UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

CPE 420: INTRODUCTION TO

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT 1: DURATION 5 WEEKS

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

SHAH ALAM

BACHELOR OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WITH HONOURS

CPE 420

ASSIGNMENT 1: SYNTHETIC RUBBER(NEOPRENE)

No Student name ID No
MUHAMMAD IDZAM HARITH BIN MOHD 2022645828
1
YASIR AFKAM
MUHAMMAD AFIFIZUDDIN BIN ROSLI 2022835512
2
MUHAMMAD AI RIL AZHAR BIN MOHD 2022496398
3
AMSYARI
MOHAMMAD HAMIRRUL BIN OSMANUDDIN 2022646698
4
MUHAMMAD DANIEL ASYRAAFI BIN MOHD 2022621808
5
SHAHRIL

PREPARED FOR:
DR NOR SHARLIZA MOHD SAFAAI

SUBMISSION DATE:
22 DECEMBER 2022
TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO. CONTENT PAGE NUMBER

1. INTRODUCTION 1-5

2. PROCESS AVAILABLE 6-9

3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVNTAGES OF NEOPRENE

PROCESS

4. A) PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

B) PROCESS BLOCK DIAGRAM

C) DETAILED PROCESS EXPLAINATION

5. MAIN PROCESS EQUIPMENT

6. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

7. NATURAL RUBBER VS SYNTHETIC RUBBER

8. REFERENCES
 Neoprene rubber, often known as polychloroprene, is a synthetic substance made of polymerized chloroprene. Neoprene's beneficial
qualities, such as chemical inertness and resistance to heat, oil, water, and solvents, are imparted via the cross-linking of the carbon, hydrogen,
and chlorine polymers that make up polychloroprene. Neoprene, also known as polychloroprene or chloroprene rubber, is a synthetic rubber
created by the polymerization of chloroprene, which is the joining of small, single molecules into larger, multi-unit molecules. Neoprene is a
good all-purpose rubber that is regarded for its high tensile strength, resilience, oil and flame resistance, and resistance to oxygen and ozone
deterioration; nevertheless, due to its expensive cost, it is only used in applications that require particular qualities.

The first synthetic rubber to be commercially successful was neoprene, which was developed in 1930. During the 1920s, natural rubber
was in such high demand that prices kept going up. The need prompts the hunt for an equivalent synthetic rubber. In 1930, DuPont chemists
Wallace Carothers and Arnold Miller Collins created the precursor to Neoprene, a material that resembled rubber.

From the time he started working at DuPont's Wilmington experimental station in Delaware in 1928 until his tragic death in 1937,
Wallace Carothers was a productive and engaged researcher. Neoprene and Nylon are inventions attributed to him. Wallace Carothers'
meticulous examination of patenting trends demonstrates that the majority of his early patents were in the polyesters sector. Following this, there
was a significant amount of experimental and ensuing patent activity in vinyl polymers focused on the Duprene polymer, which ultimately
developed into the Neoprene product for DuPont. The development of the vinyl polymer was a continuation of Father Julius Nieuwland's
research at Purdue University. It wasn't until 1934 that development on and patents for polyamides exclusively began. Results from these
experiments yielded almost immediate commercial results for DuPont.

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In 1930, Arnold Miller Collins, a scientist at DuPont, and Wallace Carothers achieved the first isolation of polychloroprene and 2-chloro-1, 3-
butadiene. Collins worked for Wallace Carothers at Dupont. Collins was given the task by Carothers to make a sample of divinylacetylene. In
March 1930, while distilling the acetylene reaction's byproducts, Collins discovered a tiny amount of an unidentified liquid that he set aside in
stoppered test tubes. Later, he discovered that the liquid had solidified into a transparent uniform lump. The mass bounced when Collins took it
out of the test tube. Additional examination revealed that the mass was a chloroprene polymer made with chlorine from the cupric chloride
catalyst. Collins has discovered a brand-new artificial rubber. After this innovation, DuPont started producing its first artificial rubber, DuPrene,
in September 1931. In 1936, it was renamed neoprene a term to be used generically

When researching the by-products of divinylacetylene, American chemist Arnold Collins of Wallace Hume Carothers' research team at
E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company (now DuPont Company) created polychloroprene, one of the first viable synthetic rubbers. Neoprene, a
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trademarked name that is now generic, was the moniker under which DuPont promoted the material. Colorless, toxic, and combustible,
chloroprene is also known as 2-chlorobutadiene and has the following chemical formula :

Neoprene comes in different forms, depending on the purpose for which it is needed. Neoprene sheets are commonly found placed
between pieces of other fabrics, such as polyester or spandex. Neoprene fabric is flexible, but mixing elastic fabrics (such as spandex) with the
neoprene increases the flexibility. The additional flexibility has made neoprene fabric popular with designers. Neoprene fabrics are also scratch-
resistant and weather-resistant, which makes it ideal for outerwear. Neoprene can be found across a range of industries because of its various
useful traits. Its applications include:

Industrial uses. Chemical inertness makes the material especially valuable for industrial applications, including corrosion-resistant
coatings and as a base for various adhesives. Neoprene is also used in sealing gaskets, especially in relation to electricity, due to its heat and
static resistance.

Electrical and electronic uses. Neoprene’s fire and static resistance explain why it is commonly used in power transformers, light bulbs,
wires, and other electrical applications as an insulator. It is also used as a protector for electronics such as laptops for the same reason, as well as
its cushioning abilities.

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 Safety equipment uses. The material’s ability to continue to function in a wide range of temperatures while providing thermal resistance
and remaining flexible makes neoprene fabric an ideal fit for gloves and other protective wear. Neoprene’s oil, chemical, and water resistance
provide additional protection.

Marine uses. As a result of neoprene’s water and thermal resistance properties, it is also used in wet-suits and diving-suits—nitrogen is
added to increase insulation which increases overall buoyancy, so the suits must be weighted to prevent them from floating or pulling the diver
back toward the surface. However, because neoprene contains air-pockets and is subject to compression as pressure increases, the efficiency of a
neoprene wet-suit decreases as water depth and distance from the surface increases.

Automotive uses. Neoprene can be used to make automotive parts, as it is abrasion, tear, solvent, oil, and weather-resistant, as well as
heat and fireproof. It can be found in window and door seals, hose covers, belts, vibration mounts, and shock absorber seals.

Medical uses. Thanks to neoprene’s flexibility, wearability, and ability to keep its shape over time, it is used to make supports and braces,
including wrist, knee, and elbow supports.

Packaging uses. Because neoprene is a soft rubber by nature, it is also a useful source of padding and reinforcement for certain fragile
applications.

Construction uses. Thanks to its weather, temperature, and compression resistance, neoprene is used in washers, bridge bearing pads,
elevator astragals, and other construction materials.

Neoprene is extremely versatile and is used in many different products. Neoprene does not degrade as quickly as natural rubber, so it is
used for gaskets or hoses. Neoprene also resists burning, so the material is used in weather stripping for fire doors or in gloves and face masks.
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Neoprene is most commonly used in scuba gear or wetsuits since it insulates so well and is waterproof. It can also be found in laptop sleeves,
tablet holders, remote controls, mouse pads, lunch bags, can coolers or koozies, tires, clothing, car seats, car seat covers, and even Halloween
masks. 

Neoprene offers excellent resistance to water, oil, and heat because of its composition. Neoprene fabric can it float on water? The
quantity of air that neoprene has within will determine how much water it can hold. Neoprene can absorb less water the more air it has. Nitrogen
is added during manufacturing of limestone neoprene. Since the cells don't absorb water, the additional nitrogen boosts both insulation and total
buoyancy. Traditional oil-based neoprene has less air and a liquid foundation, which means it enables more water to sink into it and has poorer
cell penetration.

Example of neoprene product :

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 Neoprene was originally intended to serve as an oil-resistant substitute for natural rubber, but since its invention neoprene’s other
properties have enabled its use a rubber alternative in a wide range of applications. Some of the properties are :

It’s a very heat resistant rubber. When compared with natural rubber, neoprene resists gas permeation more and can function in
temperatures up to 275 degrees Fahrenheit (F). Even at such high temperatures, neoprene will not physically degrade, making it better suited to
long-term use in high-temperature applications than natural rubber. When heat degradation does occur it does not manifest itself in the form of
melting or stretching, as with many applications, but instead exhibits hardening. It’s also fire-resistant.

Neoprene is also cold resistant. Even though it can function in high heat, neoprene also holds up down to -50 degrees Fahrenheit. When
operating at temperatures below 0 degrees Fahrenheit, neoprene will however become increasingly stiff, becoming non-functional for most
applications by the time it hits -50 degrees F.

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 It works with other materials. Neoprene can be manipulated to bond mechanically with cotton and several types of metal, including
stainless steel, aluminium, brass, and copper. A basic bonding agent aids in the process. In neoprene with specific additives, adhesion can be
induced between neoprene and materials such as glass and acrylic.

It can withstand the elements outside. Neoprene is very resistant to the sun, ozone, and has a low rate of oxidation. It can last outside for
a very long time because of this. It is also resistant to chemicals. Neoprene is prized for its resistance to petroleum-based combinations like
solvents, oils, and greases yet being chemically inert. Additionally, it can survive alkalines, mineral acids, and certain salt solutions in addition to
methyl and ethyl alcohols.

PROCESS AVAILABLE

I. Limestone

As was previously noted, Dupont Chemicals, USA developed neoprene as a synthetic rubber in the 1930s by polymerizing chloroprene.
The original method employed oil to create the chloroprene rubber chips needed for the initial stage of neoprene manufacturing, along with
additional petroleum-based compounds.

The Yamamoto Corporation of Japan invented a brand-new variety of neoprene in the 1960s. Yamamoto created a unique process to
transform the calcium carbonate in limestone into chloroprene rubber chips, generating limestone neoprene in place of conventional oil-based
neoprene. Of course, limestone is the main component of limestone neoprene. The sedimentary rock known as limestone (CaCO3) is mostly
made up of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are two distinct crystal forms of calcium carbonate. (the stuff needed for limestone).

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 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks is made up of limestone. It can be used as a building material, road base aggregate,
white pigment or filler in goods like toothpaste or paints, and as a chemical feedstock, among other things. Since ancient times, lime and
limestone have been essential components of construction. According to Turkish archaeological finds, lime was used as a mortar as early as
7,000 years ago. Lime was utilised in the Egyptian culture to manufacture plaster and mortar. The way lime is used has drastically changed in
the US. In the United States, construction accounted for more than 80% of lime use in 1900. Nearly 90% of what is used now is for industrial
and chemical purposes.Stage 1: polychloroprene chips

10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks is made up of limestone. It can be used as a building material, road base aggregate,
white pigment or filler in goods like toothpaste or paints, and as a chemical feedstock, among other things. Since ancient times, lime and
limestone have been essential components of construction.

According to Turkish archaeological finds, lime was used as a mortar as early as 7,000 years ago. Lime was utilised in the Egyptian
culture to manufacture plaster and mortar. The way lime is used has drastically changed in the US. In the United States, construction accounted
for more than 80% of lime use in 1900. Nearly 90% of what is used now is for industrial and chemical purposes.From the furnace, components
are reacted with other chemicals to make the acetylene gas needed for the chloroprene rubber chips.

Both oil-based and limestone-based processes for the following step, polymerization, yield the same outcomes (albeit with different
ingredients). In terms of strength and insulation, what is generated at this point is not all that different. However, the advantage of limestone
neoprene's micro-cells is due to the next step in the production process.

Stage 2: baked in the oven

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 The following step is the construction of a neoprene sponge block, which is significantly larger than baking a loaf of bread. To make the
polychloroprene rubber expand, it is melted, combined with foaming agents and black carbon pigments, then baked in an oven.

The micro-cell structure of limestone neoprene is produced by combining Yamamoto's unique technology with calcium carbonate
throughout this procedure. After being cooked, the sponge is cooled, leaving a large block of neoprene that is roughly 150mm thick, has a 94%
independent closed-cell structure, and is filled with nitrogen gas in each of its cells.

Stage 3: sliced into sheets

The next step is to cut the sponge block into sheets once it has dried and hardened. Similar to slicing a loaf of bread, but with the
neoprene cut to the desired thickness, such as 2mm, 3mm, or 5mm (or whatever thickness may be required). Limestone neoprene's thickness is a
true representation of a wetsuit's thickness because it is measured before the nylon is added (compared to many Chinese-made suits, which
include neoprene and nylon in the measurement and end up being thinner than what they claim to be). The strength of each cut sheet of foamed
neoprene is zero; at this point, it is more easily torn than paper! However, even now, due to its extremely high micro-cell structure, exceptional
thermal insulation properties.

Stage 4: laminated with nylon

The soft sheets are laminated as the final step to give them strength. To create smoothie (neoprene with a single side of nylon) or double
lined neoprene, high stretch nylon or polyester jersey knit is bonded to one side or both sides of the neoprene sheet (nylon on both sides). The
neoprene's strength and colour are imparted by the thick nylon jersey layer, which is also what allows it to move over the body without clinging

9
to the skin (like it would if it was a rubber or cell finish). To make it even warmer, it can also be lined with titanium alloy alpha. Strength and
durability depend greatly on the calibre of the laminated bond between the neoprene foam and the nylon jersey. A strong bond will not degrade,
blister or delaminate. This can be a major problem with any inferior bonding during manufacture.

After going through these processes, we are left with sheets of limestone neoprene that are extremely durable and well-insulated. These
sheets are then delivered to Seventhwave where they will be cut and assembled wetsuits.

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 II. Oil based

Neoprene made of oil has a poor micro-cell structure and a 60–70% cell penetration rate. Neoprene, an oil-based polymer, contains
pockets and bubbles in low-density closed cells. Additionally, it is not as dense as limestone neoprene. Delamination, which is blisters between
the nylon and rubber that quickly disintegrate, can be categorised as one of the issues with low-quality neoprene. Additionally, compression that
neoprene "cave-ins," particularly in the elbow or knee areas. Other than that, there is no memory that is not returnable, and the fit eventually
wears out. Unnecessarily, the neoprene cracks between the layers of nylon.

The component that essentially serves to bind chloroprene together to generate longer chains of repeating molecules—a process known
as polymerization—is butadine, an oil derivative, in oil-based neoprene. The polychlorprene chips used as the foundation for neoprene are
produced by this technique. Similar steps are utilised to create limestone neoprene, with the exception that limestone is employed as the primary
binding agent (referred to as a monmer) and not oil.

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Advantages and disadvantages neoprene of each process

1. Limestone Neoprene

Neoprene made of limestone has a dense micro-cell structure. These are independently moving, closed cells (essentially, bubbles) that are
tightly clustered together within the neoprene. Limestone neoprene's micro-cell structure gives it a number of specific benefits that improve the
functionality of wetsuits. The imperviousness of the limestone neoprene technique is one of its advantages. Neoprene may absorb less water the
more air it has. Each closed cell of limestone neoprene is pumped full of nitrogen gas. The neoprene itself has little water penetration because
these cells do not absorb water. Limestone neoprene dries more rapidly because it absorbs less water. Since typical oil-based rubber has a lower
cell penetration and a liquid foundation, there is less air and more rubber in the neoprene, which facilitates water penetration and absorption.
Additionally, this procedure is less in weight. Limestone neoprene is much lighter than oil-based neoprene because the nitrogen closed-cells stop
water absorption. The weight of the limestone neoprene is roughly the same whether it is wet or dry since it does not collect water while being
worn, in contrast to wetsuits made of oil, which gain weight when you put them on. The benefit of utilising this method after that is that our
house will be warmer. Limestone neoprene is extremely warm due to the nitrogen gas contained in each of the tiny closed cells. This is made
possible by the superior heat insulation. The nitrogen-filled closed cells provide superior heat retention and efficiency over air since they are a
better insulator. Additionally, the limestone used in the neoprene manufacturing process may be more durable. This is due to the homogeneous
micro-cell structure in limestone neoprene, which ensures continued operation even if any portion of the material's surface is scratched or
damaged. Last but not least, this method has the benefit of being stretchable. Limestone neoprene has "cell memory," which allows it to conform
to your body shape and maintain that shape over time. Additionally, limestone neoprene stretches between 480 and 580%. Contrast it with the
60–70% elongation of human skin beneath the arm. Neoprene, which is made of limestone, has incredible elasticity, memory, and
multidirectional stretch capability as a result.
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 There are numerous benefits to the limestone neoprene process, but there are also several implications. The implication of this method is
that it has the potential to permanently alter the environment. It is possible to observe several limestone quarries from a long distance away.
The quarrying process frequently alters the natural landscape in ways that cannot be reversed. In other words, even if a quarry is not used, it
often remains a permanent fixture of the town after it is created. Even when properly managed, quarries have a history of causing sinkholes,
harming groundwater supplies, and raising the possibility of soil erosion. Additionally, cement and mortar progressively erode with acid rain
when using the limestone-based technique. This results in gaps between the bricks and ruins the limestone walls.Beside that , this process
often leads to challenging traffic patterns caused by quarries. Although limestone quarries may generate jobs, they can raise expenses. For tiny
towns next to a quarry, traffic can be a serious issue. Before the quarry can start operations, infrastructural expenses may be necessary. The
experience also includes noise pollution, traffic emissions, and other connected traffic issues.Moreover, the habitats of species may be
negatively impacted by this method.When a limestone quarry is created, local animals, insects, and trees all battle to survive. By disrupting the
ecosystem's equilibrium by excavating the earth to extract this natural resource, it may become more difficult for many local species to thrive.
Last but not least, this technique has drawbacks. Health risks may be associated with quarries. Strict safety and health rules can mitigate some
but not all of the potential health risks associated with mining limestone. Pneumoconiosis and silicosis are known to be brought on by
breathing limestone quarry dust. Sleep habits may shift for the local people, and the quarry's heightened stress may result in unusual and
unforeseen health issues.

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2.Oil-Based Neoprene

They also have a few advantages from the oil-based technique of neoprene production. The main benefit of this technique is that oil-
based neoprene has a low microstructure. This is due to the 60%–70% cell penetration of oil-based neoprene. the quantity of pockets or bubbles
that exist inside the polymers; oil-based neoprene also contains low-density closed cells.

A few effects of the oil-based neoprene manufacturing process may be demonstrated. The oil-based neoprene manufacturing process will
releases gases and artificial compounds into the atmosphere. Crude oil spills caused by oil drilling, exploration, and extraction have an obvious
and immediate impact on the ecology in the area. Additionally, this technique makes use of nonrenewable materials that end up in a landfill.
Furthermore, it implies that this mechanism lacks a memory to keep that structure over time. Oil-based neoprene does not have memory, thus it
loses its form with time, and the fit becomes uncomfortable. Additionally, the neoprene separates needlessly between the nylon layers.In
addition, Neoprene made of oil is very difficult to clean up. Neoprene cannot be substituted by another material, notwithstanding the potential
modest environmental effect of an oil-based neoprene wetsuit.

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4.1) POLYCHLORINE/NEOPRENE PRODUCTION PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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4.2) POLYCHLORINE/NEOPRENE PRODUCTION BLOCK FLOW D

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4.3) PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM EXPLAINATION

I) CHLORINATION

Dichlorobutanes play a significant role as intermediates in the production of

chloroprene, the main monomer used in the production of neoprene rubbers. The procedure
began with a feed mixture of butadiene and chlorine as the first stage. Butadiene will be
chlorinated in the vapour phase to yield liquid phase dichlorobutanes. Chlorine vapour and
butadiene are mixed. This procedure is carried out in a tubular reactor under largely adiabatic
conditions. At a temperature between 70° and 175° C, butadiene and chlorine vapour are
mixed in a molar ratio of around 5:1 to 50:1 (ideally 8:1 to 30:1) and added to a reactor that is
kept at a temperature below 250° C. Chlorine reacts with butadiene to create a combination of
3,4-dichlorobutene-1 and 1,4-dichlorobutene-2 (1,4 DCB) (3,4 DCB). This process is capable
of giving high yields of dichlorobutanes, usually in excess of 90%, normally about 91-93%.
Dichlorobutanes are removed as a liquid.

Figure 2:Butadiene Figure 1.2: 3,4-dichlorobutene-1

II) ISOMERIZATION
The product from reactor 1 then entered a second reactor to begin the isomerization
process. Isomerization is a chemical process that changes one molecule into another molecule
with the exact same number of identical atoms in a different order. 1,4-dichlorobutene-2 (1,4
DCB) and 3,4-dichlorobutene-1 (3,4 DCB) are products generally formed by the chlorination
of butadiene. The molecule of 1,4 dichlorobutene was isomerized to 3,4 dichlorobutene. 3,4-
Dichlorobutene (3,4 DCB) was more Prone for dechlorination producing chloroprene as the
product. The unreacted reactant went back to reactor no 1 for chlorination process again. 

1
 Figure 4.3: 1,4-dichlorobutene-2 (1,4 DCB) Figure 3.4: 3,4-dichlorobutene-1 (3,4 DCB)

III) DECHLORINATION
Caustic soda also known as Sodium hydroxide, an inorganic compound with the
formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting sodium cation Na+ and
hydroxide anions OH−. 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene or chloroprene is a chlorinated derivative
of butadiene. An improved process for the production of chloroprene, which is the critical
monomer constituent of neoprene rubbers, and of 2,3-dichlorobutadiene-1,3, which often is
copolymerized with chloroprene to provide better low temperature properties of the resulting
elastomer, involves dehydrochlorination of a chlorinated hydrocarbon whichwas 3,4-
dichlorobutene-1 in this process with an aqueous mixture of sodium hydroxide. The desired
product, chloroprene or 2,3-dichlorobutadiene-1,3, is recovered. This dechlorination was
carried out with a solution of caustic soda at a temperature up to about 100° C. or even
higher. The dechlorination reaction is preferably carried out in the presence of a suitable
catalyst. The preferred catalysts are quaternary ammonium compounds, and especially
quaternary ammonium chlorides. Referring now to the drawing, the dechlorination step takes
place in reactor 3. 3,4-Dichlorobutene-1 was introduced through line, and a sodium
hydroxide or caustic soda was introduced through another stream. A catalyst was used, and
was also feed into the reactor no 3. In the operation of the process of this invention, the mole
ratio of sodium hydroxide to 3,4-dichlorobutene-1 in reactor 1 can vary from about 0.5:1 to
20:1, although an excess of sodium hydroxide is preferred. A nearly equimolar ratio can be
used with the more active catalysts. It is advisable to operate in the absence of oxygen and in
the presence of conventional polymerization inhibitors. The process can be carried out either
continuously or batchwise. If the reaction is catalysed, short residence times are sufficient to
achieve nearly full conversion. Finally, 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene or chloroprene was produced
from this reaction.

2
 + NaOH

Figure 6: 3,4-dichlorobutene-1 (3,4 DCB) Figure 5: 2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene

IV) POLYMERIZATION
The Chloroprene next went into the polymerization reactors. Polymers can be prepared
by condensation or radical of cationic anionic polymerization of monomers. The polymers
with the desired qualities can be designed by making the correct choice of the monomers.
Polymerization of chloroprene results in the formation of polychloroprene or also known as
neoprene. Emulsion polymerization technique is selected for the polymerization of
chloroprene. Chloroprene is an organic molecule with the IUPAC name 2-chlorobuta-1,3-
diene. Polymerization of chloroprene gives the synthetic rubber- neoprene. The polymer
backbone of the synthetic rubber neoprene contains the reactive side group chlorine and
double bonds. All the double bonds present in neoprene are trans in its configuration. In case
of emulsion polymerization, demineralized water is used as solvent. Demineralized water and
catalyst were added into the reactors. The monomer should be insoluble in water. As
chloroprene is an organic molecule, it is insoluble in water. The polymerization reaction of
isoprene occurs in water phase until the polymer gets hydrophobic and then dissolves back
into the monomer phase. The emulsifier used in polymerization has both polar and non-polar
ends. The polar end connects to the polar water and nonpolar end binds to the organic
monomer. Polymerization is initiated using potassium persulfate. Chloroprene was emulsified
in water and subsequently polymerized by the action of free-radical initiators to produce
rubber. the chloroprene repeating unit can take on a number of configurations, trans-
polychloroprene being the most frequent. The use of various substances results in elasticity
and colour. When doing the polymerization process all the chemicals tend to greatly
crystallize quickly. The temperature at this time must be kept below 10 degree C which is
about 50-degree C. brine, salt water, particularly a highly concentrated water solution of
common salt (sodium chloride) was added into the reactors. Brine can be used as a secondary

3
fluid in large refrigeration installations for the purpose of thermal energy transport from one
place to another. Brines are used as heat-transfer media because of their low freezing
temperatures or as vapour-absorption agents because of their low vapour pressure. Most
commonly used brines are depending on inexpensive sodium chloride and calcium chloride.
It can be used because the addition of salt to water lowers the solution's freezing temperature,
and the heat transport efficiency is greatly enhanced for the comparatively material's low
cost. Brine offers faster cooling than plain water The feed went through three polymerization
reactors in order to achieved high conversion of polychloroprene.

V) CHLOROPRENE STRIPPING

The feed was then directed to a stripping column containing polychloroprene and
residue. Stripping Column is a chemical equipment used for physical separation, where one
or more components are removed from a liquid stream by a vapor stream. In industrial
applications, the liquid and vapor streams can have co-current or counter current flows. The
feed is introduced at the top of the stripping column, just as the distillation process, which
places it in the centre of the column. The bottom of the stripping column is where the
steam, which is merely gaseous boiling water, is introduced. Due to the fact that the steam
and feed are being introduced from different ends of the column, this design is known as a
counter current design. As the feed flows from the top of the column downward, it washes
over trays designed to increase the amount of contact surface where the steam and the
feed meet. As the steam gets introduced into the feed, the volatiles with the lowest boiling
point which in this case was unreacted chloroprene was absorbed into the steam upon
contact with it. Polychloroprene with higher boiling points won’t undergo this process. The
steam containing chloroprene exits the top of the column and was sent to reactor number 3

4
to undergo dechlorination again. This way no reactant would go to waste. Finally, The
targeted product neoprene was sent to finishing column

VI) FINISHING
The amount of wastewater that is discharged is reduced during finishing, and
wastewater can be collected and recycled using first-stage physicochemical treatment,
second-stage biochemical treatment, and third-stage intensified activated-carbon adsorption
tower treatment. Waste water is added to the coagulation equalising tank, where it is treated
intensively by flocculation and aiding solidification. Clad aluminium salt and polyacrylamide
class medication are also added.
A portion of the recirculated water is squeezed into the molten cylinder of the one-level
air floatation machine with the help of a pump, and the air is then made molten with water
after being pressurised with compressed air. With the help of a water sprayer, molten gas is
pumped into the water to dissolve the air, and an accumulation mechanism decompresses the
water so that the air in the water bubbles up again. When flocculation agents are thrown away
ineffectively, the extremely tiny coagulation of materials in waste water grows larger and
forms suspended matter. These suspended particles adhere to the water's surface while bubble
floating, where they are then scraped off with an air flotation machine's slag scraper and
dumped into an ash pit.
Waste water enters the secondary air-floatation mechanism of the series connection by
going out one level after that. Due to the discarding process, certain macromolecules and
colloidal material are formed by long-term cohesion, which causes some small particles to
trickle out and replace the removed suspended material in one level of air support. These
finely ground particles also float on the water's surface as a result of the secondary air-
floatation machine's action of molten gas accumulation, and they are released after being
concentrated by the slag scraper. Similar to this, the pollutant substance of suspended
substance can be condensed in waste water, substantially all remove, at the exit of secondary
air-floatation machine.

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 The first step of anaerobic acidification takes place in an acidification pool with semi-
soft packing. As a result of anaerobion of filling surface, ring molecule organisms that are not
easily biodegradable in part turn into chain molecule organisms that are, adding BOD content
to waste water. Aerobic bacteria in waste water in active sludge are rapidly bred after
receiving a large amount of oxygen, a large amount of organic substance consumed in water,
form coenobium, make organism into removable mud, and waste water is constantly supplied
with oxygen by the device of aeration. Waste water was through the acidization of 8 to 16
hours, entered plug-flow aeration tank, adopted blast aeration mode, source of the gas
supplied by air blast machine room, and was constantly
Waste water from the first stage of the process enters the double-deck contact oxidation
tower of the second stage of AO, where solid porous property fillers like coke, slag, and float
stone are housed. Waste water is then directed to the anaerobism section of the tower bottom,
where it is attached to a solid packing surface that is known as a microbial film. Under the
influence of an anaerobe, waste water is hydrolysed and becomes acidifying once more. This
causes the ring molecule organism failing in the one-stage hydrolysis pool to open, and with
this comprehension, a part becomes once more the chain molecule organism of another
destroyed. The organism in the waste water under the influence of the aerobic biologic
membrane eats a portion of the water again after entering the higher strata aerobic layer, and
COD.

6
5.0) MAIN PROCESS EQUIPMENT

I) POLYMERIZATION REACTOR

The behaviour of continuous polymerization reactors can be altered significantly by

forced oscillation of the reaction parameters such as feed concentration of the reactants, flow
rate and temperature.
According to its structure, a polymerization reactor can be classified into four types:
tank, column, tubular, and other special type reactors. However, due to the high viscosity and
high exothermicity of a typical polymerization system, special attention has to be paid to heat
transfer and fluid flow when designing a polymerization reactor. For instance, most of the
polymerization reactors are equipped with agitators. Commonly used tank reactors obviously
have stirring capability, and even a tower reactor is usually equipped with multiple blades
when it is used for polymerization. The main functions of agitators in a polymerization
reactor including this process which is Mixing effect, Agitating effect, Suspension effect and
Dispersion effect.
Mixing effect is when the feed contains more than two phases, adequate agitation will
ensure uniform concentration, temperature, density, and viscosity in reactor.

Agitating effect also play important role to shearing the mixture with the usage of
blades of the agitator exert pressure on the fluid and force the fluid to flow more vigorously.
Fluid flow pattern can also be changed by changing blade shapes to enhance heat and mass
transfer.

Suspension effect is shown after agitation keep solid particles or oil-drops suspended
uniformly in a reaction medium. This is especially the case for suspension polymerization
processes where water is usually used as the solvent. Maintaining uniform suspension of
monomer drops or polymer particles in the water by agitation is very critical for the
polymerization process.

Dispersion effect contain gas, liquid, and solid which can be dispersed in the liquid
medium by agitation, which increases interface area and hence enhances heat and mass
transfer.

1
 Figure 7:Polymerization Reactor

II) STRIPPING COLLUMN

Stripping column is a chemical equipment used for physical separation where one or
more components are removed from liquid stream by a vapor stream. When inter-phase, mass
transfer using the air to strip the contaminants out of the water using Ex-situ technique to
remove volatile organic compound from pumped groundwater. This technology is a physical
process which transfer the contaminant in liquid phase into the gas phase for the purification
ground water and waste water.
A stripping column packed with irregular shape and inconsistent size packing material
in order to provide high surface. AS for the operation aspect contaminated water is pumped at
the top of the water into a liquid distribution system then the water is distributed as much as
possible to flow across the packing surface since what we want is a lot air water contact.
After that the water flow through the packing surface by the gravity
Finally, the clean water is collected at the bottom of the water as the water goes down, at the
same time air flow is introduce through the same path but in opposite direction which is from
bottom to top by air blower. Air flow is pumped through the tower mass transfer from water
to air air take place.

Figure 8:Stripping Column

2
III) COOLING TOWER

A cooling tower is heat dismissal equipment that concentrates on the removal of

warmth to the climate through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The
approach of cooling towers started in the nineteenth century when condensers were created to
be utilized for steam motors. Cooling towers may either utilize the principle of evaporation to
eliminate water, measure warmth and cool the functioning liquid to approach the wet-bulb air
temperature or, on account of shut circuit dry cooling towers, depend entirely on air to cool
the functioning liquid to approach the dry-bulb air temperature.
Warm water from the heat source is pumped to the water distribution system at the top
of the tower. The water is distributed over the wet-deck fill by means of nozzles.
Simultaneously, air is drawn through air-inlet louvers and through the wet-deck surface
causing a small portion of the water to evaporate. The evaporative process removes heat from
the water. The warm, moist air is drawn out of the top of the tower. The resulting cold water
is then recirculated back through the heat source in a continuous cycle.
The internal components of the cooling tower represent the core of the heat transfer
efficiency. Different models use various components to achieve the best results. However,
over time the components can wear out, become fouled, or perhaps the site conditions or
process has changed and the original components no longer fit the need. Tower Components
offers a wide variety of cooling tower products that can be custom-selected for new and
existing cooling towers. Just as a cooling tower has a principle of operation, each component
has a principle of operation specifically suited to operating conditions.
In cross flow towers, air flow is directed across the water flow. Air flow enters the
vertical faces of the tower to meet the fill. Hot water is distributed to the fill, perpendicular to
the air flow, by gravity through perforated basins. The air passes through the fill, past the
water flow into an open area while gravity distributes the water through nozzles across the
fill. The turbulent air will flow through the fill structure to maximize the contact with the
water thus drawing heat out of the water. A cold-water basin contains the water after its
interaction with the air flow.
In counter flow towers, air flows opposite to the water flow. Air enters the tower
beneath the fill and is drawn up vertically into the tower. Above the fill, hot water is
introduced through low pressure spray nozzles to divide the hot water over the surface of the
fill in fine droplets. The cooling air draws heat from the water as it progresses to the bottom
3
of the tower. The drift eliminator above the spray nozzle captures water droplets and returns
the water to the circulating system. A cold-water basin contains the water after its interaction
with the air flow.

Figure 9:Type of Cooling Tower

IV) Steam boiler

A steam boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be
transferred to water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under
pressure is then usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and
inexpensive medium for transferring heat to a process. When water at atmospheric pressure is
boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
explosive as gun powder. This causes the boiler to be an equipment that must be treated with
utmost care.
The basic working principle of steam boiler is very simple and easy to understand.
The steam boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water is stored. Fuel (generally
coal, oil, gas, biomass) is burnt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced. These hot gasses
come in contact with water vessel where the heat of these hot gases transfer to the water and
consequently steam is produced in the boiler. Then this steam is piped to the turbine of
thermal power plant. There are many different types of boiler utilized for different purposes
4
like running a production unit, sanitizing some area, sterilizing equipment, to warm up the
surroundings.
The percentage of total heat exported by outlet steam in the total heat supplied by the
fuel(coal) is called steam boiler efficiency.

It includes with thermal efficiency, combustion efficiency & fuel to steam efficiency. Steam
boiler efficiency depends upon the size of boiler used. A typical efficiency of steam boiler is
80% to 88%. Actually, there are some losses occur like incomplete combustion, radiating loss
occurs from steam boiler surrounding wall, defective combustion gas etc. Hence, efficiency
of steam boiler gives this result.

Figure 10:Steam Boiler Cross Section

5
6.0) SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

I) ECONOMIC

The rubber industry is an important resource-based sector globally. It has witnessed

steady and strong growth over the years. The future and present of the rubber industry are
tied to the global economy because rubber is used so often in tyres and non-tire applications.

Rubber is used in a wide variety of products including medical equipment, surgical

gloves, airplane and car tyres, clothing, toys, footwear, crap tubes, adhesives, hoses, gaskets,
and roll coverings, and so on. One of the most important trends in the rubber market is the
increasing demand from the automotive industry. 

The size of the global industrial rubber market was USD 31.40 billion in 2021 and is
expected to reach USD 46.66 billion by 2030. It is growing at a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 4.51% from 2022 to 2030. However, the overall contribution of the sector to the
global economy is very promising. Some studies highlighted that this sector generates over
USD 300 billion a year and supports 40 million people including their families through direct
and indirect employment.  

The expansion of rubber plantations, however, has some negative social and
environmental impacts such as deforestation or conversion of natural forests, pollution, the
displacement of local communities, unsustainable pricing, the use of child labour, and gender
inequality.

II) ENVIRONMENT

Natural rubber (NR) is well known as renewable biobased polymer that has been
widely used in a wide variety of applications ranging from ordinary household to aerospace
products. To meet the complete concept of green growth and sustainable development, the
uses of nontoxic chemicals and green fillers alternating to conventional fillers are necessary
to be concerned. In this article, we provide up-to-date information on the sustainable
development of NR including NR latex production with low ammonia/nonammonia system
and the usage of effective curing activator and biobased processing oil. Moreover, the issue
of the environmentally friendly green NR composites is described here with using renewable
biomass organic fillers derived from plants and animals such as cellulose and chitin.

III) SOCIETY

Support smallholders and farmer groups Smallholders have specific constraints that
need to be overcome for them to benefit from rubber production. They need support for
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access to high quality genetic material and associated technologies. This can be provided by
government agencies, as in China, India, Malaysia and Thailand, or by private companies as
is often the case in emerging producing countries. Smallholders also need financial support to
invest in new production or to replace their old trees and to sustain them between the
replacement of old trees and the maturity of new trees that can produce latex. They
experience challenges in accessing markets, to make their production of sufficient quality
after first transformation and relate to buyers. Collective organization can be a way to
overcome power unbalances between small producers and bigger buyers. It can be supported
by transparent information on prices and rules to make sure contracts are fair and company
responsibilities are upheld. Finally, smallholders also need support for diversifying their
systems to spread risks and stabilize livelihoods.

7
7) NATURAL RUBBER VS SYNTHETIC RUBBER

Rubber Hardness Analysis

120

100

80 f(x) = − 6.77142857142857 x + 89.8666666666667

Hardness,%

60 Natural
rubber
(Hardness,
40 %)

20
f(x) = 0.685714285714286 x + 12.2666666666667
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Sample No

Figure: Rubber Hardness analysis graph

Based on the figure above, we can clearly see how different was the hardness between
natural rubber and synthetic rubber. All of the natural rubber sample had higher hardness
percentage compare to synthetic rubber sample. Sample no 2 for natural rubber had the
highest hardness percentage which was 97% compare to the other samples. On the other
hand, the highest hardness percentage for synthetic rubber was sample no 6 which was only
16%. The lowest hardness percentage for natural rubber was actually higher than other
synthetic rubber sample which was 45% for sample no 6 while for synthetic rubber it was
10% which was sample no 3. Graph for natural rubber started at 74% and rises up to the
highest point which was 97%. Then it went down a lot to 56%. The graph did not change
much after that staying between 56% to 45%. For synthetic rubber, it had a stable trend where
the range of the hardness percentages was between 10% to 20%.

8
 Natural rubber is an elastomer, meaning it is an elastic substance and can recover back
to its original shape when stretched. The uniqueness of natural rubber lies in its remarkable
extensibility and toughness, as evidenced by its ability to be stretched repeatedly to seven or
eight times its original length.  Tensile strength is the maximum limit that any material can
withstand being stretched out. Natural rubber has a high tensile strength and is resistant to
fatigue from wear, such as chipping, cutting or tearing. natural rubber is also known for its
properties as a strong, flexible and heat-resistant material used to create latex
products. natural rubber is durable because it doesn’t break or weaken easily. It’s also flexible
and doesn’t lose this ability over time. The most common commercial use of natural rubber is
in tyres, spanning various industries, including automotive and aerospace.

Synthetic rubber can be produced artificially via the polymerisation of monomers into
polymers. Due to the polymers being artificially produced, synthetic rubber can have
different properties and have many applications. The application of synthetic rubber can be
seen all around us. some examples include wetsuits, balloons, PPE, the soles of shoes and
rubber bands.

The main difference between natural rubber and synthetic rubber is that natural rubber

is a natural biosynthesis polymer obtained from a plant called Hevea Brasiliensis, whereas
synthetic rubbers are man-made polymers under controlled conditions. Generally, synthetic
rubber is better than natural rubber in terms of temperature resistance, ageing resistance and
resistance to abrasion. Synthetic rubber also tends to be cheaper to produce. On the other
hand, an advantage natural rubber has over synthetic rubber is that natural rubber has higher
tensile strength, higher tear resistance, and low odour compared to synthetic rubber. Special
properties can also be found in other synthetic rubbers. These can include chemical
resistances, fluid resistances, ozone resistances, electrical resistances, and more. In addition,
synthetic rubbers can have excellent heat resistance, lower temperature resistance, and heat
aging improvements. Another consideration for choosing between natural rubber vs synthetic
rubber is that natural rubber contains natural proteins which may cause allergic reactions
when in placed in contact with human skin for prolonged periods. Despite these differences
between natural rubber and synthetic rubber, both natural rubber and synthetic rubber are in
high demand by manufacturers due to their low costs and satisfactory performance for most
applications. Ultimately, which type of rubber is ‘better’ depends on its application.
9
REFERENCES

1. Miller, K. L. (1961, November 2). Chloroprene polymerization

process. https://patents.google.com/patent/US3190865A/en
2. Wenzel, R. (1973, March 3). Process for the preparation of chloroprene.
CalTrend. https://patents.google.com/patent/US3936508A/en

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