1

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by

polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability and maintains
flexibility over a wide temperature range. It is sold either as solid rubber or in latex form, and
is used in wide variety of products such as laptop sleeves, orthopaedic braces (wrist, knee,
etc.), electrical insulation, liquid and sheet applied elastomeric membranes or flashings,
and automotive fan belts.

So, Neoprene is a soft, flexible, and durable synthetic sponge rubber that has the following
unique features,

• Water Resistance: Neoprene (rubber) sheds water like a duck, making it an ideal outdoor
material and an excellent choice for surf suits, wet (diving) suits and dry suits.

• Weather Resistance: Neoprene (rubber) resists degradation from sunlight, ozone, oxidation,
rain, snow, sand and dust- all weather conditions.

• Thermal and Moisture Insulation: the gas cells of neoprene (rubber) make it an ideal
insulation material, most notably in wetsuits and can holders.

• Stretchable: Neoprene (rubber) is elastic and form-fitting; it conforms to objects/equipment

of varying sizes and shapes.

• Cushioning and Protection: Neoprene (rubber) comes in various thickness and density to
absorb the shock of everyday handling (shock protection)- ideal for protective cover not
only for many equipment such as cameras, cellular phones but also human body such as
knee and elbow pads (braces) etc.

• Lightweight and Buoyancy: a foamed neoprene (rubber) containing gas cells and therefore
is light weight and can float on the water.

• Chemical Resistant: Neoprene (rubber) performs well in contact with oils and many
chemicals and remains useful over a wide temperature range. That is why many companies
use neoprene (rubber) for protective gear and clothing, such as gloves (for food processing)
and aprons.
 2

• Latex Free: Since neoprene is a synthetic rubber, there is no latex in neoprene- no allergy
that associated with latex will be found in neoprene. [1]

The project report is divided in total 8 chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction which is discussed
above. Chapter 2 is the Literature Survey which starting from the history includes properties and
various routes of manufacturing of neoprene rubber. Material balance and Energy balance
around major equipment of the plant is shown in Chapter 3 and 4 respectively. Chapter 5 is the
Equipment Design which includes the designing of major equipment of the plant such as reactor,
dryer and mixer. Cost estimation is carried out in Chapter number 6 which includes salient
features of cost estimation such as calculation of pay out period, rate of return, break even
analysis etc. Chapter 7 is the Plant Location and Layout which includes all the factors for
selecting the plant site.
 3

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This Chapter starting with the historical perspective involves the detailed information about
neoprene. It includes the physical and mechanical properties, thermal properties, various
environmental performance, different applications and various routes for manufacture of
neoprene and detailed description of emulsion polymerization.

2.1-Historical Perspective

Polychloroprene also known as Neoprene was invented by DuPont scientists on April 17, 1930
after Dr Elmer K. Bolton of DuPont attended a lecture by Fr Julius Arthur Nieuwland, a
professor of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame. Nieuwland's research was focused
on acetylene chemistry and during the course of his work he produced divinyl acetylene, a jelly
that firms into an elastic compound similar to rubber when passed over sulfur dichloride. After
DuPont purchased the patent rights from the university, Wallace Carothers of DuPont took
over commercial development of Nieuwland's discovery in collaboration with Nieuwland
himself. Arnold Collins at DuPont focused on monovinyl acetylene and reacted the substance
with hydrogen chloride gas, manufacturing chloroprene. (Smith,1985)

DuPont first marketed the compound in 1931 under the trade name DuPrene, but its
commercial possibilities were limited by the original manufacturing process, which left the
product with a foul odour. A new process was developed, which eliminated the odour-causing
by-products and halved production costs, and the company began selling the material to
manufacturers of finished end-products. To prevent shoddy manufacturers from harming the
product's reputation, the trademark DuPrene was restricted to apply only to the material sold
by DuPont. (Hounshell et al.,1988)

Since the company itself did not manufacture any DuPrene-containing end products, the
trademark was dropped in 1937 and replaced with a generic name, neoprene, in an attempt "to
signify that the material is an ingredient, not a finished consumer product”. DuPont then
 4

worked extensively to generate demand for its product, implementing a marketing strategy that
included publishing its own technical journal, which extensively publicized neoprene's uses as
well as advertising other companies' neoprene-based products. By 1939, sales of neoprene were
generating profits over $300,000 for the company (equivalent to $5,165,311 in 2016).

Some of the general details, synthesis, physical properties, mechanical properties as well as
chemical resistance of neoprene is shown in Table 2.1 to Table 2.8. (Wypych,2012)

Table 2.1: General information about Neoprene

GENERAL
Common name polychloroprene, Neoprene
CAS name 1,3-butadiene, 2-chloro-, homopolymer
Acronym CR
CAS number 9010-98-4

Table 2.2: History about Neoprene

HISTORY

Person to discover Wallace Carothers and Julius Arthur Nieuwland

Date April 17, 1930

Polychloroprene was invented by DuPont scientists on April
17, 1930 after Dr. Elmer K. Bolton of DuPont laboratories
Details
attended a lecture by Fr. Julius Arthur Nieuwland, a professor
of chemistry at the University of Notre Dame.

Table 2.3: Synthesis information

SYNTHESIS Units Values

Monomer structure chloroprene, C4H5Cl
Monomer CAS number 126-99-8
Monomer molecular
g/mol 88.54
weight
Heat of polymerization J/gm 768
Crystallinity % 18-34
 5

Table 2.4: Major producers

COMMERCIAL
POLYMERS
Some manufacturers DuPont, Bayer, EniChem, Denki Kagaku Kogyo
Trade names Neoprene

Table 2.5: Physical properties

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES Units Values

Density at 20°C g/cc 1.22-1.25
Colour white, amber, gray
odour odourless, mild
Melting temperature, DSC °C >92
Decomposition temperature °C >200
Thermal conductivity, 20°C W m-1 K-1 0.15-0.19
Glass transition temperature °C -25 to -46
Specific heat capacity J K-1 kg-1 2200
Heat of fusion kJ mol-1 8.37
Surface tension mN m-1 43.8
Diffusion coefficient of nitrogen cm2 s-1x106 0.24
Diffusion coefficient of oxygen cm2 s-1x106 0.38

Table 2.6: Mechanical properties

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Units Values

Tensile strength MPa 10.3-20.9
Tensile stress at yield MPa 0.57
Elongation % 380-955
Tear strength N mm-1 8.8-50
Compression set, 24h 70o % 10-32

Table 2.7: Chemical resistance

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Acid dilute/concentrated Good
 6

Alcohols Good
Alkalis Good
Aliphatic hydrocarbons Good
Aromatic hydrocarbons Fair to poor
Esters Fair to poor
Greases & oils Poor
Ketones Fair to poor

Table 2.8: Flammability and toxicity

FLAMMABILITY AND TOXICITY Units Values

Ignition temperature °C >260
Limiting oxygen index %O2 28-47
Heat Release kW m-2 314
TLV, ACGIH mg m-3 2
OSHA mg m-3 3.3

2.2 Applications:

2.2.1 General:

Neoprene resists degradation more than natural or synthetic rubber. This relative inertness
makes it well suited for demanding applications such as gaskets, hoses, and corrosion-
resistant coatings. It can be used as a base for adhesives, noise isolation in
power transformer installations, and as padding in external metal cases to protect the contents
while allowing a snug fit. It resists burning better than exclusively hydrocarbon based rubbers,
resulting in its appearance in weather stripping for fire doors and in combat related attire such
as gloves and face masks. Because of its tolerance of extreme conditions, neoprene is used to
line landfills. Neoprene's burn point is around 260°C (500°F). Neoprene foam is also used in
many applications. Neoprene foam can be produced in either closed-cell or open-cell form. The
closed-cell form is waterproof, less compressible and more expensive. The open-cell form can
be breathable.
 7

2.2.2 Civil engineering:

Neoprene is used as a load bearing base, usually between two prefabricated reinforced concrete
elements or steel plates as well to evenly guide force from one element to another.

2.2.3 Aquatics:

Neoprene is commonly used as a material for fly fishing waders, as it provides excellent
insulation against cold. Neoprene waders are usually about 5 mm thick, and in the medium
price range as compared to cheaper materials such as nylon and rubber. However, neoprene is
less expensive than breathable fabrics. A foamed neoprene containing gas cells is used as an
insulation material, most notably in wetsuits. Foamed neoprene is also used in other insulation
and shock-protection (packing) applications. In its native state, neoprene is a very pliable
rubber-like material, with no better insulating properties than rubber or other solid plastics. For
diving and exposure protection applications, neoprene is manufactured by foaming the plastic
with nitrogen gas, for the insulation properties of the tiny enclosed and separated gas bubbles
(nitrogen is used for chemical convenience, not because it is superior to air as an insulator. The
foam cells thus created also make the material quite buoyant, and the diver must compensate
for this by wearing weights. Thick wet suits made at the extreme end of their cold water
protection are usually made of 7 mm thick neoprene. Since foam neoprene contains gas
pockets, the material compresses under water pressure, getting thinner at greater depths; a
7 mm neoprene wet suit offers much less exposure protection under 100 feet of water than at
the surface. A recent advance in neoprene for wet suits is the "super-flex" variety, which
mixes spandex into the neoprene for greater flexibility.

2.2.4 Home accessories:

Recently, neoprene has become a favourite material for lifestyle and other home accessories
including laptop sleeves, tablet holders, remote controls, mouse pads, and cycling chamois. In
this market, it sometimes competes with LRPu (low-resilience polyurethane), which is a
sturdier (more impact-resistant) but less-used material.

2.2.5 Music:

The Rhodes piano used hammer tips made of neoprene in its electric pianos, after changing
from felt hammers around 1970. Neoprene is also used for drum practice pads.
 8

2.2.6 Hydroponic gardening:

Hydroponic and aerated gardening systems make use of small neoprene inserts to hold plants
in place while propagating cuttings, or using net cups. Inserts are relatively small, ranging in
size from 1.5 to 5 inches (4 to 13 cm). Neoprene is a good choice for supporting plants because
of its flexibility and softness, allowing plants to be held securely in place without the chance
of causing damage to the stem. Neoprene root covers also help block out light from entering
the rooting chamber of hydroponic systems, allowing for better root growth and to help deter
the growth of algae.

2.2.7 Other:

Neoprene is used for Halloween masks and masks used for face protection, for insulating CPU
sockets, to make waterproof automotive seat covers, in liquid and sheet-applied elastomeric
roof membranes or flashings, and in a neoprene-spandex mixture for manufacture
of wheelchair positioning harnesses. Because of its chemical resistance and overall durability,
neoprene is sometimes used in the manufacture of dishwashing gloves, especially as an
alternative to latex. In fashion, neoprene has been used by designers such as Gareth
Pugh, Balenciaga, Rick Owens, Lanvin and Vera Wang. This trend, promoted by street style
bloggers such as Jim Joquico of Fashion Chameleon, gained traction and trickled down to
mainstream fashion around 2014. [2]

2.3 Process Selection:

Chloroprene, 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene monomer undergoes dimerization and

autopolymerization when stored at ordinary temperatures. These reactions occur
simultaneously by different mechanisms. Free-radical processes normally initiate
autopolymerizations. The dimerization reactions are thermally initiated.

2.3.1 Dimerization:

The dimerization reactions follow second-order kinetics and involve 2 + 2 and 4 + 2 concerted
and nonconcerted cycloaddition reactions. Alternate mechanisms involving Cope
rearrangements account for the formation of dichloro-cyclooctadiene. The rate of dimer
formation is affected both by the temperature and the monomer concentration. Owing to the
high (20.9–24 kcal mol−1) activation energy, storage tank temperature is a powerful tool for
controlling rates of dimerization (Lovell and El-Aasser,1997). Free-radical inhibitors do not
 9

inhibit chloroprene and dichlorobutadiene dimerization (Hrabak and Webr,1967). As

dimerization is one of the major sources of the exothermic heat of reaction, storage vessel
temperature control is of primary concern in avoiding uncontrollable runaway reaction during
commercial monomer synthesis and storage of chloroprene and dichlorobutadiene and hence
it is less practiced.

2.3.2 Bulk Polymerization:

Bulk polymerization is strongly catalyzed by peroxides such as cumene hydroperoxide or

chloroprene peroxides. Chloroprene peroxides are formed either by deliberate or adventitious
exposure of monomer to oxygen. Maynard showed that less than 0.1% polymer was formed
when specially purified chloroprene monomer was allowed to age in the dark at ambient
temperatures for 8 weeks. When chloroprene monomer was exposed to 0.1 mol% oxygen and
aged in a similar manner, 19% polymer was formed in only 3 days. Thus, oxygen absorption
leading to peroxide formation is a major safety concern in the large-scale manufacture and
storage of chloroprene and dichlorobutadiene and hence bulk polymerization is also less
practiced.

2.3.3 Emulsion Polymerization:

Commercial polymers are made by aqueous batch, semi continuous (semi batch), or continuous
free-radical emulsion polymerization. The emulsion system is composed of five components:
monomer, surfactant, water, chain transfer agent (Terminator), and initiator. Organic fatty acid
salts, sulfonic acid salts, or substituted diterpene salts (sodium abietate) derived from synthetic
or natural (eg. pine trees) sources constitute the surfactants most commonly employed to
stabilize the colloid for emulsion polymerization. Water forms the continuous phase that
provides low emulsion viscosity, aids in heat transfer, and compartmentalizes polymerization
to allow the rapid formation of high molecular weight polymer where branching can be
effectively controlled. Emulsion polymerizations are faster than bulk, solution, or suspension
and yield polymers having a much higher molecular weight (Haward ,1949)). When used at
0.01–1.5 wt% concentrations, dodecyl mercaptan, iodoform, or tetra ethyl thiuram disulphide
are efficient chain-transfer agents.

Polychloroprene emulsion polymerization follows the Smith–Ewert kinetics, developed

initially for polystyrene (Lovell and El-Aasser ,1997). On mixing the monomer, water, and
surfactant under high shear, the surfactant molecules will cluster into monomer swollen
 10

micelles and monomer droplets. The micelles number 1017–1018 micelles dm−3 having
diameters ranging from 50 to 150˚A. The bulk of the monomer resides in the surfactant-
stabilized monomer droplets that number 109–1011 dm−3, with particle diameter ranging from
1 to10 µm. The initiators are generally formed in situ by redox reactions of oxidants such as
alkali persulfates or peroxides and reducing agents such as alkali sulfites, reducing
carbohydrates, or reducing acids. Upon addition of the initiator to the emulsion, free radicals
are formed in the emulsion aqueous phase at a rate of 1016–1018 radicals dm−3 s−1.

Harkins’s theory (Napper,1983) suggests that emulsion polymerization occurs in three

intervals. During interval I, or the particle formation phase, the free radicals from initiators
either react with monomer in the aqueous phase to propagate oligomeric chains (homogeneous
nucleation), enter the micelles to initiate polymerization (micellular nucleation), or less
frequently initiate polymerization in the much larger and sparser monomer droplets (droplet
nucleation). As polymerization continues all micelles continue to grow and are ultimately
converted into polymer particles, signaling the start of interval II. During interval II, the
polymer particles continue to grow as more monomer diffuses from the droplets to the locus of
polymerization. When all monomer has diffused from the droplets to the particles, the
monomer droplets disappear, signaling the beginning of interval III. During interval III,
polymerization rates initially decrease as the concentration of the monomer has been reduced
significantly. At the latter stages of interval III, polymerization rates increase again because of
decreased termination frequency of growing radicals resulting from high internal viscosity. At
a desired conversion of the monomer, chloroprene–sulfur copolymerization is quenched with
the aid of tetra ethyl thiuram disulphide.

2.4-Process Description:

Commercial polychloroprene rubber is manufactured by aqueous free-radical emulsion

polymerization followed by isolation of the solid polymer by one of several processes: Isolation
of the film by vacuum filtration, drum drying, extruder isolation, precipitation and drying or
spray drying. Isolation of powdered polychloroprene has been reviewed (Hargreaves,1968). Of
the methods cited, Vacuum filtration and drum drying isolation are commercially important.
The large-scale commercial manufacture of polychloroprene consists of eight or nine unit
operations:
 11

Final flowsheet
 12

(1) Monomer solution makeup and Water solution makeup

(2) Emulsification
(3) Polymerization
(4) Mixing with acid (For pH control)
(6) Isolation of film by Rotary Vacuum Drum Filter (RVDF)
(7) Drying of film
(8) Roping
(9) Cutting and packaging (25kg)

The process for manufacture of a chloroprene–sulfur copolymer taken from the patent literature
will illustrate the batch process which is showed in Figure 2.1 (Collins,1941).

The monomer solution makeup involves addition and solubilisation of elemental sulfur in the
chloroprene monomer. The water solution is made in a second vessel. Demineralised water and
sodium oleate (dispersant) are mixed to form the water solution. The monomer and water
solutions are sent to emulsifier to form an oil-in-water emulsion. This emulsion solubilizes the
monomer. In the patent example, the emulsion was added to the reactor and the temperature
was increased to 40◦C polymerization temperature.

The reactors in modern commercial processes are brine-jacketed, glass-lined, and fitted with a
glass-lined agitator. Glass-lined construction is important to prevent multivalent cations from
contaminating the system, and precipitating polymer as coagulum.

Polymerization was initiated by addition of an aqueous potassium persulfate (5% solution as

initiator) to the reactor. The emulsion temperature was maintained near 40°C by control of a
combination of three variables,

(1) reactor jacket temperature,

(2) agitator speed, and
(3) catalyst addition rate.

The progress of polymerization (Barrows and Scott,1948) was measured by specific gravity,
which is continually monitored by computer in modern commercial processes. In the patent
example, the initial monomer emulsion had 0.95 specific gravity. During polymerization, the
specific gravity increased to a goal value owing to continue formation of polymer having
 13

nominal 1.23 specific gravity. The free-radical polymerization was quenched at 91% monomer
conversion (1.069 specific gravity) by the addition of tetraethyl thiuram disulfide (terminator).

The emulsion was cooled to 20°C. At this point in the process, the emulsion can be further
processed into a dry polymer or sold as a liquid dispersion. Conversion to the dry polymer
involved destabilization of the active surfactant, freeze coagulation, and drying. The reacted
mass was having pH of nearly 12 hence it is neutralized by using 10% acetic acid solution in
the mixer. Acidified emulsion was contacted with the surface of a Rotary Vacuum Drum Filter
(RVDF) which operates under vacuum and forms the film of polymer on the surface. The
coagulated film was skived from the roll by a stationary knife plus it is also continuously water
washed by the spray of water to remove electrolytes and other impurities added or formed
during polymerization.

The film was then conveyed onto cloth-covered aluminium girts where it was carried through
an air-circulating rotary dryer having heating compartments with temperatures that start from
140°C. Simultaneously heating of polymer film is also carried out in the dryer to make polymer
suitable for further processing. In a modern commercial process, the film is gathered into a
rope and then conveyed to cutters, where it is cut into small chips. The product is then packaged
into bags weighing 25 kg each.

The descriptions presented above are intended as an overview of polychloroprene technology

as practiced over the commercial life of polychloroprene. Product and processes have changed
since 1930 to meet changing consumer needs, to upgrade product quality, to improve the
quality of the workplace and environment, to improve efficiency of operation, and to meet the
demands of a changing global economy. The commercial chloroprene–sulfur copolymers were
commercialized in 1937 (White,1943). Low temperature polymerizations for adhesive
applications were discovered in the late 1940s. The mercaptan-modified chloroprene
homopolymers were commercialized in 1950. The crystallization-resistant chloroprene
dichlorobutadiene copolymers were introduced in 1951. The fluid polychloroprene polymers
were commercialized in the late 1950s. The sol–gel blends or “pre-crosslinked” grades were
introduced in the 1960s for improved process-ability. Modifications to these basic types have
continued into the twenty-first century.
 14

CHAPTER 3
MATERIAL BALANCE

This Chapter includes detailed material balance across the major equipment of the neoprene
plant. The material and energy balance is performed across all the equipment and final overall
material balance is shown in Figure 3.2 at the end of the Chapter. (Bhatt, 1976)

If it is desired to have the neoprene rubber in the form of latex then this whole calculation will
be limited to the output of the mixer. Rubber in the form of liquid dispersant is generally
collected from the mixer itself. If dry polymer is required then isolation by vacuum filtration
and further processing is carried out. In this report mass and energy balances are considered
for the whole plant including RVDF and dryer also.

Capacity of plant: 10866 TPA (tons per annum)

Assuming one hour of operation and 330 day per Year
Capacity of production: = 10866 tons/year
= 32.9 tons/day
= 1.372 ton/hr
= 1372 kg/hr

The key to successful production of NR (Neoprene Rubber) is the reaction all the other unit
operations may differ from plant to plant. This is Neoprene-Sulfur copolymer so their reactor
is charged according to the typical recipe as given in the literature (patent 2,264,173).

Although the process described is of batch type, the reactor can be run in continuous manner
also just like fermentation reactors. The timing for feeding the reactants, polymerization
reaction and cooling and for emptying and cleaning of the reactor is considered and instead of
only batch reaction time, this summation of all the times is taken for the design purpose and
thus we can run the plant in continuous manner.

Let, TF = time needed for feeding = 0.5 hour

TR = time required for the reaction and cooling = 4 hour
 15

TE = time required for emptying and cleaning the reactor = 1.5 hour
TB = total batch time
= TF + TR + TE
= 6 hours

3.1 Material Balance around Emulsifier unit:

In emulsifier unit, there will be addition of monomer solution and water solution (water plus
sodium oleate) to make the required emulsion for the reactor. The proportions of the
components are shown in Table 3.1 and 3.2.

Water solution

Emulsifier
Monomer Emulsion
Solution unit mixture

Table 3.1: Mass balance of input and output streams of emulsifier unit

Component Parts (kg) (Kg/hr)

100 parts
Monomer solution 1500
chloroprene
0.4 parts sulfur 6
Input
100 parts deionized
Water solution 1500
water
4 parts sodium oleate 60

Output Emulsion 204.4 parts water 3066

3.2 Material Balance around Reactor:

Input Output
(Emulsion of Reactor (Neoprene,
Monomer solution Unreacted monomer
And Water solution, Miscellaneous)
Initiator,
Terminator)
 16

Table 3.2: Input of the reactor

Component Parts (kg) Charge (Kg/hr)

Monomer solution 100 parts chloroprene 1500

0.4 parts sulfur 6
Water solution 100 parts deionized water 1500
4 parts sodium oleate 60
Initiator 5.7 parts water 85.5
0.3 parts potassium
4.5
persulfate
Terminator 3.744 parts water 56
1.456 parts Tetra Ethyl
22
Thiuram Disulfide

Total 215.6 3234

The reaction is stopped by the addition of terminator (28% Tetra Ethyl Thiuram Disulfide
solution) and the conversion achieved was 91%. Since the conversion is 91%, monomer
flowrate is chosen as 1500kg/hr to get neoprene flowrate as 1372kg/hr. The output of the
reactor consists of Polychloroprene, Unreacted chloroprene and water solution of initiators and
terminators which is shown in Table 3.3. All the reacted mass which is having the pH as 12
goes into the mixer for the neutralization by 10% acetic acid solution. Material balance around
mixer is shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.3: Output of the reactor

Component Parts (kg) (Kg/hr)

Polychloroprene 91 1365

Unreacted monomer 9 135

Miscellaneous Mixture 113.6 1734

Total 215.6 3234

 17

3.3 Material Balance around mixer:

Output of the Mixer Mixture of pH

reactor ⁓ 6 to 7

10% acetic acid

Table 3.4: Mass balance of input and output streams of Mixer

Component Parts (kg) (Kg/hr)

Output of the reactor 215.6 3234

Acid solution 0.05 parts acetic acid 0.75

Input
0.45 parts water 6.75

Total 216.1 3241.5

Output Mixture of pH ⁓ 6 to 7 216.1 3241.5

The output of the mixer is treated in the Rotary Vacuum Drum Filter (RVDF) for the separation
of polymer film and unreacted monomer as well as water solution of all the other component.
The Schematic diagram of RVDF is shown in the Figure 3.1 which operates under vacuum
which filters out the solution of initiator, terminator, acid and water and it continuously forms
the sheet of polymer which is skived from the roll by a stationary knife and unreacted mass
gets separated. Table 3.5 shows the mass balance around RVDF.

3.4 Material Balance around RVDF:

NR sheet

Output from the

Mixer RVDF
And water

Miscellaneous
 18

Table 3.5: Mass balance of input and output streams of RVDF

Component Parts (kg) (Kg/hr)

Input Mixture of pH ⁓ 6 to 7 216.1 3241.5

water 18.2 273

Polychloroprene (wet) 109.2 1638

Output
Miscellaneous Mixture 125.1 1876.5

Total 234.3 3514.5

From the RVDF the film is continuously cut and water washed because of which polymer sheet
contains some amount of moisture that needs to be removed before it is sold into the market so
the sheet is passed through the rotary drier.

Figure 3.5 shows the schematic diagram of a RVDF. Polymer cake having colloidal solution
passes through the RVDF and from the filter cloth a film of neoprene is continuously cut and
washed by water for the removal of some types of electrolytes and other impurities.

Fig. 3.1: Schematic diagram of RVDF [3]

 19

3.5 Material Balance around Rotary dryer:

Moisture
Evaporated
Dryer
Wet sheet

Dry polymer

Moisture content on dry basis:

1. Initial moisture content
kg of moisture
Initial moisture content =
kg of dry solid
273
Initial moisture content =
1365
X1 =Initial moisture content = 0.20
% Initial moisture content = 20 %
2. Final moisture content
It is desired that the final moisture content in NR crumbs should be less than 1 %
So, here it is considered as 0.5 %
kg of moisture
Final moisture content 𝑋2 = = 5×10−3
kg of dry solid
kg of moisture
Final moisture content =
kg of dry solid
kg of moisture
5×10−3 =
1365
So, final moisture content in 1365 kg/hr of NR crumbs will be 6.825 kg/hr.
Moisture to be evaporated by Dryer will be equal to
= LS (X1 – X2)
= 1365 kg/hr х (X1-X2)
= 1365*(0.20 – 5 х 10-3)
= 266.175 kg/hr.

Table 3.6 in the following page summarizes the calculations around dryer.
 20

Table 3.6: Mass balance of input and output streams of Dryer

Component Parts (kg) (Kg/hr)

Input Wet Rubber 109.2 1638

Moisture evaporated 17.745 266.175
Output 91 (Dry polymer) 1365 (Dry polymer)
Product
+ 0.455 (moisture) + 6.825 (moisture)

Total 109.2 1638

 21

Fig 3.1
 22

CHAPTER-4
ENERGY BALANCE

This chapter describes the energy changes and energy flows in each of the units. Overall energy
balance is shown in the block diagram at the end of this Chapter in Figure 4.1. Enthalpy balance
can be done using,
Enthalpy In + Heat added = Enthalpy Out + Heat Removed
Enthalpy for any stream can be found out by
∆𝐻 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇 Equation 4.1
Where, ∆H = Enthalpy change
m = Stream mass flow rate (kg/hr)
Cp = Heat capacity (kJ/kg*°C)
∆T = Tstream – Treference (°C)
As enthalpy cannot be calculated, the change in enthalpy with respect to reference temperature
is calculated. Assuming reference temperature as 25°C, For any stream,

∆𝐻 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ (𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 − 25) Equation 4.2

4.1 Energy Balance around Emulsifier unit:

Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 shows the heat content of the input stream to the Emulsifier and heat
content of the output stream from the Emulsifier respectively. The values of the specific heat
capacity are taken from the handbook of chemical engineers (Perry,1984). Input temperature
of the stream is taken as 30°C and due to heat generation in the emulsification process the
temperature of the stream is slightly increased to 35°C. Hence, heat generation in emulsifier
can be calculated as below.
Table 4.1: Heat input to the Emulsifier unit

Component m (kg/hr) Cp (kJ/kg*°C) Q (kJ/hr)

Monomer 1500 1.12 8400
Sulfur 6 0.71 21.3
Water 1500 4.184 31380
Sodium oleate 60 1.132 339.6
Total 3066 40140.9
 23

Table 4.2: Heat output from the Emulsifier unit

Component m (kg/hr) Cp (kJ/kg*°C) Q (kJ/hr)

Monomer 1500 1.14 17100
Sulfur 6 0.72 43.2
Water 1500 4.187 62805
Sodium oleate 60 1.135 681
Total 3066 80629.2

Hence,
Q1 = Enthalpy change of input stream = 40140.9 kJ/hr
Q2 = Enthalpy change of output stream = 80629.2 kJ/hr
Q = Heat generated in emulsification process

= Q2 – Q1

= 40488.3 kJ/hr

4.2 Energy Balance around Reactor:

Polymerization of chloroprene is an exothermic reaction. Amount of energy released at any

time is dependent on the volume of the reactor. Unless the heat is removed, the temperature
will rise and the reaction rate will increase. The result will be an uncontrolled reaction that not
only may ruin the batch but could also damage the reactor and might cause fire or explosion.
The rate of heat production will be first calculated and based on that the mass flowrate of brine
can be calculated.

Mass flowrate is 1500kg/hr and the batch time is 6 hours so total mass in the reactor at any
particular batch will be equal to 9000kg. Due to 91% conversion, mass of neoprene at any batch
in the reactor will be 8190kg. The value of heat of polymerization for the neoprene rubber is
768kJ/kg.

Heat generated = 8190kg * 768 kJ/kg

= 6289920 kJ
 24

Since, 0.5 hour is allotted for feeding and 1.5 hours for emptying and cleaning the reactor, this
amount of heat must be removed within 6-0.5-1.5=4 hours.

So, heat to be removed per hour = 6289920/4

= 1572480 kJ/hr

The removal of generated heat is carried out by circulating brine at -15°C from the jacket and
generally the temperature difference of brine is observed to be around 40 to 50°C. Let us take
45°C of temperature difference hence the brine comes out from the reactor at 30°C. The
average heat capacity of brine solution is 3.5 kJ/kg*°C. So,

Heat generated in the rector = Heat removed by brine solution

Heat removed by brine solution = m * Cp * ∆T

m = Mass flowrate of brine (kg/hr)

Cp = Specific heat of brine (kJ/kg*°C)

∆T = Temperature difference brine (°C)

Hence,

m * Cp * ∆T = Heat generated in the rector

m * 3.5 * 45 = 1572480

m = 9984 kg/hr

Taking account for any higher conversion and higher heat generation, let us take the mass flow
rate of brine as 10000 kg/hr. Hence around 2.77 kg/sec of brine at -15°C must be circulated for
safely heat removal.

4.3 Energy Balance around Mixer:

Now in case of mixing process there will not be any temperature difference in the input and
output streams so the enthalpies of both the steams will remain same and energy balance would
be directly,

Heat entering the mixer = heat leaving the mixer

 25

Table 4.3 shows the heat content of input as well as output streams of mixer which will be at
35 °C.

Table 4.3: Heat content of input and output streams of Mixer

Component m (kg/hr) Cp (kJ/kg*°C) Q (kJ/hr)

Neoprene 1365 0.422 5760.3
Monomer 135 1.14 1539
Miscellaneous 1734 2.014 34853.4
Acetic acid
7.5 2.05 153.75
solution
Total 3241.5 42306.45

So,

Q1 = Enthalpy change of input stream = 42306.45 kJ/hr

Q2 = Enthalpy change of output stream = 42306.45 kJ/hr

Q = Heat generated in emulsification process

= Q2 – Q1

= 0 kJ/hr

4.4 Energy Balance around RVDF:

The output stream of the mixer at 35°C enters the RVDF during which water is also added to
the neoprene sheet to remove any electrolytes or impurities present in it. Water reduces the
temperature from 35°C to 30°C. Heat input and output to the RVDF is shown in Table 4.4 and
Table 4.5 respectively.

Table 4.4: Heat content of input stream of RVDF

Component m (kg/hr) Cp (kJ/kg*°C) Q (kJ/hr)

Output of mixer 3241.5 - 42306.45
water 273 4.187 Q2
Total 3514.5 22352.4
 26

Table 4.5: Heat content of output stream of RVDF

Component m (kg/hr) Cp (kJ/kg*°C) Q (kJ/hr)

Neoprene(wet) 1638 0.422 3456.18
Miscellaneous 1876.5 2.014 18896.3
Total 3514.5 - 22352.4

Q1 = Heat entering RVDF = 42306.45 kJ/hr

Q2 = Heat removed by water

Q3 = Heat leaving the RVDF = 22352.4 kJ/hr

Heat entering RVDF – Heat removed by water = Heat leaving the RVDF

Q1 – Q2 = Q3

42406.45 – Q2 = 22353.4

Q2 = 20053.05 kJ/hr

Now, Q2 = (m * Cp * ∆T) of water

-20053.05 = 273 * 4.187 * (T – 25)

T = Temperature of water = 7.5°C

Hence, spraying 273 kg/hr of water at 7.5°C would give the required output temperature of
neoprene sheet.

4.5 Energy Balance around Rotary dryer:

To carry out energy balance around dryer, temperatures of inlet and outlet streams are
required which are shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Temperatures of inlet and outlet streams of Drier

Temperature (°C) Inlet Outlet

NR Sheet 30 80
Air 150 90
 27

The product is at the temperature 30°C so there are two types of energy must be supplied, first
to increase the temperature of NR sheet to 80°C and then to remove the water content of the
product.

(1): Heat required to increase the temperature of NR sheet, Q1

𝑄1 = 𝑚1 ∗ 𝐶𝑝1 ∗ ∆𝑇1 Equation 4.3

Where, m1 = mass flowrate of NR sheet (1365 kg/hr)

Cp1 = Specific heat of NR (1.3 kJ/kg*°C)

∆T1 = Temperature difference (80°C – 30°C)

Hence,

Q1 = 1365 * 1.3 * (80 – 30)

= 88725 kJ/hr

(2): Heat required to remove water, Q2

𝑄2 = 𝑚2 ∗ 𝐶𝑝2 ∗ ∆𝑇2 + 𝑚2 ∗ 𝜆 Equation 4.4

Where, m2 = mass flowrate of water (273 kg/hr)

Cp2 = Specific heat of water (4.184 kJ/kg*°C)

∆T2 = Temperature difference (100°C – 30°C)

λ = Latent heat of vaporization of water (2230 kJ/kg)

Hence,

Q2 = 273 * 4.184 * (100-30) + 273 * 2230

= 688746.24 kJ/hr

Total heat to be supplied to the product (Q),

Q = Q1 + Q2

= 88725 + 688746.24

= 777471.24 kJ/hr

The amount of air required is determined by amount of energy that air must supply to remove
the moisture from the NR sheet.
 28

𝑄
𝑀𝑎 = Equation 4.5
𝐶𝑝 ∗∆𝑇

Where, Cp = heat capacity of air (1.013 kJ/kg*°C)

∆T = difference in air temperature entering and leaving dryer (150°C-90°C)
Q = heat transferred in dryer (777471.24)
Ma = mass flow rate of air (kg/hr)
Substituting these values in equation 4.5,

Ma = 777471.24 / (1.013 * 60)

= 12791.56 kg/hr
Let’s add 10% to account for possible heat losses.
Therefore, mass flow rate = 1.1* 12791.56 = 14070.72 kg/hr.
 29

Fig 4.1
 30

CHAPTER 5
EQUIPMENT DESIGN

This chapter includes process as well as mechanical design of brine jacketed and agitated
reactor, a rotary dryer and a mixer.

5.1 Reactor Design:

The key to successful production of NR is the reaction, all the other unit operations may differ
from plant to plant. Although the process described is of batch type, the reactor can be run in
continuous manner also just like fermentation reactors. The timing for feeding the reactants,
polymerization reaction and cooling and for emptying and cleaning of the reactor is considered
and instead of only batch reaction time, this summation of all the times is taken for the design
purpose and thus the plant can be operated in continuous manner. (Bhattacharya,1988)

Let, TF = time needed for feeding = 0.5 hour

TR = time required for the reaction and cooling = 4 hour
TE = time required for emptying and cleaning the reactor = 1.5 hour
TB = total batch time
= TF + TR + TE
= 6 hours
Total Mass flow rate of material = 3234 kg/hr
Average Density= 1000 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate of material through the reactor, Vo = 3.234 m3/hr
The overall residence time for the polymerization is t = 6 hours.
So,
Therefore, total volume of reactors required V = Vo * t
= 3.234 * 6
= 19.404 m3
20 % vapor space is provided in the reactor,
Volume of reactor = 19.404 + (0.2*19.404)
= 23.28 m3
Taking H/D ratio = 4
 31

Volume of Reactor = (𝜋/4) *𝐷2*𝐻

23.28 m3 = (𝜋/4) *𝐷2* (4D)
D = Diameter of the reactor = 1.95m ⁓ 2m
H = Height of the reactor = 8m

5.1.1 Thickness of vessel:

Inside diameter, Di = 2m
Operating Pressure = 101.3 kPa
Design Pressure, P = 1.05 times the operating Pressure
= 1.05 * 101.325
= 106.4 kPa = 0.1064 MPa
Corrosion Allowance (C.A) = 3 mm
Allowable or permissible Stress (f) = 110 MPa
Joint efficiency factor, j = 0.85
𝑃×𝑑𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶. 𝐴 Equation 5.1
2×𝑓×𝑗 − 𝑃

0.1064×2
𝑡=
2×110×0.85 − 0.1064

𝑡 = 1.138 ×10−3 𝑚

𝑡 = 1.138 𝑚𝑚 + 3 𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 4.14 𝑚𝑚

Outside diameter = Di + 2t = Ro
= 2 + (2 × 0.00414)
= 2.0083 m

5.1.2 Thickness of Jacket:

Jacket diameter = 1.04 – 1.05 times shell outer diameter

= 1.05 * 2.0083
= 2.1087m
From equation 5.1,
 32

𝑃×𝑑𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶. 𝐴
2×𝑓×𝑗 − 𝑃

0.1064×2.1087
𝑡= + 3𝑚𝑚
2×110×0.85 − 0.1064

𝑡 = 1.20 ×10−3 𝑚 + 3𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 1.20 𝑚𝑚 + 3 𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 4.20 𝑚𝑚

5.1.3 Nozzle for vessel:

To find the dimensions of nozzle first the flowrate needs to be determined for which filling
time of 30 minutes is considered. (Joshi,2001)

Volumetric flow rate = 19.404/ (30*60) = 0.01078m3/s.

Q=V*A
Where, Q = volumetric flowrate
V = Linear velocity = 2 m/s
A = Cross section area of nozzle = πD2/4
0.01078 = 2 * 3.14 * (D2) / 4
D = 0.08284m
D = 82.8mm
From IS 803,
Nozzle for vessel = 100mm
Thickness = 10mm.
Distance from shell to flange = 175mm
Distance from Tank Bottom to Nozzle center = 230mm

5.1.4 Nozzle for Jacket:

From the energy balance calculations, the brine circulation flowrate is 2.77 kg/s and take the
linear velocity, V as 1 m/s so that more time would be available for the cooling.
Now, m = A*V*ρ
Where,
Mass flow rate, m = 2.77 kg/s.
 33

Linear velocity, V = 1 m/s.

Density, ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Cross section area of nozzle,
A = πD2/4
A = 2.77 / (1 * 1000) = πD2/4
Hence, D = 0.0593m
= 59.3mm
From IS 803,
Nozzle for jacket = 75mm
Thickness = 7.5mm.
Distance from shell to flange = 175mm
Distance from Tank Bottom to Nozzle center = 200mm

5.1.5 Design of Torispherical Head:

Knuckle radius (Rkn) = 0.1 × Ro

= 0.1 × 2.0083
= 0.20083 m
0.5
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑂
ℎ𝑒 = 𝑅𝑜 − [(𝑅𝑜 − ) × (𝑅𝑂 + ( ) − 2𝑟𝑜 )] Equation 5.2
2 2
0.5
2.0083 2.0083
ℎ𝑒 = 2.0083 − [(2.0083 − ) × (2.0083 + ( ) − (2×0.12))]
2 2

ℎ𝑒 = 0.3450 𝑚

𝐷𝑜2
ℎ𝑒 = Equation 5.3
4𝑅𝑂

2.00832
ℎ𝑒 =
4×2.0083

ℎ𝑒 = 0.5020 𝑚

𝐷𝑂 𝑅𝑘𝑛 0.5
ℎ𝑒 = ( ) Equation 5.4
2

2.0083×0.20083 0.5
ℎ𝑒 = ( )
2
 34

ℎ𝑒 = 0.4490 𝑚

Take smallest value of he from equation 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4, he = 0.3450 m

ℎ𝑒 0.3450
=
𝐷𝑜 2.0083

= 0.1717

𝑡 𝑃×𝐶
= Equation 5.5
𝐷𝑜 2×𝑓×𝑗

𝑃×𝐶×𝐷𝑜
𝑡=
2×𝑓×𝑗

0.1064×2.6×2.0083
𝑡=
2×110×0.85

𝑡 = 0.00297 𝑚

𝑡 = 2.97 𝑚𝑚 = 3𝑚𝑚

Adding 3mm of corrosion allowance in this thickness we get the final thickness of torispherical
head equal to 6mm.

5.1.6 Agitator Dimensions for Reactor:

As a starting point for the design in ordinary agitation problems, typical proportions are used
which areshown in Table 5.1. (McCabe et al.,2005) Pitched blade turbine agitator with 6 blades
is used. Where, diameter of tank Dt is taken as 2m.

𝐷𝑎 1 𝐻 𝐽 1
= , = 1, =
𝐷𝑡 3 𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 12

𝐸 1 𝑊 1 𝐿 1
= , = , =
𝐷𝑡 3 𝐷𝑎 5 𝐷𝑎 4

Table 5.1: Agitator dimensions for Reactor

Da (Diameter of agitator) 0.67 m

H (Height of agitator) 2.0 m
J (Thickness of baffle) 0.16 m
 35

E (Distance between agitator and bottom of tank) 0.67 m

W (Width of agitator) 0.135 m
L (Length of agitator) 0.1675 m

5.1.7 Agitator power requirement:

Reynolds number can be calculated by using equation 5.6,

𝜌 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑑𝑎 2
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = Equation 5.6
𝜇

1250 ∗ 150 ∗ 0.672

𝑁𝑅𝑒 =
0.1 ∗ 60

𝑁𝑅𝑒 = 14028

The value of NRe is greater than 4500 so, the value of Np (power number) is taken as 4.5 and
power can be calculated by using equation 5.7.

𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑁 3 ∗ 𝑑𝑎 5 Equation 5.7

𝑃 = 4.5 ∗ 1250 ∗ 2.53 ∗ 0.675

𝑃 = 11866.33 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑃 = 15.91ℎ𝑝

Considering different types of losses,

(1): gland losses = 10% of power = 1.591hp

Power input = 15.91 + 1.591 = 17.5 hp
(2): Transmission system loss = 20% of power input
= 0.2 * 17.5
= 3.5 hp
(3): 10% for safe operations = 1.75hp
Total power requirement = 22.75 hp ⁓ 23 hp

5.1.8 Shaft design:

SS316 is chosen as the MOC for the shaft which has following values of Permissible shear
stress, fs and Modulus of Elasticity, E and yield stress for tension, f.
 36

fs = 550 kg/cm2
E = 1.95 * 106 kg/cm2
F = 2500 kg/cm2
Average torque, Tc

𝑃 ∗ 75 ∗ 60
𝑇𝑐 = Equation 5.8
2∗𝜋∗𝑁

23 ∗ 75 ∗ 60
𝑇𝑐 =
2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 150

𝑇𝑐 = 110𝑘𝑔𝑚

Max. torque, Tm = 1.5 * Tc

= 1.5 * 110
= 165 kgm
Force acting on radius (Rb = 0.335m) from the axis of agitator shaft, Fm ,
𝑇𝑚
𝐹𝑚 = Equation 5.9
0.75 ∗ 𝑅𝑏

165
𝐹𝑚 =
0.75 ∗ 0.335

𝐹𝑚 = 656.71𝑘𝑔

Critical speed,
𝑁
𝑁𝑐 = Equation 5.10
0.66

𝑁𝑐 = 230𝑟𝑝𝑚

Deflection,
60 ∗ 4.987 2
𝛿=( ) Equation 5.11
𝑁𝑐

𝛿 = 1.69𝑐𝑚
From the value of this deflection the diameter of shaft (d) can be calculated using equation
5.12.
𝐹𝑚 ∗ 𝑙 3 ∗ 64
𝛿= Equation 5.12
3 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑4
 37

4
656.71 ∗ 1303 ∗ 64
𝑑 =
3 ∗ 1.95 ∗ 106 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 1.69

𝑑 = 7.48𝑐𝑚~8𝑐𝑚

5.1.9 Safety check under elastic limit:

For checking the safety under elastic limits, first equivalent bending moment is being
calculated and stress due to that moment is evaluated. If this stress comes out to be less than
the elastic limit of the shaft material then the calculated diameter of the shaft is adequate for
the operations or else a larger diameter for the shaft must be selected.

Bending moment M,

M = 𝐹𝑚 ∗ 𝑙 Equation 5.13

𝑀 = 656.71 ∗ 130

𝑀 = 85370𝑘𝑔. 𝑐𝑚

Equivalent bending moment Me,

𝑀 + √(𝑀2 + 𝑇𝑚2 )
𝑀𝑒 = Equation 5.14
2

85370 + √(853702 + 165002 )

𝑀𝑒 =
2

𝑀𝑒 = 86160𝑘𝑔. 𝑐𝑚

Stress due to this bending moment,

𝑀𝑒
𝑓= 𝜋 3
(32 𝑑 ) Equation 5.15

86160 ∗ 32
𝑓=
3.14 ∗ 83

𝑓 = 1714 kg/cm2

This value of f is very much less than the elastic limit of shaft under tension which is 2500
kg/cm2. So, shaft of diameter 8cm can be used for this operation. Table 5.2 in following page
shows the summary of reactor design calculations.
 38

Table 5.2- Summary of reactor design

Volume of reactor 25.3 m3

Diameter of the reactor 2 m
Height of the reactor 8 m
Thickness of vessel 4.14 mm
Thickness of Jacket 4.20 mm
Nozzle diameter of vessel 100 mm
Nozzle diameter of jacket 75 mm
Thickness of torispherical head 6 mm
Da (Diameter of agitator) 0.67 m
Agitation rpm 150 rpm
Critical speed 230 rpm
Actual speed as % of critical speed 65.2 %
Total power requirement 23 hp
Diameter of shaft 8 cm

5.2 Dryer Design:

An air drier removes the excess water remaining in the polystyrene. A rotary drier will be
specified. Care must be taken that polymer does not exceed 90°C, or its heat distortion
properties will be affected. Therefore, this will be chosen as the exit temperature of the air and
the air will flow will be countercurrent to the polymer flow. The air will enter at 150°C. The
solids will enter at room temperature i.e. 30°C and leave at 80°C. (Walas,1990).

5.2.1 Dryer Sizing:

From the energy balance calculations, the mass flowrate of air required is 14070.72 kg/hr. The
mass velocity of air is taken as 1000lb/hr.ft2 = 4880 kg/hr.m2.

Area of dryer,
𝜋 ∗ 𝐷2 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐴= =
4 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Equation 5.16
 39

𝜋 ∗ 𝐷2 14070.72
= = 3.46
4 4880

Diameter of dryer,
𝐷 = 1.916𝑚
To estimate the size the following equations will be used,

20𝐺 0.16
𝑈𝑎 = Equation 5.17
𝐷

𝑄𝑡
𝑉= Equation 5.18
𝑈𝑎 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑚

Where,

Qt = Total energy transferred, = 777471.24 kJ/hr = 215.9 kW

Ua = Volumetric heat transfer coefficient (𝑊/𝑚3 . 𝐾)
∆Tm = Log mean temperature difference between hot gases and material (K)
G = Air mass velocity, kg/hr. (m2of dryer cross section) = 4880 kg/hr.m2 = 1.355 kg/s.m2
D = Dryer diameter = 1.916m
V = Volume of dryer, ft3.

(423 − 353) − (363 − 303)

∆Tm =
(423 − 353) Equation 5.19
𝐿𝑛
(363 − 303)

∆Tm = 64.87 K

Substituting these values in equations 5.17 and 5.18,

237 ∗ 𝐺 0.67
𝑈𝑎 =
𝐷

237 ∗ 1.3550.67
𝑈𝑎 =
1.916

𝑈𝑎 = 151.61 𝑊/𝑚3 . 𝐾

𝑄𝑡
𝑉=
𝑈𝑎 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑚

215.9
𝑉=
0.151 ∗ 64.87
 40

𝑉 = 22𝑚3

Once volume and diameter of the dryer are known, the length can be calculated from the
equation 5.20.

𝜋 ∗ 𝐷2 ∗ 𝐿
𝑉= Equation 5.20
4

𝜋 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 1.9162
22 =
4

The length of dryer,

𝐿 = 7.64𝑚

5.2.2 Thickness of dryer shell:

Inside diameter, Di = 2m
Operating Pressure = 101.3 kPa
Design Pressure, P = 1.1 times the operating Pressure
= 1.1 * 101.325
= 111.45 kPa = 0.111 MPa
Corrosion Allowance (C.A) = 3 mm
Allowable or permissible Stress (f) = 110 MPa
Joint efficiency factor, j = 0.85
Using equation 5.1,
𝑃×𝑑𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶. 𝐴
2×𝑓×𝑗 − 𝑃

0.111×1.916
𝑡= + 3𝑚𝑚
2×110×0.85 − 0.111

𝑡 = 1.138 ×10−3 𝑚 + 3𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 1.138 𝑚𝑚 + 3 𝑚𝑚

𝑡 = 4.14 𝑚𝑚
Outside diameter = Di + 2t = Ro
= 2 + (2 × 0.00414)
= 2.0083 m
 41

5.2.3 Thickness of the insulation:

From the heat balance, it is clear that there is some heat lost into the atmosphere. To limit the
heat loss insulation is to be given to the drier. The insulation material can be chosen as asbestos.

Density of asbestos = 577 kg/m3

Thermal conductivity of asbestos = 681.4 * 10-3 W/m2.K
Thermal conductivity of mild steel = 147.6 W/m2.K
Convective heat transfer coefficient = 56.78 W/m2.K

From heat balance,

Heat loss from the drier = 777471.24 kJ/hr = 215.9 kW
Inner diameter of the drier shell, D1 = 1.916 m
Outer diameter of the drier shell, D2 = 2.008 m and t1 = 4.14 mm
Inside temperature of dryer T1 = 120°C
Outside temperature T2 = 60°C
Let y be the thickness of insulation,
𝐷3 = 𝐷2 + 2𝑦
For heat transfer by conduction around cylindrical surface,
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑄=
𝑡1 𝑡 1
( )+( 2 )+( ) Equation 5.21
𝑘1 ∗ 𝐴1 𝑘2 ∗ 𝐴2 ℎ ∗ 𝐴3

𝐿
𝐴1 = 𝜋 ∗ (𝐷1 + 𝐷2 ) ∗
2

7.64
𝐴1 = 3.14 ∗ (1.916 + 2.008) ∗
2

𝐴1 = 47.09𝑚2

𝐿
𝐴2 = 𝜋 ∗ (𝐷2 + 𝐷3 ) ∗
2

𝐿
𝐴2 = 3.14 ∗ (2.008 + 2.008 + 2𝑦) ∗
2

𝐴2 = (48.19 + 24𝑦)𝑚2

𝐴3 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝐷3 ∗ 𝐿
 42

𝐴3 = 𝜋 ∗ (2.008 + 2𝑦) ∗ 7.64

𝐴3 = (48.19 + 48𝑦)𝑚2

Substituting these values in equation 5.21,

120 − 60
215.9 ∗ 103 =
0.00414 𝑦 1
(147.6 ∗ 47.09) + ( )+( )
0.681 ∗ (48.19 + 24𝑦) 56.78 ∗ (48.19 + 48𝑦)

Solving above equation,

𝑦 = 0.00951

Therefore, the thickness of the insulation should be 9.51mm⁓10mm.

5.2.4 Diameter of feed pipe:

Feed rate, m = 1638 kg/hr

Density of feed, ρ = 1250 kg/m3
Volumetric feed rate, Q = 1638/1250 = 1.31 m3/hr
Assuming a velocity (v) of 100 m/hr for feed chute inclination of 60°.
Cross section area of chute,
𝑄 1.31
𝐴= = = 0.0131𝑚2
𝑣 100
Diameter of feed chute,
𝜋 ∗ 𝐷2
𝐴= = 0.0131
4

𝐷 = 0.130𝑚 = 130𝑚𝑚

5.2.5 Power requirement of blower:

Temperature of air inlet = 150°C = 423 K

Quantity of air handled = 14070.72 kg/hr = 234.5 kg/min
Hence total quantity of air,
234.5 ∗ 22.4 ∗ 423
𝑄=
29 ∗ 298

𝑄 = 257.11 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑄 = 9072.7𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛
 43

Now horse power for the blower for air can be calculated by following equation,

Air horse power of blower = 0.000157*Q*(developed head of water(in))

= 0.000157 * 9072.7 * 10
=14.24 hp

5.2.6 Power requirement of Exhaust fan:

Outlet temperature of air = 90°C = 363 K

Quantity of air handled = 14070.72 kg/hr = 234.5 kg/min
Hence total quantity of air,
234.5 ∗ 22.4 ∗ 363
𝑄=
29 ∗ 298

𝑄 = 220.64 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑄 = 7785.83 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛

Now horse power for the exhaust fan for air can be calculated by following equation,

Air horse power of exhaust fan = 0.000157*Q*(developed head of water(in))

= 0.000157 * 7785.83 * 10

= 12.22 hp

5.2.7 Diameter of air inlet pipe:

At inlet conditions of 150°C,

Volume of air handled = 257.11 m3/min.
= 4.28 m3/s.
Assume an inlet air velocity = 10 m/s.
Cross section area of pipe,
𝑄 4.28
𝐴= = = 0.428𝑚2
𝑣 10

Diameter of pipe,
𝜋 ∗ 𝐷2
𝐴= = 0.428
4

𝐷 = 0.738𝑚 = 750𝑚𝑚
 44

5.2.8 Diameter of air outlet pipe:

At outlet conditions of 90°C,

Volume of air handled = 220.64 m3/min.
= 3.67 m3/s.
Assume an outlet air velocity = 10 m/s.
Cross section area of pipe,
𝑄 3.67
𝐴= = = 0.367𝑚2
𝑣 10
Diameter of pipe,
𝜋 ∗ 𝐷2
𝐴= = 0.367
4

𝐷 = 0.684 𝑚 = 700 𝑚𝑚

All the calculations carried out on dryer are summarized in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3- Summary of dryer design

Diameter of dryer 2.098 m
Volume of dryer 33.89 m3
Thickness of dryer shell 4.14 mm
Thickness of asbestos insulation 10 mm
length of dryer 9.8 m
Diameter of feed pipe 130 mm
Power requirement of blower 14.24 hp
Power requirement of Exhaust fan 12.22 hp
Diameter of air inlet pipe 750 mm
Diameter of air outlet pipe 700 mm

5.3 Mixer Design:

The polymer solution from the reactor is having the nature of base so it needs to be peptisized
for some amount of time in the presence of acid which is carried out in the mixer, (McCabe et
al.,2005). Volume of materials in the mixer at any time can be calculated from the material
balance calculations. Taking average density of the materials as 1300 kg/m3,
 45

Total mass in the mixer, m = 3241.5 kg/hr * 6 hr = 19449 kg

Average density, ρ = 1300 kg/m3
Volume of mixer = 19449/1300 = 15 m3
Providing 20% Vapor space,
Volume of mixer = 15 + (0.2*15) = 18 m3
Now taking cylindrical shape of mixer and taking L/D ratio as 2,

𝜋 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐷2
𝑉=
4
3.14 ∗ 2 ∗ 𝐷3
18 =
4
𝐷 = 2.25𝑚

𝐿 = 2 ∗ 𝐷 = 2 ∗ 2.25 = 4.5𝑚

As a starting point for the design in ordinary agitation problems, typical proportions are used
which are shown in Table 5.4. Pitched blade turbine agitator with 6 blades is used. Where,
diameter of tank Dt is taken as 2.25m.

𝐷𝑎 1 𝐻 𝐽 1
= , = 1, =
𝐷𝑡 3 𝐷𝑡 𝐷𝑡 12

𝐸 1 𝑊 1 𝐿 1
= , = , =
𝐷𝑡 3 𝐷𝑎 5 𝐷𝑎 4

Table 5.4: Agitator dimensions for Mixer

Da (Diameter of agitator) 0.75 m
H (Height of agitator) 2.25 m
J (Thickness of baffle) 0.1875 m
E (Distance between agitator and bottom of tank) 0.75 m
W (Width of agitator) 0.15 m
L (Length of agitator) 0.1875 m

5.3.1 Power requirement:

Reynolds number for 100 rpm can be calculated using equation 5.6,

𝜌 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑑𝑎 2
𝑁𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
 46

1300 ∗ 100 ∗ 0.752

𝑁𝑅𝑒 =
0.1 ∗ 60

𝑁𝑅𝑒 = 12188

The value of NRe is greater than 4500 so, the value of Np (power number) is taken as 4.5 and
power can be calculated using equation 5.7,

𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑁 3 ∗ 𝑑𝑎 5

𝑃 = 4.5 ∗ 1300 ∗ 1.673 ∗ 0.755

𝑃 = 6427 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

𝑃 = 8.61 ℎ𝑝

Considering different types of losses,

(1): gland losses = 10% of power = 0.861 hp

Power input = 8.61 + 0.861 = 9.47 hp
(2): Transmission system loss = 20% of power input
= 0.2 * 9.47
= 1.89 hp
(3): 10% for safe operations = 0.947 hp
Total power requirement = 12.3 hp

5.3.2 Shaft design:

SS316 is chosen as the MOC for the shaft which has following values of Permissible shear
stress, fs and Modulus of Elasticity, E and yield stress for tension, f.

fs = 550 kg/cm2
E = 1.95 * 106 kg/cm2
F = 2500 kg/cm2
Average torque (Tc) from equation 5.8,
𝑃 ∗ 75 ∗ 60
𝑇𝑐 =
2∗𝜋∗𝑁

12.3 ∗ 75 ∗ 60
𝑇𝑐 =
2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 100
 47

𝑇𝑐 = 88 𝑘𝑔𝑚

Max. torque, Tm = 1.5 * Tc

= 1.5 * 88
= 132.1 kgm
Force acting on radius (Rb = 0.375m) from the axis of agitator shaft (Fm) from equation 5.9,
𝑇𝑚
𝐹𝑚 =
0.75 ∗ 𝑅𝑏

132.1
𝐹𝑚 =
0.75 ∗ 0.375

𝐹𝑚 = 469.8𝑘𝑔

Critical speed from equation 5.10,

𝑁
𝑁𝑐 =
0.66

𝑁𝑐 = 152 𝑟𝑝𝑚

Deflection from equation 5.11,

60 ∗ 4.987 2
𝛿=( )
𝑁𝑐

𝛿 = 3.87 𝑐𝑚

From the value of this deflection the diameter of shaft (d) can be calculated using equation
5.12.

𝐹𝑚 ∗ 𝑙 3 ∗ 64
𝛿=
3 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑4

469.8 ∗ 603 ∗ 64
𝑑4 =
3 ∗ 1.95 ∗ 106 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 3.87

𝑑 = 4.11𝑐𝑚~5𝑐𝑚

5.3.3 Safety check under elastic limit:

For checking the safety under elastic limits, first equivalent bending moment is being
calculated and stress due to that moment is evaluated. If this stress comes out to be less than
 48

the elastic limit of the shaft material then the calculated diameter of the shaft is adequate for
the operations or else a larger diameter for the shaft must be selected.

Bending moment M from equation 5.13,

M = 𝐹𝑚 ∗ 𝑙

𝑀 = 469.8 ∗ 60

𝑀 = 28188 𝑘𝑔. 𝑐𝑚

Equivalent bending moment Me from equation 5.14,

𝑀 + √(𝑀2 + 𝑇𝑚2 )
𝑀𝑒 =
2

28188 + √(28188 2 + 132102 )

𝑀𝑒 =
2

𝑀𝑒 = 29658.9 𝑘𝑔. 𝑐𝑚

Stress due to this bending moment from equation 5.15,

𝑀𝑒
𝑓= 𝜋 3
(32 𝑑 )

29658.9 ∗ 32
𝑓=
3.14 ∗ 53

𝑓 = 2418 kg/cm2

This value of stress is less than the elastic limit of shaft under tension which is 2500 kg/cm2.
So, shaft of diameter 5cm can be used for this operation.

Table 5.5 in following page shows the summary of mixer design calculations
 49

Table 5.5: Summary of Mixer design

Volume of mixer 18 m3
Diameter of mixer 2.25 m
Length 4.5 m
Da (Diameter of agitator) 0.75 m
Agitation rpm 100 rpm
Critical speed 152 rpm
Actual speed as % of critical speed 65.7 %
Total power requirement 12.3 hp
Maximum torque 13210 kg.cm
Equivalent Bending Moment 29658.9 kg.cm
Deflection 3.87 cm
Stress 2418 kg/cm2
Diameter of shaft 5 cm
 50

CHAPTER 6
COST ESTIMATION

A cost estimate is the approximation of the cost of a program, project, or operation. Cost
estimate is the product of the cost estimating process. A problem with a cost overrun can be
avoided with a credible, reliable, and accurate cost estimate. An estimator is the professional
who prepares cost estimates. This chapter involves the detailed calculations of the total
investments, total production cost, net annual profit and the payback period. (Peter and
Timmerhaus, 1991)

6.1 Total Capital Investment:

The cost of purchased equipment is used as basis of factorial method of cost estimation. The
cost of equipment is determined according to the size of the equipment which is listed in the
Table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Cost of Equipment [4]

Name of Equipment No. of Equipment Cost

Glass lined reactor 1 1,10,00,000
Storage tank 1 20,00,000
Emulsifier 1 30,00,000
Mixer 1 9,20,000
RVDF 1 1,50,00,000
Dryer 1 1,65,00,000
Pumps As required 10,00,000

Total Purchased Equipment Cost (PEC) = Rs 4,94,20,000

Now,
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital Investment
(TCI) (FCI) (WCI)
Equation 6.1

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Direct Cost (DC) + Indirect Cost (IDC)
 51

The Fixed capital cost is the cost which does not vary with production rate. To calculate the
Fixed capital investment, both the direct and the indirect cost is required. The direct cost is
calculated in the Table 6.2 and the indirect cost calculation is shown in the Table 6.3.

Table 6.2: Direct Cost

Particulars % of PEC Cost (Rs)

Purchased equipment cost 100 4,94,20,000
Installation, including insulation and painting 40 1,97,68,000
Instrumentation and controls 20 98,84,000
Piping installation 40 1,97,68,000
Electrical installation 25 1,23,55,000
Building process and auxiliary 40 1,97,68,000
Service facility and yard improvement 60 2,96,52,000
Land 6 29,65,200
Total Direct Cost 16,35,80,200

Table 6.3: Indirect Cost

Particulars % of DC Cost (Rs)

Engineering and supervision 15 2,45,37,030
Construction expense and contractor’s fee 15 2,45,37,030
Contingency 10 1,63,58,020
Total Indirect Cost 6,54,32,080

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Direct Cost (DC) + Indirect Cost (IDC)
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Rs 22,90,12,280
The working capital investment is the one which varies with the production rate and is
calculated as,
Working Capital Investment (WCI) = 15% of Total Capital Investment (TCI)
TCI = FCI + WCI
TCI = FCI + 0.15×TCI
TCI = FCI ÷ 0.85
∴ 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐓𝐂𝐈) = 𝐑𝐬 𝟐𝟔, 𝟗𝟒, 𝟐𝟔, 𝟐𝟏𝟏. 𝟖
 52

6.2 Total Product Cost:

Now after knowing the total capital investment, total product cost is determined. The total
product cost mainly consists of 3 types of costs which are described as follows.

6.2.1 Direct production costs:

This include expenses directly associated with the manufacturing operation. This type of cost
involves expenditures for raw materials, direct operating labor, supervisory and clerical labor,
plant maintenance and repairs, operating supplies; power, utilities and royalties which is shown
in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Direct Production Cost

Particulars % of TPC % of FCI

Raw material Cost 30
Utilities 10 -
Operating Labor 10 -
Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labor 1.5 -
Laboratory Charges 1.5 -
Patents and Royalties 3 -
Operating Supplies - 0.7
Maintenance - 6

So, Direct Production Cost (DPC) = 0.56×TPC + 0.067×FCI

6.2.2 Fixed charges:

These are expenses which remain practically constant from year to year and do not vary widely
with changes in production rate. Depreciation, property taxes, insurance, and rent require
expenditures can be classified as fixed charges shown in Table 6.5.

6.2.3 Plant-overhead costs:

Plant overhead costs are for hospital and medical services; general plant maintenance and
overhead; safety services; payroll overhead including pensions, vacation allowances, social
security, and life insurance; packaging, restaurant and recreation facilities, salvage services,
control laboratories, warehouse and storage facilities, and special employee benefits.
 53

Table 6.5: Fixed Charges

Particulars % of FCI
Depreciation 10
Insurance 0.6
Local tax 4
Rent 10

So,
Direct Production Cost (DPC) = 0.56×TPC + 0.067×FCI
Fixed Charges (FC) = 0.246×FCI
Plant Overhead Cost (POC) = 5% of TPC
Total Product Cost (TPC) = Manufacturing Cost (MC) + General Expense (GE)
Where,
Manufacturing Direct Production Fixed Charges Plant Overhead
= + +
Cost(MC) Cost (DPC) (FC) Cost (POC) Equation 6.2

∴ Manufacturing Cost = 0.56×𝑇𝑃𝐶 + 0.067×FCI + 0.246×FCI + 0.05 ×TPC

Table 6.6: General Expenses

Particulars % of TPC
Administrative Costs 4
Distribution and Selling Cost 5
Research and Development Cost 3

General Expenses (GE) = 0.12×TPC

Now, Total Production Cost (TPC) = MC + GE

∴ TPC = 0.73×TPC + 0.313×FCI

∴ 𝐓𝐏𝐂 = 𝟐𝟔, 𝟓𝟒, 𝟖𝟒, 𝟔𝟎𝟔. 𝟏𝐑𝐬/𝐲𝐫

Now,
Selling price of neoprene sheet = 50 Rs/kg
Neoprene produced per day = 32927 kg/day
Neoprene produced yearly = 10866000 kg/yr
 54

So,
Total Annual Income = (10866000 ∗ 50) = 54,33,00,000 Rs/yr
Gross Profit/Annual Income = Total Annual Income – Total Product Cost
= 54,33,00,000 – 26,54,84,606.1
= 27,78,15,393.9 Rs/yr

Income Tax = 34% of Gross Annual Income

= 0.34 × 27,78,15,393.9
=9,44,57,233.9 Rs/yr

Net Profit = Gross Profit – Income Tax

= 27,78,15,393.9 - 9,44,57,233.9
= 18,33,58,160 Rs/yr

6.3 Payout Period:

Payout period or payout time is defined as the minimum length of time theoretically necessary
to recover the original capital investment in the form of cash flow to the project based on total
income minus all costs except depreciation. Generally, for this method, original capital
investment means only the original, depreciable, fixed-capital investment, and interest effects
are neglected. Thus,

FCI
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
(Average Profit per year) + (Average Depreciation per Year)

22,90,12,280 Equation 6.3

=
(18,33,58,160 + 2,29,01,228)

= 1.11 years = 13.3 months

6.4 % Rate of Return on Investment:

In engineering economic studies, rate of return on investment is ordinarily expressed on an

annual percentage basis. The yearly profit divided by the total initial investment necessary
represents the fractional return, and this fraction times 100 is the standard percent return on
investment. Profit is defined as the difference between income and expense. The amount of
profit is also affected by the economic efficiency of the operation, and increased profits can be
obtained by use of effective methods which reduce operating expenses. Hence,
 55

Net Annual Profit

%𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = ( ) ×100
TCI Equation 6.4

18,33,58,160
=( ) ×100
26,94,26,211.8

= 68.05 %

6.5 Break Even Point:

It is desirable to operate at a schedule which will permit maximum utilization of fixed costs
while simultaneously meeting market sales demand and using the capacity of the plant
production to give the best economic results. The fixed costs remain constant while the total
product cost, as well as the profit, increases with increased rate of production. The point where
total product cost equals total income represents the break-even point, and the optimum
production schedule must be at a production rate higher than that corresponding to the break-
even point. To calculate breakeven point, first direct cost is determined,

Sales Price (Rs/kg)

Direct product cost (Rs/kg) = Annual Production cost (Rs) ×
Annual Sales (Rs)
Equation 6.5
50
= 26,54,84,606.1 ∗
543300000

= 24.5 Rs/kg
Fixed Charges
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡(𝑘𝑔) =
Rs Rs
Selling Price ( ) − Direct Production Cost( )
kg kg
Equation 6.6
22,90,12,280
=
50 − 24.5

= 8980874 kg

Kg required for Break Even point

𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
Annual Production Equation 6.7

8980874
=
10866000

= 0.826 years

= 9.9 months
 56

All the calculations of cost estimation carried out above are summarized in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Summary of Cost Estimation

Type of cost Value Unit

Purchased Equipment Cost (PEC) 4,94,20,000 Rs
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) 22,90,12,280 Rs
Total Capital Investment (TCI) 26,94,26,211.8 Rs
Total Product Cost (TPC) 26,54,84,606.1 Rs
Total Annual Income 54,33,00,000 Rs
Gross Profit 27,78,15,393.9 Rs
Income Taxes 9,44,57,233.9 Rs
Net Profit 18,33,58,160 Rs
Payout Period 13.3 months
Rate of Return 68.05 %
Direct Product Cost 24.5 Rs/kg
Product Selling Price 50 Rs/kg
Breakeven point 8980874 kg
Breakeven point 9.9 months
 57

CHAPTER 7
PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
This chapter includes the factors affecting the plant location and site selection based on the
following factors. A site layout and the appropriate plant location is proposed for the production
of neoprene rubber.

7.1 Plant location and Site selection:

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project and the
scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered while selecting a suitable site.
(Sinnott, 2006) The factors that must be considered are,

1. Raw materials availability

2. Markets
3. Energy availability
4. Climate
5. Transportation facilities
6. Water supply
7. Waste disposal
8. Labor supply
9. Taxation and legal restrictions
10. Site characteristics
11. Flood and fire protection
12. Community factors

7.1.1 Raw materials availability:

The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing the selection
of a plant site. This is particularly true if large volumes of raw materials are consumed,
because location near the raw-materials source permits considerable reduction in
transportation and storage charges. As seen from the material balance calculations this plant
requires more amount of water so this polymerization plant should be located close to the
place where large supply of water is available. The major raw materials required for this
process are monomer chloroprene and water. Their details are shown in appendix.
 58

7.1.2 Marketing Area:

The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of product
distribution and the time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important
consideration in the selection of a plant site, because the buyer usually finds it advantageous to
purchase from nearby sources. It should be noted that markets are needed for by-products as
well as for major final products. Since, this is a rubber plant two types of market can be
targeted, one is for the sale of finished product and one is for the latex product which can be
sold to other rubber processing plant for further treatment.

7.1.3 Energy availability:

Power requirements are high in most industrial plants, and fuel is ordinarily required to supply
these utilities. Consequently, power and fuel can be combined as one major factor in the choice
of a plant site. The local cost of power can help determine whether power should be purchased
or self-generated. For this plant as major power source is not required, power can be purchased
from local government.

7.1.4 Climate:

If the plant is located in a cold climate, costs may be increased by the necessity for construction
of protective shelters around the process equipment, and special cooling towers or air-
conditioning equipment may be required if the prevailing temperatures are high. Excessive
humidity or extremes of hot or cold weather can have a serious effect on the economic operation
of a plant, and these factors should be examined when selecting a plant site.

7.1.5 Transportation facilities:

Water, railroads, and highways are the common means of transportation used by major
industrial concerns. The type and number of products and raw materials determine the most
suitable type of transportation facilities. If possible, the plant site should have access to all
three types of transportation, and, certainly, at least two types should be available. Truck
facilities are widely used and can serve as a useful supplement to rail and water facilities. Road
transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long-distance transport of bulk solid
materials.
 59

7.1.6 Water supply:

The process industries use large quantities of water for cooling, washing, steam generation, and
as a raw material. The plant, therefore, must be located where a dependable supply of water is
available. A large river or lake is preferable, although deep wells or artesian wells may be
satisfactory if the amount of water required is not too great. The level of the existing water table
can be checked by consulting the state geological survey, and information on the constancy of
the water table and the year-round capacity of local rivers or lakes should be obtained. If the
water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, it may be desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill
several standby wells. The temperature, mineral content, silt or sand content, bacteriological
content, and cost for supply and purification treatment must also be considered when choosing a
water supply. As water is one of the main raw materials of this polymerization plant adequate
water supply is must.

7.1.7 Waste disposal:

In recent years, many legal restrictions have been placed on the methods for disposing of waste
materials from the process industries. The site selected for a plant should have adequate capacity
and facilities for correct waste disposal. Even though a given area has minimal restrictions on
pollution, it should not be assumed that this condition will continue to exist. In choosing a plant
site, the permissible tolerance levels for various methods of waste disposal should be considered
and attention should be given to potential requirements for additional waste-treatment facilities.

7.1.8 Labor supply:

The type and supply of labor available in the vicinity of a proposed plant site must be examined.
Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation as well as maintenance.
Consideration should be given to prevailing pay scales, restrictions on number of hours worked
per week and variations in the skill and productivity of the workers.

7.1.9 Taxation and legal restrictions:

State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar items vary
from one location to another. Capital grants tax concessions and other inducements are often
given by the government to direct investments to preferred locations, such as areas of high
unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site
selection.
 60

7.1.10 Site characteristics:

The characteristics of the land at a proposed plant site should be examined carefully. The
cost of the land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. The land
should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full site
evaluation should be made to determine the need of piling or other special formations. Future
changes may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. Therefore, even
though no immediate expansion is planned, a new plant should be constructed at a location
where additional space is available.

7.1.11 Flood and fire protection:

Many industrial plants are located along rivers or near large bodies of water, and there are
risks of flood or hurricane damage. Before selecting a plant site, the regional history of
natural events of this type should be examined and the consequences of such occurrences
considered. Protection from losses by fire is another important factor in selecting a plant
location. In case of a major fire, assistance from outside fire departments should be
available. Fire hazards in the immediate area surrounding the plant site must not be
overlooked.

7.1.12 Community factors:

The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be
able to provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel i.e. school, banks, housing and
recreational and cultural facilities.

7.2 Plant location:

Based on the factors discussed above, the neoprene rubber plant should be set up near the supply
of water. In India, such plants can be set up at Hazira, Kochi, Manglore and many more such types
of ports. The Neoprene rubber plant in Gujarat can be located near Hazira or Mundra. Hazira can
be ideal place for this plant because it is situated near bank of tapti river which is also 8km away
from the Arabian sea. Port is also useful for the import of Chloroprene raw material since there is
no major manufacturer of this chemical in India. The final product Neoprene rubber can be used
as an end product or it can be sent to the plant which is specially dedicated to process the rubber.
So, it can be transported to respective place by means of road lines.
 61

7.3 Plant Layout:

The efficiency of production depends on how well the various machines; production
facilities and employee’s amenities are located in a plant. Only the properly laid out plant
can ensure the smooth and rapid movement of material, from the raw material stage to the
end product stage. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe distance from other
buildings. Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the site. The ancillary
buildings and services required on a site, in addition to the main processing units will include
the following components.

1. Storages for raw materials and products: tank farms and warehouses.
2. Maintenance workshops.
3. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies.
4. Laboratories for process control
5. Fire stations and other emergency services.
6. Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration
7. Effluent disposal plant.
8. Offices for general administration.
9. Canteens and other amenity buildings, such as medical centers.
10. Parking facilities

During drafting of the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited first
and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from
raw material to final product storage. Process units are normally spaced at least 30m apart;
greater spacing may be needed for hazardous processes. The location of the principal
ancillary buildings should then be decided. They should be arranged so as to minimize the
time spent by personnel in travelling between buildings.

Administration offices and laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people will be
working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms
will normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially hazardous
processes may have to be sited at a safer distance.
 62

The sitting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys
and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction, and for operation
and maintenance. Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes
to and from the process units. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited
at least 70m from the site boundary. In this plant chloroprene, raw material is expected to
cause carcinogenic effects so its storage tank should be kept to a safer distance from the
administrative office or canteen or places which are filled with plant personnel. The plant
layout showing all the main processing units and other facilities is shown in Figure 7.1.
 63

Layout 7.1
 64

CHAPTER 8
SAFETY AND HANDLING

All handling to take place in well-ventilated area. Avoid inhalation of dust and contact with
skin and eyes. Do not breathe fumes produced at elevated temperatures or in the heating
process. Periodically clean work and storage areas to prevent dust accumulation. Observe good
industrial hygiene practices. Wash hands before eating and drinking; gargle your throat and
wear appropriate protective equipment (protective gloves, protective goggles, protective mask,
and safety shoes). When some inflammable solvent is used in the vicinity, install a static
eliminator. Volatile gas generated during kneading, processing, and forming may irritate the
eyes, nose, respiratory organs, and skin. Install a local exhauster for sufficient ventilation.

Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heat, incompatible substances. Store at
ambient or lower temperature. Store out of direct sunlight. Keep containers tightly closed to
prevent moisture absorption and contamination. For Container and packing material use a paper
bag and opaque container.

Review firefighting measures and handling (personnel) sections before proceeding with clean-
up. Use appropriate personal protective equipment during clean-up. In case of spill, Recover
undamaged and minimally contaminated material for reuse and reclamation. Scrape up spilled
polymer. Shut off ignition sources; Provide ventilation. Be careful not to slip and fall by talc.
Collect the scattered rubber chips and put them in a paper bag or drum. Dispose of the collected
rubber chips in an appropriate way.

The storage of raw materials should also be taken care. Majority of raw materials are highly
reactive under the presence of oxidizing materials so special care should be taken that such
materials do not come in contact with them. Care should also be taken that brine is continuously
circulated through the reactor jacket or else temperature in the reactor will be continuously
increased and reaction mass will be converted into unwanted useless form of polymer. If the
temperature of polychloroprene somehow reaches to 260°C then polychloroprene ignites as its
auto ignition temperature is 260°C. This condition should be avoided.
 65

In case of a large spill of any of the reactants use personal protecting equipment such as, Splash
goggles, Full suit, Dust respirator, Boots, Gloves. A self-contained breathing apparatus should
be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be
sufficient; consult a specialist before handling these products. Avoid long term exposures of
chemicals such as potassium persulfate, sodium oleate, tetraethyl thiuram disulfide etc. More
details on such chemicals is given in the Appendix.
 66

REFERENCES

Barrows R. S. and Scott G. W., Ind. Eng. Chem., 1948; 40:2193.

Bhatt B.I. and Vora S.M., Stoichiometry, 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw Publishing Company
Limited, 1976, 47-204.

Bhattacharya B.C., Introduction to chemical equipment design (Mechanical Aspects), 1st

edition, CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 1988; 161-176.

Collins A. M., U. S. Pat. 2,264,173 (Nov. 25, 1941),. (to E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.,
Inc.).

Wypych G., Handbook of Polymers, CR polychloroprene, ChemTec Publishing, 2012; 71-74.

Hargreaves C. A., Polymer Chemistry of Synthetic Elastomers, Wiley-Interscience, New York,

1968; 227–252.

Haward R. N., J. Polym. Sci., 1949; 4:273.

Hrabak F. and Webr J., J. Macromol. Chem., 1967; 104:275.

Hounshell, D. A.; Smith, John K., Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, Cambridge
University Press., 1988; 253–257.

Smith J. K., The Ten-Year Invention: Neoprene and Du Pont Research, 1930–1939.
Technology and Culture, 1985; 26:34-55.

Johnson P. R., Rubber Chem. Technol., 1976; 49:650–702.

Joshi M V., Process Equipment Design, 3rd edition. McMillan India Limited, New Delhi, 2001;
279-284 & 360-369.
 67

Lovell P. A. and El-Aasser M. S., Emulsion Polymerization and Emulsion Polymers, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1997; 28.

McCabe W. L., Smith J. C., Harriott P., “Unit operations of chemical engineering, Seventh
edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publication, 2005; 247-250.

Napper D. H., Polymeric Stabilization of Colloidal Dispersions, Academic Press Inc., New
York, 1983; 41.

Perry R. H., Green D. W., Maloney J. O., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th-edition., McGraw
Hill Book Co, New York, 1984.

Peter M., Timmerhaus K.D., Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Company, 1991; 14-20 & 150-184.

Sinnott R.K., Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Series, Vol-6, 4th Edition,
Butter Worth-Heinemann, 2006; 892-897.

Walas S. M., Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design, Butterworth Heinemann, a
division of Reed Publishing, 1990; 247-254.

White L. M. and co-workers, Ind. Eng. Chem., 1943; 37:770.

Web References:

[1]: http://www.macrointlco.com

[2]: http://www.dupont.com

[3]: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Filtro_a_tamburo_tipo_Oliver.svg

[4]: http://www.matche.com/equipcost/Default.html
 68

APPENDIX
➢ MSDS for Polychloroprene:

Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification

Product Name: Poly(chloroprene)
Common names/synonyms: 2-Chloro-1,3-Butadiene Polymer.; Neoprene Rubber; Chlorobutadiene
Polymer
Chemical Name (monomer): Chloroprene
Chemical Formula: C4H5Cl

Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Name: 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene polymers & copolymers
CAS#: 9010-98-4
Weight %: > 97
Name: TALC, containing no asbestos fibers
CAS#: 14807-96-6
Weight %: <1.5
Name: Water
CAS#: 231-791-2
Weight %: <1.5

Section 3: Hazards Identification

Prolonged or repeated contact may dry skin and cause irritation. May cause adverse reproductive
effects - such as birth defects, miscarriages, or infertility based on animal data. Possible cancer hazard
- may cause cancer based on animal data. Rubber compounds generally do not pose a health hazard
unless heated. Under normal conditions of processing and use, exposure to the chemical constituents
in this product is unlikely. All ingredients are tightly bound in a polymeric matrix that has a negligible
vapor pressure so there is a low potential for inhalation or ingestion of ingredients.

Section 4: First Aid Measures

Eye: No corrosive to eyes. In the case of entering into eyes, please wash them with copious amounts
of water.
 69

Skin: The compound is not likely to be hazardous by skin contact but cleansing the skin with soap
and water after use is advisable. If molten material gets on skin, cool rapidly with cold water. Do not
attempt to remove material from skin. Obtain medical treatment for thermal burn.
Inhalation: Irritating fumes occurred only in the heating process. If inhaled fumes too much, please
move patient to fresh air or administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required.
Ingestion: Ingestion is not a probable route of exposure. And chloroprene rubber is no serious harm
for human health, for which is low toxicity. If uncomfortable, call a physician.

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Hazardous Combustion Products: Complete combustion gives hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide,
sulfur dioxide and water. Incomplete combustion gives in addition carbon monoxide, organic acids,
aldehydes, and alcohols.
Suitable Extinguishing Media: Water, Foam, Dry Chemical, CO2.
Fire Fighting Procedures: Exposed firefighters must wear NIOSH-approved positive pressure self-
contained breathing apparatus with full-face mask and full protective clothing.

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Safeguards (Personnel) NOTE: Review FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES and HANDLING
(PERSONNEL) sections before proceeding with clean-up. Use appropriate PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT during clean-up.
Spill Clean Up: Recover undamaged and minimally contaminated material for reuse and reclamation.
Scrape up spilled polymer. Shut off ignition sources; Provide ventilation.

Section 7: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Local exhaust ventilation may be necessary to control air contaminants from
hot processing. The use of local ventilation is recommended to control emissions near the source.
Provide mechanical ventilation for confined spaces. Facilities storing or utilizing this material should
be equipped with an eyewash facility and a safety shower.
Eye/Face Protection: In the heating process, wear safety glasses when possibility exists for eye and
face contact due to splashing or spraying of molten material. Have eye-wash stations available where
eye contact can occur.
Skin Protection: Wear gloves impervious to the heating conditions of use. Additional protection may
be necessary to prevent skin contact including use of face shield, boots or
 70

full body protection. A safety shower should be located in the work area.
Respirators: In the heating process, air purifying respirator with an organic vapor cartridge with a
dust/mist filter may be permissible under certain circumstances where airborne concentrations are
expected to exceed exposure limits.
Protective Clothing: If there is potential contact with hot/molten material, wear heat resistant clothing
and footwear.

Section 8: Handling and Storage

Handling: Do not breathe vapors in the heating process, and keep adequate ventilation. Use good
personal hygiene practices. Wash hands before eating, drinking.
Storage: Store in tightly closed containers in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heat,
incompatible substances. Ground lines and equipment used during transfer to reduce the possibility of
static spark-initiated fire. Store at ambient or lower temperature. Store out of direct sunlight.

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state (gas, liquid, solid) : Solid
Glass transition temperature(°C): -25 to -46
Melting Temperature(°C): 92
Decomposition temperature(°C): >200
Specific gravity : 1.23
Odor: Odorless, mild
Color: White, gray
Heat of Fusion (kJ mol-1): 8.37

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Stable under normal temperatures and pressures. Resistant to oils, oxygen, ozone,
corona discharge, & electric current.
Conditions to Avoid: Incompatible materials, dust generation, excess heat, strong oxidants.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Strong Oxidizing agents.
Fire Potential: Combustible, but less so than natural rubber
Hazardous Decomposition Products: When heated to decomposition it emits irritating and toxic
vapors as Hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide.
 71

Section 11: Toxicological Information

Evidence for Carcinogenicity: No adequate data are available in humans. No adequate data are
available in animals. OVERALL EVALUATION: The agent is not classifiable as to its
carcinogenicity to humans.

Section 12: Ecological Information

Aquatic toxicity： No information is available. Toxicity is expected to be low based on insolubility
in water.

Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Chemical waste generators must determine whether a discarded chemical is classified as a hazardous
waste. Chemical waste generators must also consult local, regional, and national hazardous waste
regulations to ensure complete and accurate classification.

Section 14: Transportation Information

PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Not regulated as a hazardous material
HAZARD CLASS: None
LABEL Required: None

➢ MSDS for Potassium persulfate:

Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification

Product Name: Potassium persulfate
Chemical Name: Potassium persulfate
Chemical Formula: K2S2O8

Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Name: Potassium persulfate
CAS#: 7727-21-1
Weight %: 100

Section 3: Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects: Very hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact
(irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation. Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive, permeator).
 72

Prolonged exposure may result in skin burns and ulcerations. Over-exposure by inhalation may cause
respiratory irritation. Inflammation of the eye is characterized by redness, watering, and itching. Skin
inflammation is characterized by itching, scaling, reddening, or, occasionally, blistering.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: The substance is toxic to lungs, mucous membranes.

Section 4: First Aid Measures

Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water
for at least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Cold water may be used. Do not use an eye ointment.
Seek medical attention.
Skin Contact: After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of water. Gently and thoroughly
wash the contaminated skin with running water and non-abrasive soap. Be particularly careful to clean
folds, crevices, creases and groin. Cold water may be used. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient.
If irritation persists, seek medical attention.
Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-
bacterial cream. Seek medical attention.
Inhalation: Allow the victim to rest in a well-ventilated area. Seek immediate medical attention.
Serious Inhalation: Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such
as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not
breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband. If
the victim is not breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek immediate medical attention.

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: Non-flammable
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Not applicable
Auto-Ignition Temperature: Not applicable.
Flash Points: Not applicable.
Flammable Limits: Not applicable

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal container.
 73

Large Spill: Oxidizing material. Stop leak if without risk. Avoid contact with a combustible material
(wood, paper, oil, clothing). Keep substance damp using water spray. Do not touch spilled material.
Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal

Section 7: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering
controls to keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate dust,
fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below the exposure limit.
Personal Protection: Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified
respirator or equivalent. Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots.
Gloves. A self-contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this
product.

Section 8: Handling and Storage

Precautions: Keep container dry. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Keep
away from combustible material. Do not breathe dust. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable
respiratory equipment If you feel unwell, seek medical attention and show the label when possible.
Avoid contact with skin and eyes.
Storage: Oxidizing materials should be stored in a separate safety storage cabinet or room.

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state and appearance: Solid.
Color: White
Appearance: Crystalline powder
Molecular Weight: 270.33 g/mole
Melting Point: Decomposes. (100°C or 212°F)
Specific Gravity: 2.477 (Water = 1)
Solubility: Partially soluble in cold water.
Odor: odorless
 74

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity

Stability: The product is stable.
Conditions to avoid: Direct sunlight. Extremely high or low temperatures. Heat. Sparks. Overheating.
Open flame.
Incompatible materials: combustible materials. Strong reducing agents.
Hazardous decomposition products: oxygen. Sulfur compounds.

Section 11: Toxicological Information

Routes of Entry: Eye contact. Inhalation. Ingestion.
Chronic Effects on Humans: The substance is toxic to lungs, mucous membranes.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Very hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of ingestion, of
inhalation. Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (corrosive, permeator).

Section 12: Ecological Information

Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely.
However, long term degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are more toxic.
Other information: Avoid release to the environment.

Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Waste disposal recommendations: Dispose in a safe manner in accordance with local/national
regulations. Dispose of contents/container to comply with local, state and federal regulations.
Ecology - waste materials: Avoid release to the environment.

Section 14: Transportation Information

DOT Classification: CLASS 5.1: Oxidizing material.
Identification: Potassium persulfate: UN1492 PG: III
Hazard labels (DOT): 5.1 - Oxidizer
 75

➢ MSDS for Sodium oleate:

Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification

Product Name: Sodium oleate
Synonyms: Eunatrol; Olate flakes; Sodium oleate
Chemical Name: Oleic acid sodium salt
Chemical Formula: C18H33O2Na

Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Name: Oleic acid sodium salt
CAS#: 143-19-1
Weight %: 100

Section 3: Hazards Identification

Classification: Not a dangerous substance or mixture according to the Globally Harmonized System
(GHS)
Potential Acute Health Effects: Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye contact
(irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: The substance is toxic to lungs, mucous membranes. Repeated or
prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage.
Precautionary Statements – Prevention: Wash hands thoroughly after handling
Precautionary Statements – Response: If exposed, Get medical advice.

Section 4: First Aid Measures

General advice: If symptoms persist, call a physician.
Eye contact: Rinse immediately with plenty of water, also under the eyelids, for at least 15 minutes.
If symptoms persist, call a physician. Rinse thoroughly with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes,
lifting lower and upper eyelids. Consult a physician. Immediately flush with plenty of water. After
initial flushing, remove any contact lenses and continue flushing for at least 15 minutes. Keep eye
wide open while rinsing.
Skin Contact: Wash off immediately with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. If skin irritation
persists, call a physician. Wash contaminated clothing before reuse. Wash off immediately with plenty
 76

of water. Immediate medical attention is not required. Wash off immediately with soap and plenty of
water while removing all contaminated clothes and shoes.
Inhalation: Remove to fresh air If symptoms persist, call a physician Immediate medical attention is
not required Move to fresh air in case of accidental inhalation of vapors.
Ingestion: Immediate medical attention is not required. Rinse mouth. Drink plenty of water. Do NOT
induce vomiting. Clean mouth with water and drink afterwards plenty of water. Never give anything
by mouth to an unconscious person. Call a physician.
Self-protection of the first aider: Use personal protective equipment as required

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: May be combustible at high temperature.
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Slightly flammable to flammable in presence of
open flames and sparks, of heat
Firefighting media: SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder. LARGE FIRE: Use water spray, fog
or foam. Do not use water jet.
Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2)

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal container.
Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and dispose of according to local and
regional authority requirements.
Large Spill: Use a shovel to put the material into a convenient waste disposal container. Finish
cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and allow to evacuate through the sanitary
system.

Section 7: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering
controls to keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate dust,
fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below the exposure limit.
Personal Protection: Safety glasses. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified
respirator or equivalent. Gloves
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots.
Gloves. A self-contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
 77

Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this
product.
Section 8: Handling and Storage
Precautions: Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all equipment
containing material. Do not breathe dust. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.
Storage: Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state and appearance: Solid.
Color: White to yellowish
Appearance: Powder or Crystalline
Boiling point: 360°C
Flash point: 149°C
Molecular Weight: 304.45 g/mole
Melting Point: 232°C
Specific Gravity: 1.1(Water = 1)
Solubility: Partially soluble in cold water. Very slightly soluble in diethyl ether
Odor: Slight

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity

Stability: Stable
Conditions to avoid: Extremes of temperature and direct sunlight.
Incompatible materials: Strong oxidizing agents.
Hazardous decomposition products: Carbon oxides.
Possibility of Hazardous Reactions: None under normal processing.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.
Polymerization: Will not occur.

Section 11: Toxicological Information

Routes of Entry: Inhalation. Ingestion.
Toxic Effects on Humans: Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of ingestion, of
inhalation.
Acute Potential Health Effects
 78

Skin: May cause skin irritation.

Eyes: May cause eye irritation.
Inhalation: May cause respiratory tract irritation.
Ingestion: Expected to be a low hazard. It may affect respiration.
Chronic Potential Health Effects:
Skin: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause defatting of skin

Section 12: Ecological Information

Ecotoxicity: May cause long lasting harmful effects to aquatic life
Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely.
However, long term degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The product itself and its products of degradation are
not toxic.

Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Waste disposal recommendations: Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and
local environmental control regulations.
Contaminated packaging: Do not reuse container.

Section 14: Transportation Information

DOT Classification: Not a DOT controlled material (United States).
Identification: Not applicable.
Hazard labels (DOT): Not applicable.

➢ MSDS for Tetraethylthiuram Disulfide:

Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification

Product Name: Tetraethylthiuram Disulfide
Synonym: Antabuse; TETD: Disulfiram; bis(Diethylthiocarbamyl)Disulfide
Chemical Name: Tetraethylthiuram Disulfide
Chemical Formula: C10H20N2S4
 79

Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Name: Tetraethylthiuram Disulfide
CAS#: 97-77-8
Weight %: 100

Section 3: Hazards Identification

Potential Acute Health Effects: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant, sensitizer), of eye contact
(irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
Potential Chronic Health Effects: The substance may be toxic to the nervous system, the
reproductive system, liver, peripheral nervous system, central nervous system (CNS). Repeated or
prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage.

Section 4: First Aid Measures

Eye Contact: Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes
with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention.
Skin Contact: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes
while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Wash
clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.
Serious Skin Contact: Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-
bacterial cream. Seek immediate medical attention.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention.
Ingestion: Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed, call a
physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.

Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

Flammability of the Product: May be combustible at high temperature
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances: Slightly flammable to flammable in presence of
heat. Non-flammable in presence of shocks.
Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2), nitrogen oxides (NO,
NO2...), sulfur oxides (SO2, SO3...).
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions: SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder. LARGE FIRE:
Use water spray, fog or foam. Do not use water jet.
 80

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Small Spill: Use appropriate tools to put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal container.
Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and dispose of according to local and
regional authority requirements.
Large Spill: Use a shovel to put the material into a convenient waste disposal container. Finish
cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface and allow to evacuate through the sanitary
system. Be careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on
the MSDS and with local authorities.

Section 7: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering
controls to keep airborne levels below recommended exposure limits. If user operations generate dust,
fume or mist, use ventilation to keep exposure to airborne contaminants below the exposure limit.
Personal Protection: Splash goggles. Lab coat. Dust respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified
respirator or equivalent. Gloves.
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill: Splash goggles. Full suit. Dust respirator. Boots.
Gloves. A self-contained breathing apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product.
Suggested protective clothing might not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this
product.
Exposure Limits: TWA: 2 (mg/m3)
Inhalation Respirable: Consult local authorities for acceptable exposure limits.

Section 8: Handling and Storage

Precautions: Keep locked up. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Empty
containers pose a fire risk, evaporate the residue under a fume hood. Ground all equipment containing
material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient
ventilation, wear suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and
show the container or the label. Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles
such as oxidizing agents.
Storage: Keep container tightly closed. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Do not store
above 40°C (104°F). Sensitive to light. Store in light-resistant containers.
 81

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical state and appearance: Solid.
Color: Off-white
Taste: Bitter. (Slight.)
Appearance: Crystalline powder
Molecular Weight: 296.52 g/mole
Melting Point: 71.5°C
Specific Gravity: 1.3 (Water = 1)
Solubility: Soluble in acetone. Insoluble in cold water, hot water. Soluble in alcohol, benzene,
chloroform, carbon disulfide. Slightly soluble in light petroleum.

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity

Stability: The product is stable.
Conditions to avoid: Excess heat, incompatible materials, light, excess dust generation.
Incompatible materials: Reactive with oxidizing agents.
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Sensitive to light. Protect from light.
Polymerization: Will not occur.

Section 11: Toxicological Information

Routes of Entry: Inhalation. Ingestion.
Chronic Effects on Humans: May cause damage to the following organs: the nervous system, the
reproductive system, liver, peripheral nervous system, central nervous system
Other Toxic Effects on Humans: Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant, sensitizer), of ingestion,
of inhalation.
Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans: May affect genetic material (mutagenic). May
cause cancer based on animal test data. May cause adverse reproductive effects and birth defects
(teratogenic).
Acute Potential Health Effects: Skin: May cause skin irritation. Eyes: May cause eye irritation.
Inhalation: May cause respiratory tract irritation. Ingestion: May cause digestive tract irritation with
abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
Chronic Potential Health Effects: Ingestion: Prolonged or repeated ingestion may affect
behavior/central nervous system (headache, fatigue, depression, personality changes (psychosis),
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irritability, seizures, anxiety, dizziness, weakness, delirium, lethargy, poor coordination of arms and
legs (ataxia), coma, flaccid paralysis

Section 12: Ecological Information

Products of Biodegradation: Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely.
However, long term degradation products may arise.
Toxicity of the Products of Biodegradation: The products of degradation are less toxic than the
product itself.
Other information: Avoid release to the environment.

Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Waste disposal recommendations: Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and
local environmental control regulations.
Ecology - waste materials: Avoid release to the environment.

Section 14: Transportation Information

DOT Classification: Not a DOT controlled material (United States).
Identification: Not applicable.
Hazard labels (DOT): Not applicable.