Initial Conditions Definition:

It’s the initial state which describe the energy stored in each element in the circuit as
follows:
 Resistor R: Bypass element don’t store energy just drop the voltage and current.
 Inductor L : storage element which store energy as shape of current I (0), so that
representation of the Inductor in the Laplace “S” domain:
 Series with inductor impedance SL by adding voltage source with value of L*I(0)
 Parallel with Inductor impedance SL by adding current source with value of I(0)/S
 Capacitor C: storage element which store energy as shape of voltage V (0), so that
representation of the Capacitor in the Laplace “S” domain:
 Series with capacitor impedance 1/SC by adding voltage source with value of V(0)/S
 Parallel with capacitor impedance 1/SC by adding current source with value of C*V(0)
So that we can say that Initial conditions are completely specified only when both voltage for
all capacitors and current and all inductors is known.
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Capacitor Initial Conditions:

Describe the energy stored in shape of Voltage. This charge makes the voltage across the
capacitor equals V (0), so that representation of the Capacitor in the Laplace “S” domain:
 Series with capacitor impedance 1/SC by adding voltage source with value of V(0)/S
 Parallel with capacitor impedance 1/SC by adding current source with value of C*V(0)
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Inductor Initial Conditions:

Describe the energy stored in shape of current. This charge makes the current across the
capacitor equals I (0), so that representation of the Inductor in the Laplace “S” domain:
 Series with inductor impedance SL by adding voltage source with value of L*I(0)
 Parallel with Inductor impedance SL by adding current source with value of I(0)/S
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Zero Initial Conditions:

 Means that capacitor don’t store any energy during charging V (0) =0, so we represent
capacitor in s domain by his impedance only 1/SC without any additional sources.

 Means that inductor don’t store any energy during charging I (0) =0, so we represent
inductor in s domain by his impedance only SL without any additional sources.

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Transfer Function Definition:

Describe the s-domain relation between output signal over input signal in case of zero
initial conditions only (Zero stored energy), so we can say that H(s) =Output(s)/Input(s).
Initial and Final Value Theorem:
We can use it to determine the value of the time function when t=0 without finding the
inverse transform, this called as initial value .Also determines the steady-state value of the
system response without finding the invers transform ,this called as final value.

 Initial Value : Determines the value of the time function when t=0 without finding the
inverse transform by using these steps:
1- Find function in s-domain H(s) or F(s) as example.
2- Multiply this function by s as S*H(s) or S*F(s) as example.
3- Take the limit of S*H(s) or S*F(s) as example when S goes to infinity.
4- The result is value of h (t) or f (t) as example when t equals to zero.
 Final Value : Determines the steady-state value of the system response without finding
the invers transform by using these steps:
1. Find function in s-domain H(s) or F(s) as example.
2. Multiply this function by s as S*H(s) or S*F(s) as example.
3. Take the limit of S*H(s) or S*F(s) as example when S goes to zero.
4. The result is value of h (t) or f (t) as example when t equals to infinity.
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Impulse Response Definition:

In this type of response the input function (Impulse Function) in s-domain equals to 1 as
we know the transfer function is the ratio in s-domain between output over input so that Output
(s) = H(s)*Input(s) .But input(s)=1 so that Output(s)=H(s) and we use inverse Laplace to
determine the output in time domain.

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Unit Step Response Definition:

In this type of response the input function (Step Function) in s-domain equals to 1/s as we
know the transfer function is the ratio in s-domain between output over input so that Output (s) =
H(s)*Input(s) .But input(s)=1/s so that Output(s)=H(s)/s and we use inverse Laplace to determine
the output in time domain.

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Sinusoidal Steady state Response Definition:

In this type of response the input sources in which the value of the voltage and/or
current varies with time as its sinusoidal input𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 .

We can use two methods to find Sinusoidal Steady State Response as following:

Method 1: By expressing the input source a complex exponential input of the form
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 so that s-domain input source will be 𝑋(𝑠) = 1/(𝑠 − 𝑗𝑤), as we know the
transfer function is the ratio in s-domain between output over input so that Output (s) =
H(s)*Input(s) so that 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠)/(𝑠 − 𝑗𝑤) so we can using Partial Fraction Expansion
 to get the transient response component dies out with time. Then, the steady-state response
is described as:

𝑦𝑠𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐻(𝑗𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡

Method 2: By expressing the input source a phasor form X(w) which contains two
parts magnitude of X(w) and angel of input seta ,then we takes the frequency s=jw and
substitute at the value of H(s) by replacing s by s=jw and convert this value of transfer
function into phasor form .The final output Y(w) = H(w)*X(w) ,all will be in phasor form
so we can multiply the magnitude and add the angels and get Y(w) also in phasor form as
follows :

𝑌(𝑤) = |𝑌(𝑗𝜔)|∠𝑌(𝑗𝜔)

Finally it will be represented by sinusoidal form as follows:

𝑦𝑠𝑠(𝑡) = |𝑌(𝑗𝜔)|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∠𝑌(𝑗𝜔)

Method 2 is the simplest comparing to method 1 because of the following:

1. Very easy to perform algebra with the phasor form.

2. Reduce differential equations to algebraic equations.

Final answer of the two methods is different as following:

In Method 1, the output is in exponential form which contains the transient response
component dies out with time. In Method 2, the steady-state response to sinusoid of a
certain frequency is a sinusoid at the same frequency, scaled by the magnitude of the
frequency response function; the response includes a phase contribution from the
frequency response function.

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Why Using Sinusoidal Steady State Sources:

1. Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Consumption occur under sinusoidal

steady-state behavior.

2. Understanding the behavior of sinusoidal circuits makes it easy to predict the

behavior of circuits with non-sinusoidal ones.

3. Steady state sinusoidal behavior often simplifies the design of electrical systems
Poles and Zeros Definitions:

As defined, the transfer function is a rational function in the complex variable

𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔, It is often convenient to factor the polynomials in the numerator and
denominator, and to write the transfer function in terms of those factors:
𝑵(𝒔) (𝑺 − 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔)
𝑯(𝒔) = = 𝑲
𝑫(𝒔) (𝑺 − 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔)

 K: defined as the gain of the transfer function which is the real coefficients defined by
the system’s differential equation.
 Zeros: are the roots of the equation when N(s) =0 .It is usual to mark a zero location by
a circle (o) in pole-zero plots
 Poles: are the roots of the equation when D(s) =0.It is usual to mark a pole location a
cross (x).

The poles and zeros must be either purely real, or appear in complex conjugate
pairs, also the poles and zeros are properties of the transfer function, and therefore of the
differential equation describing the input-output system dynamics. Together with the
gain constant K they completely characterize the differential equation, and provide a
complete description of the system.

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System Stability:
The stability of a linear system may be determined directly from its transfer function,
specifically determined from the system poles as following:

 System Stable:

The linear system to be stable, all of its poles must have negative real parts, this means all
poles lie within the left-half of the s-plane.

 System Un-Stable:
The linear system to be un-stable, if any pole has a positive real part, this means its lying in
the right half of the s-plane. Also in case of repeated poles at origin, this means in case of 1/𝑠 2

 System Critically Stable:

The linear system to be critically stable, if having one or more poles lying on the
imaginary axis of the s-plane has non-decaying oscillatory components in its homogeneous
response this means in case of 1/𝑠 and in case of complex conjugate pairs with zero real part
(+/- jw)