Study of dynamic voltage stability of power

systems
S. C. Tripathy
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
E-mail: sct@iet.auc.dk

Abstract A model of a power system with load dynamics is studied to investigate the voltage collapse phenomenon.
The reactive power demand at a load bus is slowly increased until the voltage magnitude sharply falls to a very low
level. This is caused by saddle node bifurcation. This is also steady state voltage instability or collapse. However, as
the reactive power load is increased slowly from a small value, initially the eigenvalues which were in the left half
s-plane move to the right half s-plane and again return to the left half plane. This is called Hopf bifurcation which
produces node voltage oscillations. This latter phenomenon happens in a dynamic state. If voltage regulator action at the
generator bus is considered and hard limits on the exciter voltage are imposed, then this results in sustained
oscillations of the bus voltage and chaotic transient response.

Keywords chaos; Hopf; saddle node bifurcation; voltage collapse

Inadequate reactive support is the main cause of voltage instability and collapse
in power systems. During the past decade the utilities have reported serious
problems in maintaining network stability, particularly voltage stability in their
power systems.
Saddle-node1 and Hopf 2 bifurcations have been recognised as some of the
reasons, albeit not the only ones,3 for voltage stability problems in a variety
of power system models. Local bifurcations are detected by monitoring the
eigenvalues of the current operating state. As certain parameters in the system
change slowly, allowing the system to quickly recover and maintain a stable
operating point, the system eventually turns unstable, either due to one of the
eigenvalues becoming zero (saddle-node, transcritical, pitchfork bifurcations),
or due to a pair of complex conjugate eigenvalues crossing the imaginary axis
of the complex s-plane (Hopf bifurcation). The instability of the system is
reflected in the state variables (usually represented by angle, frequency and
voltage magnitude) by a continuous change of bus voltage decrease leading to
collapse, increase of frequency and angle leading to loss of synchronism or by
an oscillatory behaviour of the variables. In some cases these bifurcations can
be associated with the power transfer limit of the transmission lines. In other
instances the bifurcations appear to be due to a voltage control problem, such
as the fast-acting automatic voltage regulator (AVR2,4) of the generator. In all
cases bifurcations occur in very stressed systems, i.e. the region of stability of
the current operating point (stable equilibrium point) is small, hence the system
is not able to withstand small perturbations and becomes unstable.
Although many papers have been published by now on various aspects of
voltage collapse, only a few of them deal with the dynamics of a power system
in conjuction with control devices. This paper will contribute towards this goal
via the time domain simulation technique.

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Dynamic voltage stability of power systems 375

Voltage collapse and generic saddle node bifurcation

The power system is modelled as a system of differential equations with a
vector of slowly varying parameters.5
dx/dt= f (x, l), xµRn, lµRm (1)
where x is a state vector that includes the voltage magnitude, angle and angular
speed of the generator. l is typically a vector of real and reactive load powers.
The load power varies with time so that l is a function of time and eqn (1)
may be regarded as differential equations parameterized by the single parameter
l(t): this is rewritten as follows:
dx/dt= f (x, (l(t))), xµRn, tµRm (2)
Voltage collapse is associated with saddle node bifurcation of (1) and (2). It is
assumed that (2) is in Sotomayer’s6 class of generic one-parameter systems and
exploits his results about the structure of saddle node bifurcations in these
systems. The genericity implies that the saddle node bifurcations are robust
and expected to occur in practice.
The saddle node bifurcation is used to model voltage collapse because the
only other bifurcation generic in one-parameter families of systems is the Hopf
bifurcation. The Hopf bifurcation leads to an oscillatory instability as opposed
to monotonic decrease observed in voltage collapse. On the whole, Ref. 6 gives
simple models of voltage collapse before and after saddle node bifurcation.
Before bifurcation, the system has a stable operating point x and all eigen-
0
values of the Jacobian D f (x , l ) have negative real parts. The parameter l
x 0 0
varies slowly, the stable equilibrium x varies and the system state x tracks x
0 0
so that x also represents the system operating point. Thus a static (or a quasi-
0
static) model 0= f (x, l) is used before the bifurcation. The saddle node bifur-
cation consists of the stable equilibrium x coalescing with a nearby unstable
0
‘type one’ equilibrium x and disappearing, lies on the stability boundary of
1
x . Hence it is written that l=l(t*) for the critical value of the parameter at
0
bifurcation and x* for the corresponding equilibrium formed by x and x
0 1
coalescing. The Jacobian D f (x*, l*) is singular and has a unique simple zero
x
eigenvalue with a corresponding right eigenvector u* so that D f (x*, l*)u*=
x
0 and the real parts of other eigenvalues are negative. At bifurcation x* is
unstable and the system dynamics may be approximated by the system state
moving along the particular trajectory w which is the unstable part of the
c+
centre manifold of x*. If w points in a direction in state space so that the volt-
c+
age magnitudes decrease as the system state moves along w , then the voltage
c+
collapse is identified with the movement along w .
c+
The right eigenvector u* is tangent to w at x* so that u* defines the
c+
direction in state space of initial dynamics of voltage collapse. Any of the state
variables can ‘collapse’ as the system dynamics move in the direction u* and
the extent to which a variable collapses is given by the relative magnitude of
the corresponding component of u*.

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376 S. C. Tripathy

The buses at which voltage magnitude will fall most quickly have the largest
components of u*. Indeed, the components of u* that are negative and of
sufficient absolute magnitude can be used to identify a group of buses at which
the collapse is most severe. The method of getting unstable and stable manifolds
by centre manifold reduction technique is described in Ref. 7.

Hopf bifurcation
When a complex conjugate pair of eigenvalues crosses the imaginary axis and
moves into the right half s-plane, the system may start oscillating with a small
amplitude. The onset of this oscillatory phenomenon is descibed by the Hopf
bifurcation theory. At Hopf let c represent the critical point of the variables
and the parameter. Assume:
1. f (x , l )=0 (3)
c c
2. The Jacobian matrix D f (x , l ) has a simple pair of purely
x c c
imaginary eigenvalues p(l )=± jv (4)
c c
3. d(Real( p(l ))/dl≠0 (read as real part of ) (5)
c
Then there is a birth or death of limit cycles depending on the sign of the
derivative d(·)/dl in eqn (5). The value of l is the Hopf bifurcation value. The
c
requirement 3 guarantees a transversal crossing of the imaginary axis by the
pair of complex conjugate eigenvalues (from left to right s-plane at subcritical
point and from right to left s-plane at supercritical point). When the bifurcation
is supercritical, the periodic branch is initially stable and when it is subcritical,
the periodic is initially unstable. Between supercritical Hopf and saddle node
bifurcation the system is again stable.

Power system load model

This load model comprises of a dynamic induction motor representation for
industrial load in parallel with a constant P–Q load and a constant impedance
load representing residential plus commercial load.8,9 The middle busbar in
Fig. 1 is the load bus, where P, Q load demands are voltage- and frequency
dependent as given below.
P (scheduled)=P +P +K dΩ+K (v+TvΩ) (6a)
d 0 1 pw pv
Q (scheduled)=Q +Q +K dΩ+K v+K v2 (6b)
d 0 1 qw qv1 qv2
where P , Q represent the constant real and reactive powers of the motor and
0 0
P , Q are P–Q loads that can be varied for getting load flow results.
1 1
The term K v2 is added to Walve’s linearised model in order to better
qv2
represent the non-linear static Q–V relationship. The significance of the load
model in eqn (6) is that they are expressed in differential equation form which
can be solved simultaneously with the generator swing equation. The load flow

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Dynamic voltage stability of power systems 377

Fig. 1 A simple power system.

is initialised with a flat start of v=1 per unit and d=0. In the next iteration,
new P and Q are calculated with immediate voltage solution v=0
d(sch.) d(sch.)
and d=0. The constants associated with various terms in (6) are given in the
Appendix.

Network equations
The real and reactive powers supplied to the loads by the power system network
are given by the following equations. Note that these equations are stated in
terms of actual admittances of lines as in line flow computation.
P =−E Y v sin(d+h )−E Y v sin(d−d +h )
(calculated) 0 0 0 m m m m
+(Y sin h +Y sin h )v2 (7a)
0 0 m m
Q =E Y v cos(d+h )+E Y v cos(d−d +h )
(calculated) 0 0 0 m m m m
−(Y cos h +Y cos h )v2 (7b)
0 0 m m
The active and reactive power mismatches are:
DP=P −P (8)
(calculated) (scheduled)
DQ=P −P (9)
(calculated) (scheduled)
These are calculated at each iteration of load flow. Figure 1 explains the
meaning of network constants.

Generator swing equation

The dynamics of a finite generator with E as the voltage behind d-axis
m
transient reactance is as follows. In the absence of a voltage regulator E is
m
held constant.
MdΩΩ=−D v∞ +P +E Y v sin(d−d −h )+E2 Y sin h (10)
m m m m m m m m m m
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378 S. C. Tripathy

where
v∞ =v −v0
m m
M=(H/pf 0)
v =2pf 0
0
f =50 Hz
0
M, D and P are the generator inertia constant, damping constant and
m m
mechanical power output respectively. v0 is the synchronous angular speed
and v is the actual angular speed of the generator. v∞ is the angular slip of
m
the generator in rad/s.

State equations
The state variables are (d , v∞ , d, v). Therefore, we can write eqns (6), (7) and
m m
(10) in state variable form as follows:
d∞Ω =v∞ (11)
m m
MvΩ =−D v∞ +P +E Y v sin(d−d −h )+E2 Y sin h (12)
m m m m m m m m m m m
K dΩ=−K v−K v2+Q−Q −Q (13)
qw qv qv2 0 1
T K K vΩ=K K v2+(K K −K K )v2
qw pw pw qv pw qv qw pv
+K (Q +Q −Q)−K (P +P −P) (14)
pw 0 1 qw 0 1
where P and Q are given by eqns (7a) and (7b).

Calculation of equilibrium point

The steady state equilibrium point (d0 , v0∞, d0, v0) can be calculated by setting
m m
the left-hand side of eqns (11)–(14) to zero and solving the non-linear algebraic
equations by the Newton–Raphson method.
The Jacobian matrix of the load flow equations can be calculated by taking
the first partial derivatives of the right-hand side of eqns (11)–(14).
When the equilibrium point becomes the saddle node bifurcation point
(d* , v* , d*, v*), the determinant of the Jacobian becomes zero:
m m
det(J*)=0 (15)
In particular, equating the determinant of (J*) to zero reduces the partial
derivative of eqn (13) with respect to voltage magnitude v to zero yielding the
following equation.10
−K +E Y +E Y −2(K +Y +Y )v*=0 (16)
qv 0 0 m m qv2 0 m
Solving (16) the load voltage magnitude at bifurcation (collapse) point is
obtained.
(−K +E Y +E Y )
v*= qv 0 0 m m (17)
2(K +Y +Y )
qv2 0 m
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Dynamic voltage stability of power systems 379

and eqn (13) becomes

Q +Q −(−K +E Y +E Y )v+(K +Y +Y )v2=0 (18)
0 1 qv 0 0 m m qv2 0 m
From eqns (17) and (18) the reactive power at the bifurcation point is

C D
(−K +E Y +E Y )2
Q* = qv 0 0 m m −Q (19)
1 4(K +Y +Y ) 0
qv2 0 m

Calculation of eigenvalues
In order to find the eigenvalues, eqns (11)–(14) must be linearised around the
operating point (d0 , v0 , d0, v0). This linearisation yields the following matrix.
m m
Assuming small deviations in angles we get:

t 0 1 0 0 u
N N
N(−Em Ym v0) −Dm (Em Ym v0) Em Ym (d0−d0m +hm )N
N M M M M N
D = N(E Y v0)a a a N (20)
x m m 0 0 1 2
N K K K N
N qw qw qw N
a a a
N 3 0 4 5 N
v T Kqw Kpv TK K
qw pv
TK K
qw pv w
where
a =(d0−d0 +h ) (21)
0 m m
a =−v0(E Y (d0+h )+E Y (d0−d0 +h )) (22)
1 0 0 0 m m m m
a =−K 2v0−K +E Y +E Y −(Y +Y )2v0 (23)
2 qv2 qv 0 0 m m 0 m
a =−v0(K E Y (d0−d0 +h )−K E Y ) (24)
3 pw m m m m qw m m
a =v0(K E Y (d0+h )+K E Y (d0−d0 +h ))
4 pw 0 0 0 pw m m m m
−(K E Y +K E Y )v0 (25)
qw 0 0 qw m m
a =K K 2v0+K K −K K −K (E Y +E Y (Y +Y )2v0)
5 pw qv2 pw qv qw pv pw 0 0 m m 0 m
+K (−E Y (d0+h )−E Y (d0−d0 +h )
qw 0 0 0 m m m m
+(Y h +Y h )2v0) (26)
0 0 m m

Hard limits on voltage regulator and chaos

The block diagram of the voltage regulator on the synchronous generator
terminal is shown in Fig. 2. The state variable equations can be easily written

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380 S. C. Tripathy

Fig. 2 Block diagram representation of an exciter control system.

for this voltage regulator. However, the flux linkage equations must be included
in the system of equations.
T ∞ EΩ =E −E (27)
d0 q fd q
E =voltage behind transient reactance of generator.
m
The terminal voltage of the generator, v , should be expressed in terms of E
t q
and d by referring to the generator phasor diagram in the d- and q-axes frame
m
of reference.
1
v= √[(vx∞ +x.E cos(d −d))2+(x.E sin(d −d))2] (28)
t (x∞ +x) d m m m m
d
where x=external line reactance between the generator terminal and the
load bus.
The eigenvalues for the open circuit condition are also given. The voltage
regulator loop is stable as they can be seen from the eigenvalues. The reference
voltage should be set in such a way that we can get terminal voltage error in
the dynamic state and E at the exciter terminal in the steady state. That is
fd0
V =(v )+(E /K K ) (29)
REF t0 fd0 A E
The voltage regulator eigenvalues calculated are as follows:
−38.5685
−0.3040+33.4105i
−0.3040–33.4105i
−3.3995
−0.3369

Digital simulation results

The initial loading condition was P=P +P (with P =0.6, P =0), Q=
0 1 0 1
Q +Q (with Q =1.3, Q =0), P =1.0 pu, E =1.0 pu and slack bus voltage
0 1 0 1 m m
magnitude E =1.0 and v∞=0. A load flow programme was run with the above
0
initial conditions and gave the solutution as d0 =1.21 degrees, v0=0.9035 pu,
m
d0=0.405 degrees and v =0. The system was stable at this point. The load
m
flow programme was run repeatedly on the Q–V curve to determine the saddle
node bifurcation point by increasing the value of Q in small steps (the real
1
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Dynamic voltage stability of power systems 381

Fig. 3 Eigenvalue graph.

power loads P and P remaining constant), until the programme gave no

0 1
solution. Finally Q=4.44 gave the saddle node bifurcation point.
In the second part of the study the eigenvalues were calculated by using
MATLAB corresponding to the reactive power load. First the system was
stable at Q =1.3 pu and Q =0. After increasing Q in steps of 0.2 the system
0 1 1
was stable at Q=4.36 pu. The two eigenvalues at Q=4.38 went to the right
half of the s-plane. The system became unstable. This was the Hopf bifurcation
point. The eigenvalues were: −1.429±20.28i, −0.01±1.60i.
Now again as the reactive power was increased the complex eigenvalues
returned to the left half s-plane, the load voltage magnitude and angle were
v=0.5, d=10.387 degrees. At Q=4.44 two eigenvalues were real and one of
them was in the right half s-plane, others were in the left half s-plane: 26.79,
−6.80, −0.184±2.06i. The system was unstable and again this was the saddle
node bifurcation point. The eigenvalue graph is given in Fig. 3.
For studying the response of the power system in the transition state between
the initial operating point at Q =0 and bifurcation points, Q was increased at
1 1
each time step of Dt=0.002 s while solving the differential eqns (11)–(14). The
ramp function for the reactive power was Q =Q +100t , t =t +Dt. At
1(t1) 1(t ) 1 1 0
time t =0.6 s, the load voltage bus voltage was down0 at zero while other state
1
variables went up in magnitude, showing unstable condition. Thus voltage col-
lapse was demonstrated. The transient responses for v, d and d are shown in
m
Fig. 4. If the hard limits on the voltage regulator amplifier were imposed as shown
in Fig. 2, the transient response was sustained and chaotic.

Conclusions
The paper has presented the principle of system modelling for studying voltage
collapse and chaos. The load flow study has been used to calculate the nominal
operating point which is subsequently used for eigenvalue analysis. The effect
of reactive power load on voltage stability shows that as reactive power
increases, the eigenvalues which are in the left half s-plane move to the right
half of the plane. But as we continue to increase the reactive power the
eigenvalues return to the left half of the plane. This is due to Hopf bifurcation.

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382 S. C. Tripathy

Fig. 4 Voltage magnitude and angle at load bus when bifurcation occurs.

If the reactive power is further increased the system eventually collapses. This
physical instability is due to saddle node bifurcation. If hard limits are imposed
in the voltage regulator, the system of differential equations becomes non-
linear and the oscillations around the Hopf bifurcation point are sustained.
Also the response becomes chaotic.

References
1 H. D. Chiang, I. Dobson, R. J. Thomas, J. B. Thorp and L. F. Ahmed, ‘On voltage collapse
in electric power systems’, IEEE T rans. Power Syst., 5(2) (1990), 601–607.
2 E. D. Abed and P. P. Varaiya, ‘Nonlinear oscillations in power systems’, Int. J. Electrical
Power Energy Syst., 6(1) (1984), 37–43.
3 C. W. Tan, M. Verghese, P. Varaiya and F. Wu, ‘Bifurcation, chaos and voltage collapse in
power systems’, Proc. IEEE, 83(11) (1995), 1484–1496.
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(1968), 528–536.
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Appendix

Load parameters:
K =0.4 K =0.3 K =0.3 K =−2.8
pw pv qw qv
K =2.1 T =8.5 P =0.6 Q =1.3
qv2 0 0
P =0 Q =0
1 1
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Dynamic voltage stability of power systems 383

Network and generator parameters

Y =20 h =−5.0° E =1.0 X =1.7
0 0 0 d
Y =5 h =−5.0° E =1.0 v =377 rad/s
m m m 0
P =1.0 D =0.05 M=0.3 X∞ =0.1
m m d

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