The bases C and G have three H-bonds between them, and A and T have two. Hydrogen bonding is greatly responsible for the shape
of both RNA and DNA. The different nucleotides are connected in a chain via phosphodiester bonds.

The sequence of the base pairs in one’s DNA is unique for every organism (except for identical twins). The DNA and the cell
containing it determine the kind of protein that will be synthesized. The different proteins are then responsible for the processes
that carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other substances in the body undertake.