doi: 10.1111/rge.12156 Resource Geology Vol. ••, No.

••: 1–19

Thematic Article

Why No Porphyry Copper Deposits in Japan

and South Korea?

Richard H. SILLITOE
London, UK

Abstract
This analysis concludes that there is little realistic likelihood of discovering large, high-grade porphyry Cu
deposits in Japan and South Korea because of an unusual combination of geological factors. First, weak inter-plate
coupling, trench retreat, and extension – a tectonic regime unfavorable for porphyry Cu formation – appears to
have characterized the convergent margin during much of Cretaceous through Neogene time. Second, Cretaceous
through Quaternary magmatism involved widespread ash-flow caldera development, a volcanic style that sup-
presses porphyry Cu formation because the all-important Cu-bearing magmatic fluids – if present – would be
explosively discharged during silicic ignimbrite eruption and lost to the atmosphere. Third, due to the trench
retreat, crustal profiles beneath Japan are dominated by accretionary complexes containing chemically reduced
lithologies, which decrease the redox state of subduction-related magmas during their ascent. The most reduced
intrusions belong to the ilmenite-series, which may lock up chalcophile elements at depth and produce magmatic
fluids that are incapable of transporting the Cu required for significant porphyry deposit formation. Fourth, many
of the caldera-related magmatic rocks, including the principal intrusions, are not only derived by partial melting
of reduced crust but are commonly also highly fractionated; hence, any associated mineralization tends to be Mo
 W-rich rather than Cu dominated. Fifth, intrusive rocks with high Sr/Y, typical of hydrous magmas responsi-
ble for porphyry Cu belts worldwide, appear to be present only locally. Sixth, two important magmatic and
metallogenic tracts in Japan, the Kuroko-bearing Green Tuff belt and Kitami low-sulfidation epithermal Au
region, are characterized by bimodal magmatism, which worldwide is compositionally unsuited to porphyry Cu
generation. Seventh, the Pliocene-Quaternary andesitic–dacitic volcanoes that could be the surface expressions of
porphyry Cu systems are mostly too shallowly eroded to reveal underlying deposits should they exist. Conse-
quently, few magmatic suites in Japan and South Korea provide propitious environments for porphyry Cu explo-
ration, with the last hope believed to lie at depth below late Miocene–Pliocene advanced argillic lithocaps, several
of which contain relatively minor high-sulfidation epithermal Au mineralization. However, even there, the
reduced crust may have militated against effective Cu transport into the porphyry environment. The magmatic
and metallogenic factors that downgrade the porphyry Cu potential of Japan and South Korea are believed to be
equally applicable to other subduction-related magmatic arc segments worldwide.
Keywords: ash-flow caldera, bimodal magmatism, Japan, porphyry Cu deposits, reduced crust, South
Korea.

country’s largest with historical production of 0.8

1. Introduction Mt. of Cu metal – was first mined in the early 17th
Copper has been mined in Japan since the ninth cen- century and, by 1915, the country was the world’s
tury; the Ashio replacement and vein deposit – the second largest producer of the red metal (Wada, 1893;

Received 18 August 2017. Accepted for publication 12 October 2017.

Corresponding author: R. H. Sillitoe, 27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 6ND, UK. Email: aucu@compuserve.com

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

1
R. H. Sillitoe

Akimoto, 1998). Nonetheless, the total Cu endowment
is minor compared to many magmatic arc segments
around the Pacific Rim and two orders of magnitude
less than in the central Andes (Sillitoe, 2012; Fig. 1).
Nearly all Cu resources around the Pacific Rim are
contained in porphyry and associated skarn deposits
whereas, in the case of Japan, a substantial part of the
total is contained in Besshi-type volcanogenic massive
sulfide (VMS) deposits, which are parts of Mesozoic
accretionary complexes rather than products of arc
magmatism (Sato & Kase, 1996). Hence, the magmatic
arc-hosted proportion of the contained Cu is perhaps
even half of that shown in Figure 1.
Although there was little exploration focused spe-
cifically on porphyry Cu deposits before the 1970s
(Ishihara, 1974), or since, it seems most unlikely that
exposed mineralization of this type would have been
missed in a country with such a long Cu-mining tra-
dition as Japan. Therefore, it is concluded that the
lack of Japanese porphyry Cu deposits must have a
geological explanation. The same conclusion may be
applicable to South Korea, which shares a similar
Cretaceous through Paleogene magmatic history and
has a long mining tradition but even lesser Cu
endowment.
The apparent absence of porphyry Cu mineraliza-
tion in Japan and South Korea has been a topic of
both formal (Ishihara, 1980; Qin & Ishihara, 1998) and
informal discussion by economic geologists for at
least the past 50 years. Sillitoe (1980a, b) attributed
this absence in the Cretaceous–Paleogene magmatic
arcs of the region to the abundance of ash-flow cal-
deras, a volcanic style considered inimical to por-
phyry Cu development. Sato (2012), however,
considered the absence to be a result of the chemically
reduced crust existing beneath much of Japan,
whereas Hattori (2014) attributed it to a reduced man-
tle wedge consequent upon an absence of carbonate
sediments on the subducted oceanic plate. In contrast,
Yang and Bodnar (1994), using melt and fluid inclu-
sion evidence, concluded that the Cretaceous–
Paleogene intrusions in SE Korea were too deeply
eroded to preserve any porphyry Cu deposits that
might once have existed there, a concept that was fur-
ther supported for both SE Korea and the Inner Zone
of SW Japan by Hammarstrom et al. (2010).
Nonetheless, Qin and Ishihara (1998) were more
optimistic and thought that porphyry Cu mineraliza-
tion could still be discovered in Japan beneath some
high-sulfidation Au occurrences and Zn–Pb–Cu veins,

120°E 180°W 120°W 60°W

44
<10 70
c
0 ar
e
ril
Ku

80
<10
Izu-Bo

270
30°N
25 Pacific
nin-Ma

Ocean
<20
0

50
riana a

35
115 <20
rc

arc
0 adec

<20 115
Contained Cu, Mt
erm

>300 985 Fig. 1 Total Cu endowment

a-K

20 100-300 (resources and past production)

g
Ton

30°S of different segments of Phanero-

50-100
zoic circum-Pacific magmatic arcs
20-50 <5
<5 (after Sillitoe, 2012), emphasizing
2000 km <20 that Japan has two orders of mag-
nitude less Cu than several other
segments.

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

2
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?
alongside Zn–Pb–Cu skarns, and in the Green Tuff-
hosted Kuroko-type VMS districts. In contrast, Utada
(1980) suggested porphyry Cu deposits could exist at
depth beneath pyrophyllite-clay (roseki) deposits in
the Inner Zone of SW Japan. Relatively high sulfate
contents of accessory apatite in intermediate to silicic
volcanic and intrusive rocks of Neogene age through-
out Japan, except NE Honshu, were also taken to sup-
port the viability of porphyry Cu genesis (Imai, 2004).
Although factors and processes that can either pro-
mote or inhibit porphyry Cu formation at the district
or deposit scales, such as magma chamber size and
depth, duration of magmatic and hydrothermal activ-
ity, timing of sulfide saturation and magmatic fluid
release, and efficiency of magmatic fluid focusing
(e.g., Wilkinson, 2013; Chelle-Michou et al., 2017;
Chiaradia & Caricchi, 2017), may have played a role,
they do not seem sufficient to explain the absence of
deposits along the 1800-km Japan–South Korea con-
vergent margin over a period of at least 130 my.
Thus, only parameters that have the potential to influ-
ence porphyry Cu formation at a more regional scale,
Ogcheon Belt
Geongsam
Basin
Oki Sangun &
Maizuru
Akiyoshi
Ryoke
Shimanto
Sanbagawa
Chichibu
Fig. 2 Magmatic-arc basement in Japan and South Korea. Note that much of the region, with the notable exception of South
Korea, is underpinned by late Paleozoic to Cretaceous–Paleogene accretionary complexes (after Sato & Kase, 1996).
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
such as plate tectonic setting, volcano-plutonic style,
magma type, and erosion level, are selected for
consideration.
This assessment of porphyry Cu potential focuses
on the Cretaceous and Paleogene volcano-plutonic
arcs, which were generated while proto-Japan was
still attached to the east Eurasian margin and abutted
the Korean peninsula and crustal fragments currently
submerged beneath the western half of the Sea of
Japan or East Sea (Tamaki, 1988). Approximately 95%
of the intrusive rocks exposed in Japan and the
Gyeongsang basin of SE Korea are of this age and
they occupy >25% of the land area (Jin et al., 1981;
Nakajima et al., 2016; Fig. 2). In the case of Japan, the
Cu potential of the Neogene island arcs constructed
after opening of the Japan Sea back-arc basin in the
early to middle Miocene is also appraised (Otofuji,
1996). Taking account of evidence from subduction-
related magmatic arcs elsewhere, a pessimistic view is
taken of the porphyry Cu potential of Japan and
South Korea because of an unfortunate combination
of geological factors, some of which have been
Srachi-Yezom
Cretaceous Paleogene including
Kamuikotan
Jurassic
Hidaka Tokoro
Paleozoic
Oshima
Continental basement Nemuro
Northern
Kitakami
Mino, Tanba
Southern Kitakami
Hida
0 200 km
3
R. H. Sillitoe
individually discussed by previous investigators (see
below).
2. Regional factors influencing
porphyry Cu potential
2.1 Erosion level
It is impossible to generalize erosion level across a
region that is as extensive and dynamic as Japan and
South Korea. However, it is evident that some parts
of the Cretaceous–Paleogene arc terrane are too
deeply eroded for preservation of any porphyry Cu
deposits that may have formed in the upper 4 km or
so of the crust, as emphasized by the local identifica-
tion of the possible plutonic roots of such systems in
the Gyeongsang basin of SE Korea (Yang & Bodnar,
1994). Certainly, the 1000-km-long Ryoke belt of Cre-
taceous age in SW Japan (Fig. 2), in which gneissose
intrusions are hosted by high-T/P metamorphic rocks,
and coeval volcanic rocks are absent (Nakajima,
1994), is far too deeply eroded for porphyry Cu pres-
ervation. In contrast, Plio-Pleistocene volcanoes
throughout Japan are typically too shallowly eroded
to expose any porphyry Cu deposits with which they
may be associated (Hammarstrom et al., 2010).
Therefore, it seems reasonable to conclude that a
spectrum of erosion levels between these deep and
shallow extremes are likely to characterize the mag-
matic arc terranes of Japan and South Korea. Clearly,
mineralized magmatic arcs elsewhere that reveal a
combination of plutons, stocks, and coeval volcanic
rocks have erosion levels suitable for porphyry Cu
deposit preservation, particularly where the coeval
volcanic-to-plutonic rock areal ratios are between
33 and 67 (Zürcher et al., 2016); such ratios are judged
to apply to parts of SW Japan and SE Korea and prob-
ably elsewhere in the region too. Furthermore, geo-
barometry supports the emplacement of ore-related
intrusions in both Japan and South Korea at appropri-
ate paleo-depths of <4 km (Uchida et al., 2007, 2012).
It is therefore reasonable to conclude, as did Sato
(2012), that erosion level per se is unlikely to provide
an adequate explanation for the absence of porphyry
Cu deposits in Japan and South Korea.
2.2 Plate tectonic setting
Japan and South Korea have been located at a conver-
gent plate boundary marked by subduction of paleo-
4
Pacific plates since the early Paleozoic (Isozaki, 1996).
From late Paleozoic through Paleogene times, the con-
vergent margin appears to have undergone progres-
sive addition of accretionary complexes to the fore-arc
(Fig. 2), which, at least during the Cretaceous–Paleo-
gene, was a consequence of weak coupling of the sub-
ducted and overriding plates and consequent
oceanward trench retreat (Sagong et al., 2005;
Chough & Sohn, 2010; Imaoka et al., 2011; Kim et al.,
2016). Miocene Japan has been cited as an example of
Mariana-type subduction, characterized by weak
inter-plate coupling, steep subduction, extension, and
back-arc basin opening (Uyeda & Kanamori, 1979).
Uyeda and Nishiwaki (1980) proposed that such
extensional arcs are unfavorable for porphyry Cu
deposits, although it is now accepted that extension
per se does not preclude their formation (e.g., Hou
et al., 2009; Barresi et al., 2015; Sánchez et al., 2016;
Piquer et al., 2017).
Nonetheless, the Japanese archipelago was not sub-
jected exclusively to extensional tectonism since its
creation in the early to middle Miocene. For example,
contraction, basin inversion, and uplift throughout
the NE Japan arc and back-arc in the Plio-Pleistocene
accompanied rapid, orthogonal subduction (Yoshida
et al., 2014). More-localized contraction and uplift
were caused by Neogene collisions between the NE
Japan arc and Kuril fore-arc and Honshu and Izu-
Bonin arcs in the Hidaka belt of central Hokkaido and
Izu Collision Zone of central Honshu, respectively
(Nakajima et al., 2016; Tatsumi et al., 2016). Seismic
and aseismic ridges and seamount chains were also
subducted at various times, as exemplified by the Iza-
nagi spreading ridge during the Eocene (Seton et al.,
2015) and Kyushu-Palau Ridge remnant arc during
the Neogene (Mahony et al., 2011). Although contrac-
tional settings, arc collisions, and subduction of buoy-
ant oceanic features can promote formation of
porphyry Cu deposits (Sillitoe, 1998; Cooke et al.,
2005; Loucks, 2014), no deposits are known in associa-
tion with epizonal intrusions emplaced during these
various events.
Therefore, the plate tectonic setting of Japan and
South Korea may have been unsuited to porphyry Cu
formation throughout much of the past 130 my. Dur-
ing this time interval, strong inter-plate coupling,
low-angle subduction, subduction erosion, and conse-
quent crustal shortening, contractional tectonism, and
uplift – processes that accompanied generation of the
pre-eminent central Andean and other porphyry Cu
belts (e.g., Kay et al., 2005; Fig. 1) – were not widely
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?

140ºE 142ºEN
a b
Pacific
0 100 km Sea Ocean
of
Japan Hakkoda

Sea of Japan 40ºN

Nohi Sengan
36ºN
rhyolite

Honshu

Kurikoma
Honshu

34ºN 38ºN

Shikoku Inawashiro
Aizu

N Quaternary
Pacific Ocean
stratovolcano
Kyushu Caldera
Minami-Aizu
132ºE 134ºE 136ºE 0 100 km

Fig. 3 Major ash-flow caldera flare-ups in Japan: (a) Cretaceous–Paleogene arcs of SW Japan (after Nakada et al., 2016), and
(b) late Miocene-Quaternary arc of NE Japan (after Yamamoto, 2009). Quaternary stratovolcanoes of NE Japan also shown
(after Yamamoto, 2009).

developed. Nonetheless, late Neogene and Quater-
nary magmatism, since Japan acquired island arc sta-
tus, may have been more favorable for porphyry Cu
formation.
2.3 Volcano-plutonic style
Subduction-related magmatism of Cretaceous–
Paleogene age (130–30 Ma) and magnetite- and
ilmenite-series types in NE and SW Japan and the
Gyeongsang Basin of SE Korea involved formation of
numerous ash-flow (Valles-type) collapse calderas
and caldera complexes; these features have been
widely recognized where erosion levels are suitable
for partial preservation of the silicic volcanic rocks
(Jin et al., 1981; Koido, 1991; Yun & Yang, 1999; Yama-
moto, 2003; Sonehara & Harayama, 2007; Chough &
Sohn, 2010; Imaoka et al., 1988, 2011; Yoshida et al.,
2014; Sato et al., 2016; Fig. 3a). In SW Honshu, Yama-
moto (2003) recognized 15 calderas developed from
82 to 65 Ma and in the Gyeongsang Basin, Yun and
Yang (1999) preliminarily identified nine calderas.
The Late Cretaceous Nohi rhyolite of central Japan
(Fig. 3a) comprises 5000–7000 km3 of ilmenite-series
ignimbrite, including the products of super-eruptions
with volumes of >1000 km3 (Sonehara & Harayama,
2007). Erosion has partially removed the intra- and
extra-caldera ignimbrite sequences to reveal silicic
granitoid plutons emplaced both before (and related
to) caldera collapse and during subsequent magma
recharge and resurgence (e.g., Sonehara & Harayama,
2007). Some lithophile- and base-metal deposits in
these regions were emplaced during caldera cycles,
with controls by ring and radial fractures and resur-
gent plutons being recognized (Ishihara et al., 1981a;
Yun & Yang, 1999). Widespread, but metal-deficient,
advanced argillic alteration zones, containing clay
and pyrophyllite (roseki) deposits, in SW Japan and
the Gyeongsang Basin, also developed in caldera set-
tings (Ishihara & Imaoka, 1999; Koh et al., 2000).
The late Miocene to Quaternary arcs of NE and
SW Japan and Quaternary (and possibly older) Izu-
Bonin arc are also characterized by extensive
ash-flow caldera development (Takahashi, 1986;

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

5
R. H. Sillitoe

Miura & Wada, 2007; Tamura et al., 2009; Mahony

a Porphyry Cu
et al., 2011; Yoshida et al., 2014; Nakada et al., 2016),
Stratovolcanoes
with >80 calderas averaging ~10 km across estimated X X X
Plutons + stocks
to have erupted in NE Japan alone from 8–1.7 Ma X

(Yoshida et al., 2014; Fig. 3b). The submarine record X

shows increased intensity of caldera eruptions in NE B

and SW Japan at 8, 4–6, and 2 Ma (Mahony et al., D MASH zone
Moho
2016). Crustal extension linked to slab rollback from
~2 Ma promoted the enhanced caldera development
in SW Japan (Mahony et al., 2011): a mechanism that Long-term low flux of mafic magma
10
may well have been responsible for the Cretaceous km 10
and Paleogene caldera-forming events (e.g., Imaoka Silicic ash-flow caldera
B X X X
Large silicic reservoirs
et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2016; see above) as well as for X X
X
X X X

D
major caldera flare-ups elsewhere (Best et al., 2016).
X

Mush grading
X X
In contrast to normal subduction-related magmatism, X X X
down to granitoids +
X
X underlying cumulates
giving rise to stratovolcanoes, dome complexes, and X

possible porphyry Cu formation (Fig. 4a), such flare- MASH zone

ups – attributed to transient high fluxes of mafic
magma into the crust – result in development of
huge silicic magma reservoirs in the upper crust and
consequent ash-flow caldera formation (Best et al.,
2016; Fig. 4b).
In stark contrast to stratovolcano and dome com-
plex volcanism, ash-flow caldera formation is consid-
ered unfavorable for porphyry Cu formation because
the process acts as a highly effective means of evacu-
ating potential ore-forming fluids – containing water,
Cl−, S, and metals – from upper-crustal magma reser-
voirs and dissipating them subaerially along with
hundreds to thousands of cubic kilometers of silicic
ash (Sillitoe, 1980b). Any porphyry stocks that may
have existed in the roof zones of the magma reser-
voirs would also have been destroyed during climac-
tic and commonly multicyclic ignimbrite eruptions.
Even though metal-bearing fluids could have accumu-
lated again at the resurgent stage of the caldera cycle
(Kennedy et al., 2012), it is most likely that the under-
lying magma reservoirs would have already under-
gone massive depletion in both fluids and contained
metals. Consequently, there are no well-authenticated
examples of porphyry Cu formation directly associ-
ated with the caldera cycle, although broadly contem-
poraneous ash-flow tuff remnants have been
identified in the vicinities of several porphyry Cu
deposits in the Laramide province of SW North
American (Lipman & Sawyer, 1985). Certainly, major
ash-flow caldera provinces, irrespective of their age
and degree of dissection (Table 1), lack economically
significant porphyry Cu deposits as do the similar
Cretaceous–Paleogene and Neogene belts in Japan
and South Korea.
Moho
b Transient high flux of mafic magma
Fig. 4 Schematic comparison of (a) low-flux (<1 km3/
1000 years), steady-state, and (b) high-flux (10–100 km3/
1000 years), ignimbrite flare-up styles of subduction-
related magmatism (modified from Best et al., 2016). Nor-
mal, steady-state magmatism gives rise to small and
moderate-sized (<100 km3), upper-crustal magma reser-
voirs, with which porphyry Cu deposits may be associ-
ated. In contrast, ignimbrite flare-ups generate large
upper-crustal silicic magma chambers underlain by immo-
bile, crystal-rich mush and overlain by ash-flow calderas:
a setting unsuitable for porphyry Cu formation. The pink
lines separate the brittle (B) and ductile (D) regimes.
2.4 Magma type
Bearing in mind that porphyry Cu source magmas
apparently need to be oxidized, hydrous, and S-rich,
this brief qualitative review of magma type in Japan
and South Korea touches on the redox state
(e.g., Richards, 2015), Sr/Y as a tracer of hydrous frac-
tionation processes (e.g., Richards, 2011), and degree
of fractionation (e.g., Blevin et al., 1992) of intrusive
rocks throughout the region, particularly those of
Cretaceous–Paleogene age, as well as the composi-
tional bimodality of two Miocene back-arc regions.
2.4.1 Redox state
It is widely appreciated that the Cretaceous and Paleo-
gene intrusive rocks of SW Japan define two separate

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

6
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?
Table 1 Examples of ash-flow caldera provinces lacking significant porphyry Cu deposits
Province
Kennedy igneous association, NE Australia
Choiyoi Group, Andes of northern and
central Argentina and Chile
Okhotsk-Chukotka Volcanic Belt, NE Russia
Southern Rocky Mountains, Colorado
Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico
Southern Great Basin, Nevada
Altiplano-Puna region, central Andes
belts characterized by distinct redox states and metal-
logenic signatures. The Sanyo belt comprises reduced,
ilmenite-series granitoids of Cretaceous (110–70 Ma)
age associated with vein-type Sn and W deposits,
some containing minor Cu, whereas the Sanin belt is
characterized by oxidized, magnetite-series granitoids
of Cretaceous–Paleogene (110–30 Ma) age associated
with vein- and skarn-type Mo–Zn–Pb–(Cu) deposits
(Ishihara, 1977, 1978, 1981; Fig. 5). The Cretaceous–
Paleogene Bulguksa granitoids in the Gyeongsang
basin of SE Korea are predominantly of magnetite-
series type (Jwa, 1998; Jin et al., 2002; Fig. 5) and gave
rise to Mo- and W-rich deposits as well as small Cu
deposits (Shimazaki et al., 1981). However, the cluster
of W–Mo-mineralized intrusions in the Ogcheon belt
are predominantly ilmenite-series (Uchida et al.,
2012; Fig. 5).
The reduced character of the ilmenite-series intru-
sions is generally considered to reflect a reduced
crustal source, principally the carbonaceous sedimen-
tary component of the late Paleozoic, Jurassic, and
Cretaceous–Paleogene accretionary complexes and
their high-P/T metamorphic equivalents that underlie
much of Japan (Ishihara, 1977, 1981, 2004; Sato et al.,
2004; Sato, 2012; Fig. 2). It should also be noted that
mid-ocean ridge basalt, which makes up a substantial
part of the accreted material, can also act as a reduc-
tant because its redox state is two log units less than
that of arc basalt (Kelley & Cottrell, 2009). The pres-
ence of pyrrhotite and ilmenite in the accreted sedi-
mentary units confirms their reduced state (Itaya,
1975), and their ability to reduce arc basalt is amply
demonstrated by the sulfide saturation and conse-
quent immiscible sulfide precipitation that took place
in the now-exposed lower crust of the Hidaka colli-
sional belt, central Hokkaido (Tomkins et al.,
2012; Fig. 2).
Ilmenite-series intrusions typically lack porphyry
Cu deposits (Ishihara, 1977, 1981), because Cu and
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Age Reference
Carboniferous–Permian Champion and Bultitude (2013)
Triassic–Permian Kay et al. (1989)
Cretaceous Tikhomirov et al. (2012)
Oligocene Best et al. (2016)
Oligocene–Miocene Best et al. (2016)
Oligocene–Miocene Best et al. (2016)
Miocene–Quaternary Best et al. (2016)
Au are effectively scavenged by sulfide melts and/or
minerals formed under reduced conditions in the
lower to middle crust. Furthermore, the reduced mag-
matic fluids that emanate from such intrusions are
unable to re-oxidize any sulfide minerals that may
have been precipitated previously. These consider-
ations, at least in part, account for the paucity of por-
phyry Cu deposits along the eastern margin of
Eurasia where such reduced intrusive rocks are
widely distributed (Ishihara, 1977, 1998; Sato, 2012).
Notwithstanding the fact that several minor porphyry
Cu prospects are associated with ilmenite-series por-
phyry stocks (Smith et al., 2012; Cao et al., 2014), the
conclusion that ilmenite-series intrusions are unsuita-
ble for porphyry Cu formation remains generally
valid and provides a sound explanation for their
absence from the Sanyo belt, which accounts for
approximately half of the igneous rocks in
Japan (Fig. 5).
Porphyry Cu deposits worldwide are hosted by
magnetite-series intrusions of upper mantle and/or
lower-crustal provenance, which are thought to attain
their oxidized states by contributions of volatiles, SO42−,
and Fe3+ from subducted oceanic slabs (Ishihara, 1977,
1981; Mungall, 2002; Kelley & Cottrell, 2009). The origi-
nal oxidized states of the magmas are variably retained,
depending on rate of ascent through the crust, whether
the latter was originally oxidized or underwent some
degree of oxidation during earlier magnetite-series mag-
matism (Sato et al., 2004; Sato, 2012), and potentially
other factors (e.g., magnetite fractionation; Jenner et al.,
2010). It is important to stress that oxidized melts and
fluids are a fundamental requirement for effective Cu
transport through the mantle and crust, which also max-
imises their S (as SO42−)-carrying capacity (e.g.,
Richards, 2015).
Copper occurs in small Cretaceous and Paleogene
veins, breccia pipes, and skarns in the Sanin and North
Kitakami belts of Japan and Gyeongsang Basin of SE
7
R. H. Sillitoe

Granitoids
Magnetite-series

Hi d
Ilmenite-series

aka
Kam

Bel
u
ikot
Accretionary complexes

t
an B
High-P/T metamorphic rocks

elt
Pre-Jurassic

apan
continental North
basement Kitakami

east J
(Mo)
HT 40°N
Porphyry-type mineralization B

North
Other deposits

TT
1

L
South
Korean Kitakami
Peninsula 9 Sea of Japan (Au+W)
Ogcheon Belt
(W+Mo) ISTL
8
n 2 Abukuma
Gyeongsang apa (W)
Basin e st J 3
7 (W+Mo+Au)
S o uthw in (Mo)
, San
rZone Sn)
Inne 4
yo (W+ 35°N
6 San Ryoke
5

Belt n
L aga
wa tJ apa 140°E
MT San
b wes
Belt outh
L
BT himant
o
one, S
S er Z 0 400 km
Out 135°E

Fig. 5 Distribution of ilmenite-series and magnetite-series granitoids, accretionary complexes, and high-P/T metamorphic
rocks of Cretaceous–Paleogene age in Japan and South Korea (after Sato, 2012, and references therein). Granitoids of
unknown age in the Ogcheon belt (Sato, 2012) have since been shown to be Cretaceous (Kim et al., 2016). Metallogenic signa-
tures of granitoid belts (excluding Zn, Pb, and Cu) and deposits and prospects referred to in the text are also shown.
Deposits and prospects: 1. Kamaishi (Fe-Cu skarn), 2. Kamioka (Pb-Zn skarn around porphyry Mo), Nakatatsu (Zn–Pb–Ag–
Cu skarn around porphyry Mo), 4. Ikuno (zoned Sn–W–Cu–Pb–Zn–Ag veins), 5. Akenobe (zoned Sn–Pb–Zn–Ag veins),
6. Ilkwang (Cu–W breccia pipe), 7. Dongjeom (porphyry Cu), 8. Sangdong (W-Mo-Bi skarn), 9. Samjang (Zn–Pb–Fe skarns
around porphyry Mo). Fault abbreviations: BTL, Butsuzo Tectonic Line; HTB, Hayachie Tectonic Belt; ISTL, Itoigawa-
Shizuoka Tectonic Line; MTL, Median Tectonic Line (dividing SW Japan into Inner and Outer Zones); TTL, Tanakura
Tectonic Line.

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

8
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?

Korea (e.g., Ishihara, 1978; So et al., 1985), but the only
porphyry Cu development is a minor occurrence at
Dongjeom in the Gyeongsang Basin (Sillitoe, 1980a;
Fig. 5). However, these regions also contain many Cu-
poor, vein- and skarn-type Mo and W–Mo deposits as
well as fluorite deposits (Ishihara, 1978; Sato, 1980;
Shimazaki et al., 1981). The magnetite-series intrusions
of the Sanin belt gave rise to 19 Mo deposits and pros-
pects (Ishihara & Sasaki, 1973) and the Bulguksa gran-
itoids of SE Korea generated six W, two W-Mo  Bi,
and five Mo deposits and prospects (Shimazaki et al.,
1981); the W–Mo–Bi category is represented by the
premier Sangdong skarn (Farrar et al., 1978). At least
ten additional W–Mo deposits in the central Ogcheon
belt accompany a cluster of Late Cretaceous granitic
intrusions of uncertain redox state (Fig. 5), although
preliminary data suggest that they are weakly mag-
netic (Ishihara et al., 1981b). At least three of the Mo
prospects, central to Zn–Pb skarn districts, are of por-
phyry type (Ishihara & Sasaki, 1973; Sillitoe, 1980a;
Murao et al., 1988; Ishihara, 2008; Fig. 5). Magmatic-
hydrothermal conditions less oxidized than those opti-
mal for porphyry Cu formation are suggested by the
widespread presence of pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite as
accompanying sulfide minerals, not only in the Mo-
and W-rich deposits, but also in many of those domi-
nated by Cu (e.g., Ashio replacement bodies, Ilkwang
breccia pipe, and Kamaishi skarn; Nakamura, 1970;
Fletcher, 1977; Haruna et al., 1990; Fig. 5).
Except for Sn-mineralized, caldera-related, ilmenite-
series plutons and stocks of mid-Miocene age in the
Outer Zone of SW Japan (Ishihara & Chappell, 2010),
most Miocene and younger intrusions and any associ-
ated ore deposits throughout Japan belong to the
magnetite-series. The Ashio Cu deposit (Fig. 6), noted
above as being Japan’s largest, is centered on a Mio-
cene subvolcanic ignimbrite vent and associated
dykes of rhyolitic composition, with the main Cu ore-
bodies peripheral to a central Sn-W-Bi-Cu zone
(Nakamura, 1961, 1970). Notwithstanding the
magnetite-series affiliation of the Ashio rhyolite
(Ishihara et al., 2006), this metal-zoning pattern is rem-
iniscent of the Akenobe and Ikuno Sn–W–Cu–Zn–Pb–
Ag deposits related to ilmenite-series intrusions of the
Cretaceous Sanyo belt (Imai et al., 1975; Fig. 5) as well
as to Cu deposits in several Sn provinces worldwide,
as exemplified by the Kafang carbonate-replacement
deposit in the pre-eminent Gejiu district, SW China
(Cheng et al., 2012). Hence, Ashio is considered more
akin to Cu concentrations in zoned, Sn-dominated
districts than to the porphyry Cu environment.
Nonetheless, there are several advanced argillic
lithocaps, some containing small high-sulfidation
epithermal Au deposits and prospects, hosted by
magnetite-series, andesitic–dacitic volcanic rocks of
late Miocene–Pliocene age. The Nansatsu district of
southern Kyushu is the best documented of these
(Izawa & Urashima, 1983; Hedenquist et al., 1994),
although others exist, particularly in Kyushu and the
northern part of the NE Japan arc in northern Honshu
and SW Hokkaido (Watanabe et al., 1997; Watanabe,
2002, 2005; Fig. 6). Such lithocaps could be the shal-
low expressions of concealed porphyry Cu minerali-
zation (Sillitoe, 1995) but none has been encountered
to date (e.g., Hayashi, 2001; Izawa & Hayashi, 2018).
2.4.2 Sr/Y values
In addition to oxidized magmatic conditions, adakite-
like intrusions, characterized by high Sr/Y, are widely
promoted as hallmarks of arc segments that are espe-
cially fertile for porphyry Cu genesis (Loucks, 2014).
High Sr/Y – commonly ascribed to suppression of
plagioclase fractionation due to the elevated mag-
matic water contents that are conducive to porphyry
Cu formation (Richards, 2011) – are reported from a
few Early Cretaceous intrusions throughout Japan
(Kamei, 2004; Takahashi et al., 2005; Tsuchiya et al.,
2007, 2014; Ishihara & Chappell, 2008) and several
Quaternary volcanoes in SW Japan (Mahony et al.,
2011; Shibata et al., 2014, and references therein), but
apparently not from post-Jurassic magmatic rocks in
South Korea (Kim et al., 2016). Although most of the
Early Cretaceous intrusions are barren, several in the
Kitakami belt, including that alongside the Kamaishi
Cu-Fe skarn (Fig. 5), are known to be ore-related
(Ishihara & Murakami, 2004; Uchida et al., 2017) and
highly oxidized (Ishihara & Murakami, 2004). There-
fore, although the most extensive plutonic arcs in
Japan and South Korea lack the adakitic signature
that would be considered especially favorable for por-
phyry Cu development, the relatively restricted Early
Cretaceous intrusions, particularly those in the Kita-
kami belt, might possess under-appreciated porphyry
Cu potential.
2.4.3 Fractionation
The predominance of Mo and W–Mo deposits in the
Sanin, Kitakami, and Bulguksa suites may be attrib-
uted to the more evolved compositions of many of the
associated magnetite-series granitoids (e.g., Ishihara &
Chappell, 2008; Uchida et al., 2017), which commonly

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

9
R. H. Sillitoe

KITAMI Kuril
Back-arc basin (Miocene) 135°E 145°E Basin
REGION rc
r il a
Volcanic rocks
HOKKAIDO Ku
Extent of bimodal suites
1
1 Au deposit/occurrence 2

Cu deposit 3
4
Japan Basin
5

40°N

GREEN TUFF
Yamato BELT

arc
Basin
Sea

apan
6
of
Japan

NE J
Korean SW Japan arc Ashio
Peninsula
HONSHU

SHIKOKU

KYUSHU
11
Nansatsu 10
Izu-Bo

district7, 8, 9
Pacific Ocean
nin arc

30°N
h
oug
Tr

N
wa
ina

c
ar
Ok

u
ky

0 400 km
u
Ry

Fig. 6 Distribution of Miocene to Quaternary volcanic rocks in Japan, showing the Green Tuff belt, site of Kuroko-type VMS
deposits (after Sato, 1974) and Kitami region, site of low-sulfidation epithermal Au deposits (after Watanabe, 1995). Late
Miocene–Pliocene high- and intermediate-sulfidation Au deposits and occurrences associated with lithocaps (after Watanabe
et al., 1997; Watanabe, 2005; personal observations) and Ashio Cu deposit are also shown. Lithocaps with associated Au
mineralization: 1. Akaiwa; 2. Ponkutosan; 3. Minamikyabe; 4. Kobui; 5. Eboshi; 6. Ohtoge; 7. Kasuga; 8. Iwato; 9. Akeshi; 10.
Kushikino; 11. Iriki.

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

10
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?
range from quartz monzonite to granite (Aramaki
et al., 1972; Iiyama & Fonteilles, 1981). At least some of
these intrusions are broadly comagmatic with silicic
ignimbrites, which, at least in the case of the Neogene
calderas throughout Japan, are largely crustally
derived (Yoshida et al., 2014; Kimura et al., 2015).
Worldwide, Mo  W is characteristically concentrated
in association with magnetite-series intrusions that are
more fractionated than those hosting Cu deposits
(Blevin et al., 1992; Fig. 7) as well as being less redox-
dependent than Cu during ascent of magma and fluids
through the lithosphere. Furthermore, granitoid-
related vein and skarn Mo deposits, like those pre-
dominant in the Sanin belt of SW Japan, may form
under less-oxidized conditions than porphyry Cu and
Mo deposits (Cheng et al., 2017).
Clearly, the Cretaceous–Paleogene magnetite-series
intrusions of SW Japan and SE Korea are dominated
by Mo  W vein and skarn deposits and prospects, a
feature not observed in the world’s pre-eminent por-
phyry Cu belts (Table 2). In the few localities where
porphyry Cu and Mo  W deposits occur in relative
proximity, they appear to belong to distinct tectono-
magmatic settings. A good example is provided by
the middle-lower reaches of the Yangtze River region
of China where contiguous belts of broadly
Gyeongsang
Sanin
Cu-Au Cu-Mo Mo
Fe 2 O3/FeO
W-Mo Sn
W Kuroko-type VMS formation also characterized the
Sn±W
Oxidation
Sanyo
Fractionation
Rb/Sr & SiO2
Fig. 7 Plot showing the relationship between degrees of
fractionation and oxidation of granitoid rocks and the
dominant metal content of associated mineralization (after
Blevin et al., 1992). The assumed positions of the main
Cretaceous–Paleogene metallogenic belts in Japan and
South Korea, beyond the main Cu field, are also shown.
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Table 2 Examples of major porphyry Cu belts lacking
Mo and W deposits
Province Age
Northern and central Chile Early Cretaceous-
Miocene
Philippines Early Cretaceous-
Pleistocene
Timok-Srednagorie belt, Serbia Late Cretaceous
and Bulgaria
Southwestern North America Late Cretaceous-
Paleocene
New Guinea Oligocene-Pleistocene
contemporaneous (150–140 Ma) porphyry–skarn Cu–
Au–Mo–Fe and W–Mo deposits are related to
magnetite-series and S-type, ilmenite-series intrusions,
respectively (Mao et al., 2015).
2.4.4 Compositional bimodality
The Green Tuff region of NE Honshu, including its
extensions into SW Japan and SW Hokkaido (Fig. 6),
was characterized during the mid-Miocene by
bimodal basalt-rhyolite magmatism, submarine cal-
dera development, and Kuroko-type VMS formation;
the polymetallic deposits themselves are closely asso-
ciated with a compositionally distinctive rhyolite pro-
duced by crystal fractionation of basalt and crustal
assimilation (Yamada & Yoshida, 2011; Yamada et al.,
2012). The bimodality of the Green Tuff belt was
induced by extreme back-arc extension linked to
opening of the Yamato basin in the Sea of Japan
(Yamaji, 1990; Fig. 6). Similar extension, bimodal mag-
matism – including caldera development, and
Quaternary Izu-Bonin intra-oceanic island arc (Iizasa
et al., 1999) and Okinawa Trough behind the Ryukyu
arc (Halbach et al., 1993; Fig. 6). A comparable, albeit
subaerial extensional environment, which also gave
rise to a bimodal basalt-rhyolite suite, characterized
the Kitami back-arc region of northern Hokkaido in
the middle and late Miocene (Fig. 6). At this time,
40 low-sulfidation epithermal vein Au and Hg
deposits and widespread related paleosurface features
formed during hydrothermal activity related to the
rhyolitic rocks (Sillitoe, 1993; Watanabe, 1995).
There is a worldwide antipathetic relationship
between porphyry Cu mineralization and bimodal
magmatic suites, irrespective of whether the latter are
submarine and associated with VMS deposits (Sillitoe,
11
R. H. Sillitoe
Table 3 Examples of bimodal volcanic suites hosting VMS and low-sulfidation epithermal Au provinces without porphyry
Cu deposits
Province
Mt. Read volcanic complex, Tasmania, Australia
Bathurst-Newcastle district, New Brunswick, Canada
Deseado massif, Argentina
Eastern Pontide belt, Turkey
Coromandel peninsula, New Zealand
Northern Nevada rift, Nevada, U.S.A.
References available in Franklin et al. (2005) and Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003); IS, intermediate sulfidation; LS, low sulfidation; VMS, volca-
nogenic massive sulfide.
1980c, 1999; Table 3) or subaerial and associated with
low-sulfidation epithermal Au deposits (Sillitoe &
Hedenquist, 2003; Table 3). Although porphyry Cu
deposits may form in relatively shallow-submarine as
well as subaerial magmatic arcs (e.g., Chivas et al.,
1984; Braxton et al., 2008), they are not normally prod-
ucts of rhyolitic magmas, which, at best, tend to gen-
erate weak porphyry Cu mineralization (e.g., Lee
et al., 2017).
3. Porphyry Cu potential of Japan and
South Korea
Notwithstanding the undoubted existence of suitable
erosion levels, the unusual combination of tectono-
magmatic factors summarized above is believed to
have militated against porphyry Cu formation in
Japan and South Korea. The chemically reduced
crustal profiles, consequent upon weak inter-plate
coupling, oceanward slab rollback, addition of accre-
tionary complexes, and accompanying crustal exten-
sion, appear to have predisposed much of Japan to
arc magmatism that was too reduced to effectively
generate porphyry Cu deposits (Sato, 2012). The
ilmenite-series character of magmatism in the Sanyo
belt of SW Japan and elsewhere completely precluded
porphyry Cu formation (Ishihara, 1977, 1981) and
even the magnetite-series activity in the Sanin belt,
Kitakami region, and SE Korea, which gave rise to
some Cu mineralization, has a distinctive lithophile-
metal signature, defined by Mo  W.
The existence of major, regional-scale caldera flare-
ups in the Late Cretaceous–Paleogene of Japan and
South Korea as well as during the Mio-Pliocene and
Quaternary in NE and SW Japan further reduced the
likelihood of porphyry Cu formation by evacuation
of potential ore-forming magmatic fluids during
large-volume, silicic ignimbrite eruptions (Sillitoe,
12
Main deposit type Age
VMS base-metal deposits Cambrian
VMS base-metal deposits Ordovician
LS + IS epithermal Au–Ag deposits Jurassic
VMS base-metal deposits Cretaceous
LS + IS epithermal Au–Ag deposits Miocene
LS epithermal Au deposits Miocene
1980b). This process was exacerbated by the exten-
sive crustal melting and fractionation that took place
in upper-crustal magma reservoirs during the caldera
cycle, leading to an abundance of intrusive rocks too
silicic in composition for major Cu deposit formation,
as well as by the potentially large and at least partly
reduced crustal contributions to both the intrusive
and extrusive components of caldera volcanism
(Yoshida et al., 2014; Kimura et al., 2015; Jo
et al., 2016).
Bimodal magmatic provinces in back-arc exten-
sional settings may host VMS and low-sulfidation
epithermal Au deposits, as they do in the Green Tuff
belt and Kitami region, but are inappropriate for the
generation of porphyry Cu deposits, which are not
genetically related to either rhyolitic (granitic) or
basaltic (gabbroic) rocks. Thus, two more Neogene
magmatic tracts in Japan are effectively excluded as
porphyry Cu targets (Fig. 6).
Therefore, this leaves few obvious magmatic cen-
ters in Japan and South Korea with relatively
unevolved, magnetite-series intrusions suitable for
porphyry Cu formation, although small, Early Creta-
ceous, adakite-like intrusions in the Kitakami region
are a notable exception of possible interest if erosion
levels prove to be suitable. Andesitic–dacitic strato-
volcanoes and dome complexes that either immedi-
ately pre-dated, accompanied, or concluded the
caldera flare-ups offer possible sites, although most
Pliocene and Quaternary examples, including those
generated since ~3.5 Ma in the NE Japan arc (Sato,
1994; Yoshida et al., 2014; Fig. 3b) and the post-2 Ma
adakites in SW Japan (Shibata et al., 2014), are
unlikely to have undergone sufficient erosion to
reveal the porphyry Cu environment (Ishihara, 1974;
Hammarstrom et al., 2010). Indeed, some are still
underlain by active magmatic-hydrothermal systems
(Hedenquist et al., 2018). However, even where exam-
ination of subsurface hydrothermal alteration is
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?

facilitated by its incorporation into phreatic eruption

products, as at Ontake volcano, Cu mineralization
appears to be absent (Minami et al., 2016).
Therefore, the main untested porphyry Cu targets
are the already-unroofed advanced argillic lithocaps
of late Miocene–Pliocene age, several of which are
associated with high- or (at Kushikino) intermediate-
sulfidation epithermal Au mineralization (Fig. 6),
although none is assigned high Cu potential. This
conclusion stems from the fact that the lithocaps –
including the main examples in the Nansatsu district
(Izawa & Urashima, 1983) – are likely to be underlain
by chemically reduced crust unless there has been
wholesale substitution during earlier magnetite-series
intrusive activity (Sato et al., 2004; Sato, 2012).
Although this is unlikely in the Nansatsu district,
with a basement dominated by the Shimanto accre-
tionary complex (Figs 2, 6), such substitution may
have been possible during the Cretaceous–Paleogene
in the NE Japan arc, especially during caldera devel-
opment (e.g., Fig. 4b), because the andesitic–dacitic
volcanic rocks there were reportedly derived by par-
tial melting of lower-crustal amphibolite of that age
(Kimura & Yoshida, 2006).
Melt reduction during ascent through carbon-
bearing crust, giving rise to ilmenite-series or weakly
oxidized intrusions, could suppress Cu transport and
lead to generation of a specific type of porphyry Au
deposit (Sillitoe, 2017; Fig. 8), as exemplified by La
Colosa, Colombia, which is hosted by a reduced
meta-sedimentary terrane (Lodder et al., 2010). Alter-
natively, there may be no appreciable transport and
deposition of either Cu or Au, as seems to be the case
at Ontake volcano (see above) and other Japanese
localities that otherwise possess some of the geologi-
cal attributes required for porphyry Cu mineralization
(Watanabe et al., 2018).
There is one part of Japan, the Izu-Bonin intra-
oceanic arc (Fig. 6), which lacks the carbon-bearing
accretionary complexes that underpin much of the
archipelago (Tatsumi et al., 2016). Therefore,
although a relatively immature arc characterized by
Mariana-type subduction, back-arc basin opening,
and, during the Quaternary, submarine caldera for-
mation (Uyeda & Kanamori, 1979; Tatsumi et al.,
2016), porphyry Cu genesis may have taken place.
This possibility gains support from the potassic
alteration and associated A-type quartz-magnetite
veinlets revealed by dredge samples from a back-arc
seamount (Ishizuka et al., 2002). However, irrespec-
tive of potential, most of the arc is submarine and,
Volcano-hosted
lithocap
Porphyry
X X Cu-Au
X X
X X X
Oxidized
a crust
Porphyry Au
X X or barren
X X
X X X
Reduced
crust
b
Fig. 8 Cartoon illustrating formation of (a) porphyry Cu–
Au deposits atop oxidized crustal profiles, and
(b) porphyry Au deposits or barren porphyries atop
reduced crustal profiles. Lithocap alteration types can be
similar in both cases. Note that oxidized crustal profiles
may reflect either composition of original basement or
wholesale substitution by intrusions during magnetite-
series caldera flare-ups (see Fig. 4b).
hence, largely inaccessible to porphyry Cu explora-
tion and exploitation.
Clearly, Japan and South Korea will never become
major porphyry Cu provinces but, as concluded by
Qin and Ishihara (1998), the local presence of por-
phyry Cu mineralization cannot be ruled out, partic-
ularly that associated with late Miocene–Pliocene
advanced argillic lithocaps. However, it is suspected
that any such mineralization will be small-tonnage,
low-grade, and, almost certainly, subeconomic, as
typified by the Dongjeom porphyry Cu prospect in
the Gyeongsang Basin of South Korea (Sillitoe,
1980a).

© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology

13
R. H. Sillitoe
4. General conclusions
This brief analysis of the apparent lack of porphyry
Cu deposits in Japan and South Korea emphasizes the
main tectono-magmatic and metallogenic features that
are believed to control the Cu potential of subduction-
related arc segments. As a result of these controls,
porphyry Cu deposits are considered less likely to
have formed in association with (i) convergent plate
margin settings characterized by slab rollback and
consequent crustal extension; (ii) volcano-plutonic
complexes generated during caldera flare-ups;
(iii) arcs possessing chemically reduced crustal pro-
files; (iv) ilmenite-series intrusions; (v) arcs having
few high Sr/Y igneous suites; (vi) fractionated intru-
sions of rhyolitic (granitic) composition;
(vii) metallogenic belts characterized by widespread
Mo  W vein- and skarn-type mineralization; (viii)
back-arc extensional rift settings characterized by
bimodal basalt-rhyolite magmatism; and
(ix) metallogenic belts or provinces dominated by
rhyolite-associated VMS deposits or low-sulfidation
epithermal Au deposits. Although the locations of
porphyry Cu provinces are generally well known,
these negative criteria – particularly several in combi-
nation – may assist when assessing the porphyry Cu
potential of under-explored metallogenic frontiers.
Acknowledgments
The Society of Resource Geology, particularly its 2017
president, Toshihiko Hayashi, is thanked for agreeing
to convene “The Japanese Porphyry Copper Enigma”
symposium and for defraying the costs of attendance.
It is a pleasure to dedicate this article (as well as this
thematic issue) to Shunso Ishihara in recognition of
his fundamental contributions to understanding the
link between magmatism and metallogeny based on
his work in Japan, South Korea, and elsewhere over
the past 50 years. Incorporation of review comments
from Jeff Hedenquist, Doug Kirwin, Jamie Wilkinson,
and Yasushi Watanabe improved the original
manuscript.
References
Akimoto, Y. (1998) The history of mining in Japan and its pros-
pects for the 21st century. Shingen-to-Sozai, 114, 389–396
(in Japanese with English abstract).
Aramaki, S., Hirayama, K. and Nozawa, T. (1972) Chemical
composition of Japanese granites, Part 2. Variation trends
14
and average composition of 1200 analyses. J. Geol. Soc. Jpn.,
78, 39–49.
Barresi, T., Nelson, J. L., Dostal, J. and Friedman, R. (2015) Evo-
lution of the Hazelton arc near Terrace, British Columbia:
stratigraphic, geochronological, and geochemical constraints
on a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic arc and Cu-Au porphyry
belt. Can. J. Earth Sci., 52, 466–494.
Best, M. G., Christiansen, E. H., de Silva, S. and Lipman, P. W.
(2016) Slab-rollback ignimbrite flareups in the southern Great
Basin and other Cenozoic American arcs: a distinct style of
arc volcanism. Geosphere, 12, 1097–1135.
Blevin, P. L., Chappell, B. W. and Allen, C. M. (1992) Intrusive
metallogenic provinces in eastern Australia based on granite
source and composition. In Brown, M., Candela, P. A.,
Peck, D. L., Stephens, W. E., Walker, R. J. and Zen, E. (eds.)
The third Hutton symposium on the origin of granites and
related rocks. Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh Earth Sci., 87,
281–290.
Braxton, D. P., Cooke, D. R., Rye, R. O. and Petersen, E. U.
(2008) Geologic and stable isotope evidence for submarine
diatreme formation, and emplacement of the Boyongan and
Bayugo porphyry copper-gold deposits, Philippines. In
Pacrim Congress, 2008, Gold Coast, Queensland, Extended
Abstr. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Melbourne, 259–265.
Cao, M. J., Qin, K. Z., Li, G. M., Yang, Y. H., Evans, N. J., Zhang,
R. and Jin, L. J. (2014) Magmatic process recorded in plagio-
clase at the Baogutu reduced porphyry Cu deposit, western
Junggar, NW-China. J. Asian Earth Sci., 82, 136–150.
Champion, D. C. and Bultitude, R. J. (2013) Kennedy igneous
association. In Jell, P. A. (ed.) Geology of Queensland. Geo-
logical Survey of Queensland, Brisbane, 473–514.
Chelle-Michou, C., Rottier, B., Caricchi, L. and Simpson, G.
(2017) Tempo of magma degassing and the genesis of por-
phyry copper deposits. Sci. Rep., 7, 40566.
Cheng, Y., Mao, J., Rusk, B. and Yang, Z. (2012) Geology and
genesis of Kafang Cu–Sn deposit, Gejiu district, SW China.
Ore Geol. Rev., 48, 180–196.
Cheng, Y., Chang, Z. and Spandler, C. (2017) Zircon trace ele-
ments as a magma fertility discriminator and its application
in NE Queensland, Australia. FUTORES II Conference, Eco-
nomic Geology Research Unit, James Cooke University,
Townsville, Queensland, 2017, Abstr., 1p.
Chiaradia, M. and Caricchi, L. (2017) Stochastic modelling of
deep magmatic controls on porphyry copper deposit endow-
ment. Sci. Rep., 7, 44523.
Chivas, A. R., O’Neil, J. R. and Katchan, G. (1984) Uplift and
submarine formation of some Melanesian porphyry copper
deposits: stable isotope evidence. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 68,
326–334.
Chough, S. K. and Sohn, Y. K. (2010) Tectonic and sedimentary
evolution of a Cretaceous continental arc–backarc system in
the Korean peninsula: new view. Earth Sci. Rev., 101,
225–249.
Cooke, D. R., Hollings, P. and Walshe, J. L. (2005) Giant por-
phyry deposits: characteristics, distribution, and tectonic con-
trols. Econ. Geol., 100, 801–818.
Farrar, E., Clark, A. H. and Kim, O. J. (1978) Age of the Sang-
dong tungsten deposit, Republic of Korea, and its bearing on
the metallogeny of the southern Korean Peninsula. Econ.
Geol., 73, 547–552.
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?
Fletcher, C. J. N. (1977) The geology, mineralization, and alter-
ation of Ilkwang Mine, Republic of Korea; a Cu-W-bearing
tourmaline breccia pipe. Econ. Geol., 72, 753–768.
Franklin, J. M., Gibson, H. L., Jonasson, I. R. and Galley, A. G.
(2005) Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits. In
Hedenquist, J. W., Thompson, J. F. H., Goldfarb, R. J. and
Richards, J. P. (eds.) Economic Geology 100th anniversary
volume, Society of Economic Geologists, Littleton, 523–560.
Halbach, P., Pracejus, B. and Maerten, A. (1993) Geology and
mineralogy of massive sulfide ores from the central Okinawa
Trough, Japan. Econ. Geol., 88, 2210–2225.
Hammarstrom, J. M., Bookstrom, A. A., Demarr, M. W. Dicken,
C. L., Ludington, S., Robinson, Jr., G. R. and Zientek, M. L.
(2010) Porphyry copper assessment of East and Southeast
Asia: Philippines, Taiwan (Republic of China), Republic of
Korea (South Korea), and Japan. In Global Mineral Resource
Assessment. US Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
Report 2010–5090-P, 241 p.
Haruna, M., Ueno, H. and Ohmoto, H. (1990) Development of
skarn-type ores at the Tengumori copper deposit of Kamaishi
mine, Iwate Prefecture, northeastern Japan. Mining Geol., 40,
223–244.
Hattori, K. (2014) What makes plate convergent zones fertile in
metals? Acta Geol. Sin., 88, 543–544.
Hayashi, T. (2001) Geology and gold exploration in the
Nansatsu district, southern Kyushu, Japan. In Feebrey, C. A.,
Hayashi, T. and Taguchi, S. (eds.) Epithermal gold minerali-
zation and modern analogues, Kyushu, Japan. Soc. Econ.
Geol. Guidebook Ser. 34, 127–132.
Hedenquist, J. W., Matsuhisa, Y., Izawa, E., White, N. C.,
Giggenbach, W. F. and Aoki, M. (1994) Geology, geochemis-
try, and origin of high sulfidation Cu-Au mineralization in
the Nansatsu District, Japan. Econ. Geol., 89, 1–30.
Hedenquist, J. W., Taguchi, S. and Shinohara, H. (2018) Large
magmatic-hydrothermal systems in Japan: acidic condensates,
hypogene advanced argillic alteration, and potential for forma-
tion of porphyry copper deposits. Resour. Geol., this issue.
Hou, Z., Yang, Z., Qu, X., Meng, X., Li, Z., Beaudoin, G., Rui, Z.,
Gao, Y. and Zaw, K. (2009) The Miocene Gangdese porphyry
copper belt generated during post-collisional extension in the
Tibetan Orogen. Ore Geol. Rev., 36, 25–51.
Iiyama, J. T. and Fonteilles, M. (1981) Mesozoic granitic rocks of
southern Korea reviewed from major constituents and
petrography. Mining Geol., 31, 281–295.
Iizasa, K., Fiske, R. S., Ishizuka, O., Yuasa, M., Hashimoto, J.,
Ishibashi, J., Naka, J., Horii, Y., Fujiwara, Y., Imai, A. and
Koyama, S. (1999) A Kuroko-type polymetallic sulfide
deposit in a submarine silicic caldera. Science, 283, 975–977.
Imai, A. (2004) Variation of Cl and SO3 contents of micropheno-
crystic apatite in intermediate to silicic igneous rocks of
Cenozoic Japanese island arcs: implications for porphyry Cu
metallogenesis in the Western Pacific island arcs. Resour.
Geol., 54, 357–372.
Imai, H., Lee, M. S., Iida, K., Fujiki, Y. and Takenouchi, S. (1975)
Geologic structure and mineralization of the xenothermal
vein-type deposits in Japan. Econ. Geol., 70, 647–676.
Imaoka, T., Murakami, N., Matsumoto, T. and Yamasaki, H. (1988)
Paleogene cauldrons in the western San’in district, Southwest
Japan. J. Fac. Liberal Arts, Yamaguchi Univ., 22, 41–75.
Imaoka, T., Kiminami, K., Nishida, K., Takemoto, M., Ikawa, T.,
Itaya, T., Kagami, H. and Iizumi, S. (2011) K–Ar age and
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
geochemistry of the SW Japan Paleogene cauldron cluster:
implications for Eocene–Oligocene thermo-tectonic reactiva-
tion. J. Asian Earth Sci., 40, 509–533.
Ishihara, S. (1974) Magmatism of the Green Tuff tectonic belt,
northeast Japan. In Ishihara, S., Kanehira, K., Sasaki, A.,
Sato, T. and Shimazaki, Y. (eds.) Geology of Kuroko
deposits. Mining Geol. Spec. Iss. 6, 235–249.
Ishihara, S. (1977) The magnetite-series and ilmenite-series gra-
nitic rocks. Mining Geol., 27, 293–305.
Ishihara, S. (1978) Metallogenesis in the Japanese island arc sys-
tem. J. Geol. Soc. London, 135, 389–406.
Ishihara, S. (1980) Porphyry-type copper deposits in Japan. Min-
ing Geol., 30, 59–62.
Ishihara, S. (1981) The granitoid series and mineralization. In
Skinner, B. J. (ed.) Economic Geology 75th anniversary
volume. Economic Geology Publishing Co., El Paso,
458–484.
Ishihara, S. (1998) Granitoid series and mineralization in the
circum-Pacific Phanerozoic granitic belts. Resour. Geol., 48,
219–224.
Ishihara, S. (2004) The redox state of granitoids relative to tec-
tonic setting and earth history: the magnetite-ilmenite series
30 years later. In Ishihara, S., Stephens, W. E., Harley, S. L.,
Arima, M. and Nakajima, T. (eds.) The fifth Hutton sympo-
sium on the origin of granites and related rocks. Trans. Royal
Soc. Edinburgh Earth Sci, 95, 23–33.
Ishihara, S. (2008) Geological and resource evaluation of the
porphyry Mo deposit at Nakatatsu mine, central Japan. Shi-
gen-Chishitsu, 58, 163–168 (in Japanese with English
abstract).
Ishihara, S. and Chappell, B. W. (2008) Chemical compositions
of the Paleogene granitoids of eastern Shimane Prefecture,
Sanin District, Southwest Japan. Bull. Geol. Surv. Jpn., 59,
225–254.
Ishihara, S. and Chappell, B. W. (2010) Chemical compositions
of the Miocene granitoids of the Okueyama, Hoei mine and
Takakumayama plutons, Outer Zone of SW Japan. Bull.
Geol. Surv. Jpn., 61, 17–38.
Ishihara, S. and Imaoka, T. (1999) A proposal of caldera-related
genesis for the roseki deposits in the Mitsuishi mining area,
southwest Japan. Resour. Geol., 49, 157–162.
Ishihara, S. and Murakami, H. (2004) Granitoid types related to
Cretaceous plutonic Au-quartz vein and Cu-Fe skarn
deposits, Kitakami Mountains, Japan. Resour. Geol., 54,
281–298.
Ishihara, S. and Sasaki, A. (1973). Metallogenic map of Japan. Plu-
tonism and mineralization (1) Molybdenum, tungsten and tin.
1:2,000,000. Geological Survey of Japan, Tokyo.
Ishihara, S., Sato, K. and Tsukimura, K. (1981a) Some aspects on
the tin-polymetallic veins in the Akenobe mine area, South-
west Japan. Mining Geol., 31, 147–156 (in Japanese with
English abstract).
Ishihara, S., Lee, D. S. and Kim, S. Y. (1981b) Comparative study
of Mesozoic granitoids and related W-Mo mineralization in
southern Korea and southwestern Japan. Mining Geol., 31,
311–320.
Ishihara, S., Hoshino, K., Murakami, H. and Endo, Y. (2006)
Resource evaluation and some genetic aspects of indium in
the Japanese ore deposits. Resour. Geol., 56, 347–364.
Ishizuka, O., Yuasa, M. and Uto, K. (2002) Evidence of porphyry
copper-type hydrothermal activity from a submerged
15
R. H. Sillitoe
remnant back-arc volcano of the Izu-Bonin Arc: implications
for the volcanotectonic history of back-arc seamounts. Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett., 198, 381–399.
Isozaki, Y. (1996) Anatomy and genesis of a subduction-related
orogen: a new view of geotectonic subdivision and evolution
of the Japanese Islands. Island Arc, 5, 289–320.
Itaya, T. (1975) Pyrrhotite from the Sanbagawa pelitic schists of
the Shiraga-yama area, central Shikoku, Japan. Mineral. J., 8,
25–37.
Izawa, E. and Hayashi, T. (2018) Potential for porphyry copper
mineralization below the Kasuga lithocap, Nansatsu district,
Japan. Resour. Geol., this issue.
Izawa, E. and Urashima, Y. (1983) Gold-silver deposits in south-
ern Kyushu, Japan. In MMIJ/Aus IMM Joint Symposium,
Sendai, Japan, 1983, Paper JA-1-7, 97–111.
Jenner, F. E., O’Neill, H. S. C., Arculus, R. J. and
Mavrogenes, J. A. (2010) The magnetite crisis in the evolution
of arc-related magmas and the initial concentration of Au,
Ag and Cu. J. Petrol., 51, 2445–2464.
Jin, M. S., Kim, S. Y. and Lee, J. S. (1981) Granitic magmatism
and associated mineralization in the Gyeongsang basin,
Korea. Mining Geol., 31, 245–260.
Jin, M. S., Lee, Y. S. and Ishihara, S. (2002) Granitoids and their
magnetic susceptibility in South Korea. Resour. Geol., 51,
189–203.
Jo, H. J., Cheong, A. C., Ryu, J. S., Kim, N. Yi, K., Jung, H. and
Li, X. H. (2016) In-situ oxygen isotope records of crustal self-
cannibalization selectively captured by zircon crystals from
high-δ26Mg granitoids. Geology, 44, 339–342.
Jwa, Y. J. (1998) Temporal, spatial and geochemical discrimina-
tions of granitoids in South Korea. Resour. Geol., 48,
273–284.
Kamei, A. (2004) An adakitic pluton on Kyushu Island, south-
west Japan arc. J. Asian Earth Sci., 24, 43–55.
Kay, S. M., Ramos, V. A., Mpodozis, C. and Sruoga, P. (1989)
Late Paleozoic to Jurassic silicic magmatism at the Gondwa-
naland margin: analogy to the Middle Proterozoic in North
America? Geology, 17, 324–328.
Kay, S. M., Godoy, E. and Kurtz, A. (2005) Episodic arc migra-
tion, crustal thickening, subduction erosion, and magmatism
in the south-central Andes. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 117, 67–88.
Kelley, K. A. and Cottrell, E. (2009) Water and the oxidation
state of subduction zone magmas. Science, 325, 605–607.
Kennedy, B., Wilcock, J. and Stix, J. (2012) Caldera resurgence
during magma replenishment and rejuvenation at Valles and
Lake City calderas. Bull. Volcanol., 74, 1833–1847.
Kim, S. W., Kwon, S., Park, S. I., Lee, C., Cho, D. L., Lee, H. J.,
Ko, K. and Kim, S. J. (2016) SHRIMP U–Pb dating and geo-
chemistry of the Cretaceous plutonic rocks in the Korean
Peninsula: a new tectonic model of the Cretaceous Korean
Peninsula. Lithos, 262, 88–106.
Kimura, J. I. and Yoshida, T. (2006) Contributions of slab fluid,
mantle wedge and crust to the origin of Quaternary lavas in
the NE Japan arc. J. Petrol., 47, 2185–2232.
Kimura, J. I., Nagahashi, Y., Satoguchi, Y. and Chang, Q.
(2015) Origins of felsic magmas in Japanese subduction
zone: geochemical characterizations of tephra from
caldera-forming eruptions <5 Ma. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosy., 16, 2147–2174.
Koh, S. M., Takagi, T., Kim, M. Y., Naito, K., Hong, S. S. and
Sudo, S. (2000) Geological and geochemical characteristics of
16
the hydrothermal clay alteration in South Korea. Resour.
Geol., 50, 229–242.
Koido, Y. (1991) A Late Cretaceous–Paleogene cauldron cluster:
the Nôhi Rhyolite, central Japan. Bull. Volcanol., 53, 132–146.
Lee, R. G., Dilles, J. H., Tosdal, R. M., Wooden, J. L. and
Mazdab, F. K. (2017) Magmatic evolution of granodiorite
intrusions at the El Salvador porphyry copper deposit, Chile
based on trace element composition and U/Pb age of zir-
cons. Econ. Geol., 112, 245–273.
Lipman, P. W. and Sawyer, D. A. (1985) Mesozoic ash-flow cal-
dera fragments in southeastern Arizona and their relation to
porphyry copper deposits. Geology, 13, 652–656.
Lodder, C., Padilla, R., Shaw, R., Garzon, T., Palacio, E. and
Jahoda, R. (2010) Discovery history of the La Colosa gold
porphyry deposit, Cajamarca, Colombia. In Goldfarb, R. J.,
Marsh, E. E. and Monecke, T. (eds.) The challenge of finding
new mineral discoveries: global metallogeny, innovative
exploration, and new discoveries, Vol. 1. Soc. Econ. Geol.
Spec. Publ., 15, 19–28.
Loucks, R. R. (2014) Distinctive composition of copper-ore-
forming arc magmas. Aust. J. Earth Sci., 61, 5–16.
Mahony, S. H., Wallace, L. M., Miyoshi, M., Villamor, P.,
Sparks, R. S. J. and Hasenaka, T. (2011) Volcano-tectonic inter-
actions during rapid plate-boundary evolution in the Kyushu
region, SW Japan. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 123, 2201–2223.
Mahony, S. H., Sparks, R. S. J., Wallace, L. M., Engwell, S. L.,
Scourse, E. M., Barnard, N. H., Kandbauer, J. and Brown, S.
K. (2016) Increased rates of large-magnitude explosive erup-
tions in Japan in the late Neogene and Quaternary. Geochem.
Geophys. Geosy., 17, 2467–2479.
Mao, Z. H., Liu, J. J., Mao, J. W., Zhang, D., Zhang, F., Meng, X.
Y., Xiong, B. K., Xiang, X. K. and Luo, X. H. (2015) Geochro-
nology and geochemistry of granitoids related to the giant
Dahutang tungsten deposit, middle Yangtze River region,
China: implications for petrogenesis, geodynamic setting,
and mineralization. Gondwana Res., 28, 816–836.
Minami, Y., Imura, T., Hayashi, S. and Ohba, T. (2016) Mineralogi-
cal study on volcanic ash of the eruption on September
27, 2014 at Ontake volcano, central Japan: correlation with por-
phyry copper systems. In Yamaoka, O., Geshi, N.,
Hashimoto, T., Ingebritsen, S. E. and Oikawa, T. (eds.) The
phreatic eruption of Mt. Ontake volcano in 2014. Earth Planets
Space, 68, 67. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-016-0440-2.
Miura, D. and Wada, Y. (2007) Effects of stress in the evolution
of large silicic magmatic systems: an example from the Mio-
cene felsic volcanic field at Kii Peninsula, SW Honshu, Japan.
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 167, 300–319.
Mungall, J. E. (2002) Roasting the mantle: slab melting and the
genesis of major Au and Au-rich Cu deposits. Geology, 30,
915–918.
Murao, S., Seki, Y. and Nakajima, T. (1988) Molybdenum miner-
alization of possible porphyry type at the Nakatatsu mine,
Fukui Prefecture, SW Japan. J. Mineral. Petrol. Econ. Geol.,
83, 418–429.
Nakada, S., Yamamoto, T. and Maeno, F. (2016) Miocene-
Holocene volcanism. In Moreno, T., Wallis, S., Kojima, T.
and Gibbons, W. (eds.) The geology of Japan. Geological
Society, London, 273–308.
Nakajima, T. (1994) The Ryoke plutonometamorphic belt: crustal
section of the Cretaceous Eurasian continental margin.
Lithos, 33, 51–66.
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?
Nakajima, T., Takahashi, M., Imaoka, T. and Shimura, T. (2016)
Granitic rocks. In Moreno, T., Wallis, S., Kojima, T. and
Gibbons, W. (eds.) The geology of Japan. Geological Society,
London, 251–272.
Nakamura, T. (1961) Mineralization and wall-rock alteration at
the Ashio copper mine, Japan. J. Inst. Polytech., Osaka City
Univ., Ser. G, 4, 53–127.
Nakamura, T. (1970) Mineral zoning and characteristic minerals
in the polymetallic veins of the Ashio copper mine. In
Tatsumi, T. (ed.) Volcanism and ore genesis. University of
Tokyo Press, Tokyo, 231–246.
Otofuji, Y. I. (1996) Large tectonic movement of the Japan Arc in
late Cenozoic times inferred from paleomagnetism: review
and synthesis. Island Arc, 5, 229–249.
Piquer, J., Cooke, D. R., Chen, J. and Zhang, L. (2017) Synexten-
sional emplacement of porphyry Cu-Mo and epithermal min-
eralization: the Zijinshan district, southeastern China. Econ.
Geol., 112, 1055–1074.
Qin, K. and Ishihara, S. (1998) On the possibility of porphyry cop-
per mineralization in Japan. Internat. Geol. Rev., 40, 539–551.
Richards, J. P. (2011) High Sr/Y arc magmas and porphyry Cu
 Mo  Au deposits: just add water. Econ. Geol., 106,
1075–1081.
Richards, J. P. (2015) The oxidation state, and sulfur and Cu con-
tents of arc magmas: implications for metallogeny. Lithos,
233, 27–45.
Sagong, H., Kwon, S. T. and Ree, J. H. (2005) Mesozoic episodic
magmatism in South Korea and its tectonic implication. Tec-
tonics, 24, TC5002.
Sánchez, M. G., McClay, K. R., King, A. R. and Wijbrams, J. R.
(2016) Cenozoic crustal extension and its relationship to por-
phyry Cu-Au-(Mo) and epithermal Au-(Ag) mineralization
in the Biga Peninsula, northwestern Turkey. In Richards, J. P.
(ed.) Tectonics and metallogeny of the Tethyan orogenic belt.
Soc. Econ. Geol. Spec. Publ., 19, 113–156.
Sato, T. (1974) Distribution and geological setting of the Kuroko
deposits. In Ishihara, S., Kanehira, K., Sasaki, A., Sato, T. and
Shimazaki, Y. (eds.) Geology of Kuroko deposits. Mining
Geol. Spec. Iss., 6, 1–9.
Sato, K. (1980) Distribution of fluorite deposits in Japanese
islands. Miner. Deposita, 15, 327–334.
Sato, H. (1994) The relationship between Late Cenozoic tectonic
events and stress field and basin development in northeast
Japan. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 99, 22261–22274.
Sato, K. (2012) Sedimentary crust and metallogeny of granitoid
affinity: implications from the geotectonic histories of the
circum-Japan Sea region, central Andes and southeastern
Australia. Resour. Geol., 62, 329–351.
Sato, K. and Kase, K. (1996) Pre-accretionary mineralization of
Japan. Island Arc, 5, 216–228.
Sato, K., Kovalenko, S. V., Romanovsky, N. P., Nedachi, M.,
Berdnikov, N. V. and Ishihara, T. (2004) Crustal control on
the redox state of granitoid magmas: tectonic implications
from the granitoid and metallogenic provinces in the circum-
Japan Sea Region. In Ishihara, S., Stephens, W. E.,
Harley, S. L., Arima, M. and Nakajima, T. (eds.) The fifth
Hutton symposium on the origin of granites and related
rocks. Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh Earth Sci., 95, 319–337.
Sato, D., Matsuura, H. and Yamamoto, T. (2016) Timing of the
Late Cretaceous ignimbrite flare-up at the eastern margin of
the Eurasian Plate: new zircon U–Pb ages from the Aioi–
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Arima–Koto region of SW Japan. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 310, 89–97.
Seton, M., Flament, N., Whittaker, J., Müller, R. D., Gurnis, M.
and Bower, D. J. (2015) Ridge subduction sparked reorgani-
zation of the Pacific plate-mantle system 60–50 million years
ago. Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 1732–1740.
Shibata, T., Yoshikawa, M., Itoh, J., Ujike, O., Miyoshi, M. and
Takemura, K. (2014) Along-strike variations in Quaternary
magmas of northern Kyushu Island, Japan. In Gómez-
Tuena, A., Straub, S. M. and Zellmer, G. F. (eds.) Orogenic
andesites and crustal growth. Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ.,
385, 15–29.
Shimazaki, H., Sato, K. and Chon, H. T. (1981) Mineralization
associated with Mesozoic felsic magmatism in Japan and
Korea. Mining Geol., 31, 297–310.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1980a) Evidence for porphyry-type mineralization
in southern Korea. In Ishihara, S. and Takeneuchi, S. (eds.)
Granitic magmatism and related mineralization. Mining
Geol. Spec. Iss., 8, 205–214.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1980b) Cauldron subsidence as a possible inhibi-
tor of porphyry copper formation. In Ishihara, S. and
Takeneuchi, S. (eds.) Granitic magmatism and related miner-
alization. Mining Geol. Spec. Iss., 8, 85–93.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1980c) Are porphyry copper and Kuroko-type
massive sulfide deposits incompatible? Geology, 8, 11–14.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1993) Appraisal of epithermal gold prospects and
exploration approach in the northern Hokkaido B area, Japan.
In Report on a regional survey of geological structure in the
northern Hokkaido B area during the fiscal year Heisei 4. Min-
istry of International Trade and Industry, Tokyo, 307–336.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1995) Exploration of porphyry copper lithocaps.
In Pacific Rim Congress 1995, Auckland, Proceedings, Aus-
tralasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne,
527–532.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1998) Major regional factors favouring large size,
high hypogene grade, elevated gold content and supergene
oxidation and enrichment of porphyry copper deposits. In
Porphyry and hydrothermal copper and gold deposits. A
global perspective, conference proceedings, Perth, 1998.
Australian Mineral Foundation, Glendale, South Australia,
21–34.
Sillitoe, R. H. (1999) VMS and porphyry copper deposits: prod-
ucts of discrete tectono-magmatic settings. In Stanley, C. J.,
et al. (eds.) Mineral deposits: processes to processing. 5th
SGA Biennial Meeting & 10th Quadrennial IAGOD Sympo-
sium, London, 1999, Proceedings, Vol. 1, 7–10. A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam.
Sillitoe, R. H. (2012) Copper provinces. In Hedenquist, J. W.,
Harris, M. and Camus, F. (eds.) Geology and genesis of
major copper deposits and districts of the world: a tribute to
Richard H. Sillitoe. Soc. Econ. Geol. Spec. Publ., 16, 1–18.
Sillitoe, R. H. (2017) Gold-rich porphyry deposits: types, settings,
controls, and potential. Mineral Resources to Discover. 14th
SGA Biennial Meeting, Québec City, 2017, Proceedings,
Vol. 1, 11–14.
Sillitoe, R. H. and Hedenquist, J. W. (2003) Linkages between
volcanotectonic settings, ore-fluid compositions, and epither-
mal precious metal deposits. In Simmons, S. F. and
Graham, I. J. (eds.) Volcanic, geothermal, and ore-forming
fluids: rulers and witnesses of processes within the Earth.
Soc. Econ. Geol. Spec. Publ., 10, 315 343.
17
R. H. Sillitoe
Smith, C. M., Canil, D., Rowins, S. M. and Friedman, R. (2012)
Reduced granitic magmas in an arc setting: the Catface por-
phyry Cu–Mo deposit of the Paleogene Cascade Arc. Lithos,
154, 361–373.
So, C. S., Chi, S. Y., Shelton, K. L. and Skinner, B. J. (1985) Cop-
per-bearing hydrothermal vein deposits in the Gyeongsang
Basin, Republic of Korea. Econ. Geol., 80, 43–56.
Sonehara, T. and Harayama, S. (2007) Petrology of the Nohi
Rhyolite and its related granitoids: a Late Cretaceous large
silicic igneous field in central Japan. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 167, 57–80.
Takahashi, M. (1986) Anatomy of a middle Miocene Valles-type
caldera cluster: geology of the Okueyama volcano-plutonic
complex, southwest Japan. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 29,
33–70.
Takahashi, Y., Kagashima, S. I. and Mikoshiba, M. U. (2005)
Geochemistry of adakitic quartz diorite in the Yamizo Moun-
tains, central Japan: implications for Early Cretaceous adaki-
tic magmatism in the inner zone of southwest Japan. Island
Arc, 14, 150–164.
Tamaki, K. (1988) Geological structure of the Japan Sea and its
tectonic implications. Bull. Geol. Surv. Jpn., 39, 269–365.
Tamura, Y., Gill, J. B., Tollstrup, D., Kawabata, H., Shukono, H.,
Chang, Q., Miyazaki, T., Takahashi, T., Hirahara, Y.,
Kodaira, S., Ishizuki, O., Suzuki, T., Kido, Y., Fiske, R. S. and
Tatsumi, Y. (2009) Silicic magmas in the Izu-Bonin oceanic
arc and implications for crustal evolution. J. Petrol., 50,
685–723.
Tatsumi, Y., Tamura, Y., Nichols, A. R. L., Ishizuka, O.,
Takahashi, N. and Tani, K. I. (2016) Izu-Bonin arc. In
Moreno, T., Wallis, S., Kojima, T. and Gibbons, W. (eds.)
The geology of Japan. Geological Society, London,
175–199.
Tikhomirov, P. L., Kalinina, E. A., Moriguti, T., Makishima, A.,
Kobayashi, K., Cherepanova, I. Y. and Nakamura, E. (2012)
The Cretaceous Okhotsk-Chukotka Volcanic Belt
(NE Russia): geology, geochronology, magmatic output rates,
and implications on the genesis of silicic LIPs. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 221–222, 14–32.
Tomkins, A. G., Rebryna, K. C., Weinberg, R. F. and
Schaefer, B. F. (2012) Magmatic sulfide formation by reduc-
tion of oxidized arc basalt. J. Petrol., 53, 1537–1567.
Tsuchiya, N., Kimura, J. I. and Kagami, H. (2007) Petrogene-
sis of Early Cretaceous adakitic granites from the Kita-
kami Mountains, Japan. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 167,
134–159.
Tsuchiya, N., Takeda, T., Tani, K., Adachi, T., Nobuhiko, N.,
Oyamauchi, Y. and Kimura, J. (2014) Zircon U–Pb age
and its geological significance of late Carboniferous and
Early Cretaceous adakitic granites of eastern margin of
the Abukuma Mountains, Japan. J. Geol. Soc. Jpn., 120,
37–51.
Uchida, E., Endo, S. and Makino, M. (2007) Relationship
between solidification depth of granitic rocks and forma-
tion of hydrothermal ore deposits. Resour. Geol., 57,
47–56.
Uchida, E., Choi, S. G., Baba, D. and Wakisaka, Y. (2012) Petro-
genesis and solidification depth of the Jurassic Daebo and
Bulguksa granitic rocks in South Korea. Resour. Geol., 62,
281–295.
18
Uchida, E., Osada, K. and Nakao, K. (2017) Major and trace ele-
ment chemical compositional signatures of some granitic
rocks related to metal mineralization in Japan. Open J. Geol.,
7, 559–576.
Utada, M. (1980) Hydrothermal alterations related to igneous
activity in Cretaceous and Neogene formations of Japan.
In Ishihara, S. and Takeneuchi, S. (eds.) Granitic magma-
tism and related mineralization. Mining Geol. Spec. Iss.,
8, 67–83.
Uyeda, S. and Kanamori, H. (1979) Back-arc opening and the
mode of subduction. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 84,
1049–1061.
Uyeda, S. and Nishiwaki, C. (1980) Stress field, metallogenesis
and mode of subduction. In Strangway, D. W. (ed.) The con-
tinental crust and its mineral deposits. Geol. Assoc. Can.
Spec. Pap., 20, 323–339.
Wada, T. (1893). The mining industry of Japan during the last
twenty five years, 1867–1892. Tokyo Tsukiji Type Foundry,
Tokyo, 304 p.
Watanabe, Y. (1995) A tectonic model for epithermal Au miner-
alization in NE Hokkaido. In Ishihara, S. and
Czamanske, G. K. (eds.) Proceedings of the Sapporo interna-
tional conference on mineral resources of the NW Pacific
Rim 1994. Resour. Geol. Spec. Iss., 18, 257–269.
Watanabe, Y. (2002) Late Cenozoic metallogeny of southwest
Hokkaido, Japan. Resour. Geol., 52, 191–210.
Watanabe, Y. (2005) Late Cenozoic evolution of epithermal gold
metallogenic provinces in Kyushu, Japan. Miner. Deposita,
40, 307–323.
Watanabe, Y., Aoki, M. and Yamamoto, K. (1997) Geology, age
and style of the advanced argillic alteration in the Kobui
area, Southwestern Hokkaido, Japan. Resour. Geol., 47,
263–281.
Watanabe, Y., Sato, R. and Sulaksono, A. (2018) A role of potas-
sic alteration for porphyry Cu mineralization: implication for
the absence of porphyry Cu deposits in Japan. Resour. Geol.,
this issue.
Wilkinson, J. J. (2013) Triggers for the formation of por-
phyry ore deposits in magmatic arcs. Nat. Geosci., 6,
917–925.
Yamada, R. and Yoshida, T. (2011) Relationships between Kur-
oko volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits, felsic vol-
canism, and island arc development in the NE Honshu arc,
Japan. Miner. Deposita, 46, 431–448.
Yamada, R., Yoshida, T. and Kimura, J. I. (2012) Chemical and
isotopic characteristics of the Kuroko-forming volcanism.
Resour. Geol., 62, 369–383.
Yamaji, A. (1990) Rapid intra-arc rifting in Miocene northeast
Japan. Tectonics, 9, 365–378.
Yamamoto, T. (2003) Lithofacies and eruption ages of Late Cre-
taceous caldera volcanoes in the Himeji–Yamasaki district,
southwest Japan: implications for ancient large-scale felsic
arc volcanism. Island Arc, 12, 294–309.
Yamamoto, T. (2009) Sedimentary processes caused by felsic
caldera-forming volcanism in the Late Miocene to Early Plio-
cene intra-arc Aizu basin, NE Japan arc. Sediment. Geol.,
220, 337–348.
Yang, K. and Bodnar, R. J. (1994) Magmatic-hydrothermal evo-
lution in the “bottoms” of porphyry copper systems: evi-
dence from silicate melt and aqueous fluid inclusions in
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Why no porphyry copper deposits in Japan?
granitoid intrusions in the Gyeongsang Basin, South Korea.
Internat. Geol. Rev., 36, 608–628.
Yoshida, T., Kimura, J. I., Yamada, R., Acocella, V., Sato, H.,
Zhao, D., Nakajima, J., Hasegawa, A., Okada, T., Honda, S.,
Ishikawa, M., Prima, O. D. A., Kudo, T., Shibazaki, B.,
Tanaka, A. and Imaizumi, T. (2014) Evolution of late Ceno-
zoic magmatism and the crust–mantle structure in the NE
Japan Arc. In Gómez-Tuena, A., Straub, S. M. and
Zellmer, G. F. (eds.) Orogenic andesites and crustal growth.
Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ., 385, 335–387.
© 2018 The Society of Resource Geology
Yun, S. H. and Yang, K. (1999) Cauldron subsidence and ore
mineralization in the southeastern Kyongsang basin: a
review. Econ. Environ. Geol., 32, 217–225.
Zürcher, L., Hammarstrom, J. M., Mars, J. C., Ludington, S. D.
and Zientek, M. L. (2016) Relationship between porphyry
systems, crustal preservation levels, and amount of explora-
tion in magmatic belts of the central Tethyan region. In
Richards, J. P. (ed.) Tectonics and metallogeny of the Tethyan
orogenic belt. Soc. Econ. Geol. Spec. Publ., 19, 213–236.
19