For the partial fulfillment of the year:2022-23

A chemistry project on

Polymers
Submitted to:DurgaPrasad Sir(Chemistry Teacher)
Submitted by:Priyam sanghvi
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher (Mr. Durga

Prasad Sir) and our principal (Mr.Debasis Das )who gave me the golden opportunity
to do this project on the topic (Polymers). It helped me in doing a lot of research and
I came to know about a lot of things related to this topic.

Finally, I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
 index
Topic Page No.
Introduction 5
Natural polymers 6

Some important terms related to polymers 7

5 Natural polymers 8

DNA 9-11

Rubber 12-14

Carbohydrates 15-17

Silk 18-20

Wool 21-23
 index
Topic Page No.
Synthetic polymer 24

5 synthetic polymer 25

Low-density polyethylene 26-28

High-density polyethylene 29-31

Polypropylene 32-34

Polyvinyl chloride 35-37

Polystyrene 38-40

Conclusion 41

Bibliography 42
introduction
A polymer is composed of very large molecules, also called macromolecules,
which are multiples of simpler chemical units called monomers. Polymers make up
many of the materials in living organisms and it is the idea behind many minerals
and man-made materials. There are basically two categories for polymers. They
are :

1) Natural polymers

2) Synthetic polymers
 Natural polymers

Natural Polymers are those substances which are obtained naturally.

These polymers are formed either by the process of addition
polymerization or condensation polymerization. Polymers are
extensively found in nature. Our body too is made up of many natural
polymers like nucleic acids, proteins, DNA, etc.
 Some important terms related to polymers
Monomers: It is a molecule of any of a class of compounds, which is mostly organic,
that can react with other molecules to form very large molecules, or polymers. The
essential feature of a monomer is polyfunctionality that is the capacity to form chemical
bonds to at least two other monomer molecules.
In addition polymerization, monomers react to form a polymer without the formation of
other products .It usually is carried out in the presence of catalysts, which in certain
cases exert control over structural details that have important effects on the properties
of the polymer.
Condensation polymerization is a form of step-growth polymerization. Linear polymers
are produced from bifunctional monomers, i.e. compounds with two reactive
end-groups.
 5 natural polymers

1) DNA
2) Rubber
3) Carbohydrates
4) Proteins
5) Wool
 dna
Structure:DNA is a polymer made from four different monomers , called nucleotides
consisting nitrogen bases, phosphate group and sugar . These join together in different
combinations to make long strands. In a DNA molecule , two strands wrap around each other
to form a double helix structure.
Characteristic:
1) DNA plays an important role in carrying genetic material present in every cell and
replicating during cell division.
2) The relationship between DNA and proteins plays a vital role in forming body
structure, messengers, enzymes, and hormones.
3) When DNA changes on rare occasions, it forms mutations which bring about genetic
variations in cells which surprisingly bring an evolution.
4) DNA stores the genetic information necessary for inheritance and provides instructions
and life processes. The instruction is passed from parent to offspring.
dna
 dna
Uses :
1. Forensics
2. Paternity Tests
3. Ancestry Tracking
4. Medical Tests
5. Genetic Engineering
6. Vaccines
7. Hormones
8. Cloning
 rubber
Structure:Natural rubber is a polymer, a long, chain like molecule that contains repeating subunits. The
chemical name for natural rubber is polyisoprene. It is made from latex of tree. The monomer (meaning “one-part”)
from which it is built is isoprene and is synthesized to remove impurities.

Characteristics:
● Specific gravity

● Abrasion resistance

● Tear resistance

● Compression set

● Resilience

● Elongation

● Tensile modulus

● Hardness
● Tensile strength
rubber
 rubber
Uses :
● Rubber moulded products are widely used industrially (and in some household applications) in the form of rubber goods
and appliances.
● Rubber is used in garden hoses and pipes for small scale gardening applications.
● Most of the tyres and tubes used in automobiles are made up of rubber. Therefore, rubber plays a very important role in
the automobile industry and the transportation industry.
● Rubber products are also employed in matting and flooring applications.
● Medical gloves and other protective equipment which are manufactured for use by medical professionals are often made
up of rubber.
● Vulcanized rubber, a special type of rubber prepared by cross-linking the polymer chains with disulfide bonds, is widely
used in protective equipment in the sports industry. For example, the pads and guards used in the popular sport cricket
are made up of vulcanized rubber.
● Uncured rubber is known for its applications in adhesives and cements, making it a product of choice for the construction
industry.
● Uncured rubber is also used in friction tapes and in insulating material.
● Insulating footwear and insulating blankets are often made using crepe rubber.
● Relatively soft variants of rubber are known to have a wide range of applications in the manufacture of conveyor belts.
● The flexibility offered by certain types of rubber make them ideal for use in printing presses and wringers for domestic
clothes.
● Rubber is also used in the production of balls, balloons, and cushions.
 carbohydrates
Structure :Carbohydrates are often disaccharides, which are two cyclic sugar units bonded together and
these carbohydrate molecules can be extended further into polysaccharide biomolecules. These polysaccharides can
have very long molecular lengths and are often termed carbohydrate polymers.

Characteristics :
Drug Delivery:As carbohydrate polymers are biomolecules ,they have the potential to be excellent drug delivery vessels due to
their inherent biocompatibility and ability to be excreted from the body after the drugs have been delivered.

Corrosion Resistance:Carbohydrate polymers have also been touted as a class of molecules that can prevent metals from
corroding by acting as a chemical inhibitor. Chemical inhibitors can be used to protect metals against changes in pH, temperature,
and moisture, as well as any changes in the device where they are used - such as changes in the electrolyte within a battery
system.

Catalysis:Carbohydrate polymers also have potential in heterogeneous catalysis. It means that the catalyst in catalysis will be of
different matter to the reactants.

Fuel Cells: Fuel cell applications, chitosan, starch, cellulose, and glycogen carbohydrate polymer have been used as the starting
material in alternative synthetic pathways, to yield new low cost and eco-friendlier polymer electrolytes.
carbohydrates
 carbohydrates
Uses :
Carbohydrate Polymers is a major journal within the field of
glycoscience, and covers the study and exploitation of polysaccharides
which have current or potential application in areas such as bioenergy,
bioplastics, biomaterials, biorefining, chemistry, drug delivery, food,
health, nanotechnology, packaging, paper, pharmaceuticals, medicine,
oil recovery, textiles, tissue engineering and wood, and other aspects of
glycoscience.
 silk
Structure :Silk fibers are composed of fibroin microfibrils assembled into filaments. Silk fibers
consist of two fibroin filaments each produced by one of the worm's salivary glands during spinning. Both
filaments are then covered by sericin, an adhesive and hydrophilic protein to form the structural unit called
silk.

Characteristics:
1) Elasticity: If they’re treated well, silk clothes are good at keeping their
shape. Silk is flexible and has some elasticity to it which allows it to pull
itself back into shape after stretching – to some extent.
2) Absorbency: Silk is fairly absorbent. Water weakens the fibres, though, so
treat your silk carefully when you’re washing it.
3) Thermal regulation: Silk’s good at maintaining your body temperature
which means it can help you feel cool in hot weather and warm in the cold.
4) Drying speed:Silk is fast at drying .
5) Shine: Silk fibres are smooth and straight, unlike wool, for example, which
has a scaliness you’ll see if you put it under a microscope. This difference
makes silk smoother to the touch and shinier to the eye.
silk
 silk
Uses :
Raw silk is used for clothing such as shirts, suits, ties.Hand spun mulberry
silk used for making comforters and sleeping bags. Other variety fabric
materials like dupions, plain silk, deluxe, satin, chiffon, chinnons ,etc, are
made from mulberry silk. The silk gut used in surgery for internal suturing is
made from silk glands. The silk glands are dissected out and put in warm
water and pulled at two ends to yield a fibre of uniform thickness. This
protein is auto absorbable and need not be removed after wound healing.
Silk grafts have been used successfully to replace cut arteries.
 wool
Structure :Wool's interior is intricate being made up of membrane, cortex, cortical cell,
microfibril, matrix, microfibril, and the twisted molecular chain and helical coil. Membrane – dyes
and moisture can penetrate the membrane and it's this which enables fibre to absorb humidity.
Cortex – comprises 90% of the fibre.

Characteristics :

1) Wool has natural UV protection.

2) Wool has antibacterial and antimicrobial properties
3) Wool is stain resistant
4) Wool is easy to care for
5) Keeps you warm in winter and cool in summer
6) Insulates even when wet
7) Wool is durable
Wool
 wool
Uses :
1) The most common usage is making winter clothes because
this fibre is warm and thick enough to resist cold.
2) For making carpets.
3) For making blankets.
4) Wool is also used for making upholstery.
5) This fibre is also used for making different kind of insulation.
 Synthetic polymer
Synthetic polymers are defined as polymers that are artificially produced
in laboratories by humans and that’s the reason it is also called
man-made polymers. Some of the examples of synthetic polymers are
polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyamides (nylon), poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC), synthetic rubber, teflon, epoxy, and several others.
They are mostly derived from petroleum oil in controlled environment
and are made up of carbon–carbon bonds as their backbone. A
combination of heat and pressure in the presence of a catalyst alters the
chemical bonds that hold monomers together, causing them to bond
with one another and thus forming a synthetic polymer.
 5 Synthetic Polymers

1) Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)

2) High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
3) Polypropylene (PP)
4) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
5) Polystyrene (PS)
 Low-density polyethylene(ldpe)
Structure:Low-density Polyethylene (LDPE) is a (~50-60%) semi-rigid polymer
with low crystallinity (a mixture of both crystalline and amorphous structures). Compared to
HDPE, it has a higher degree of short and long side-chain branching. The LDPE is
composed of 4,000-40,000 carbon atoms, with many short branches.

Characteristic:
LDPE (low density polyethylene) is a soft, flexible, lightweight plastic material.
LDPE is noted for its low temperature flexibility, toughness, and corrosion
resistance. It is not suited for applications where stiffness, high temperature
resistance and structural strength are required.
 Low-density
polyethylene(ldpe)
 Low-density polyethylene(ldpe)
Uses:
1) Soft drink bottles

2) Juice bottles

3) Water bottles

4) Shampoo/conditioner bottles

5) Liquid hand soap bottles

6) Carry-home food containers

7) grocery bags

8) plastic wrap and film

9) flexible packaging material

10) injection molded parts

 High-density polyethylene(hdpe)
Structure: High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a type of polyethylene,
the most common plastic which accounts for over 34% of the global plastic
market. It is a polymer made up of a huge number of repeating units (known as
monomers), and its chemical formula can be generalized as (C2H4)n.
Characteristics:
1) It is easy to weld using thermoplastic welding equipment.
2) It has low moisture absorption.
3) Provides excellent surface for food preparation.
4) Is a good chemical and corrosion resistance.
5) It is easy to fabricate and machine.
6) Has low weight.
 high-density
polyethylene(hdpe)
 High-density polyethylene(hdpe)
Uses:
Used to make:
· Toys
· Chemical Containers
· Pipe Systems
· Milk Jugs / shampoo bottles
· Recycling Bins
· Grocery Bags
· Cereal Box Liners
· Flower Pots
 polypropylene(pp)
Structure: Polypropylene is a thermoplastic made from propene or propylene monomers that is
durable, crystalline and rigid. It is a hydrocarbon resin with a linear structure (one in which each repeating unit
is linked only to two others.). Polypropylene general formula is (C H ) . Polypropylene plastic is one of the most
3 6n
affordable plastics on the market today.

Characteristics:
· It is semi-rigid.
· It is translucent.
· Has good chemical resistance.
· Is tough.
· Has good fatigue resistance.
· Has got integral hinge property.
· Has good heat resistance.
polypropylene(pp)
 polypropylene(pp)
Uses:

· Plastic containers.
· Reusable water bottles.
· Medical components.
· Outdoor furniture.
· Toys/Ropes/camping equipment
· Luggage.
· Car parts.
Its waterproof properties make it especially effective for the marine sector.
 Polyvinyl chloride(pvc)
Structure: PVC is a vinyl polymer. It's similar to polyethylene(a member of the important family of
polyolefin resins), but the difference is that on every other carbon in the backbone chain, one of the
hydrogen atoms is replaced with a chlorine atom. It's produced by the free radical polymerization(one of
the most important synthesis routes for obtaining vinyl polymers) of vinyl chloride(a colourless, flammable,
toxic gas belonging to the family of organohalogen compounds).

Characteristics:
Polyvinyl chloride(pvc) is less rigid,has high impact strength, is easier to extrude or
mould,has lower temperature resistance,is less resistant to chemicals, and usually
has lower ultimate tensile strength.
Polyvinyl chloride(pvc)
 Polyvinyl chloride(pvc)
Uses:

PVC is a changeable material that has many applications

which are: window frames, drainage pipe, water service pipe,
medical devices, blood storage bags, cable and wire
insulation, resilient flooring, roofing membranes,
stationary, automotive interiors and seat coverings, fashion
and footwear, packaging, credit cards, synthetic leather and
other coated fabrics.
 polystyrene(ps)
Structure: Polystyrene is a vinyl polymer. Structurally, it is a long
hydrocarbon chain, with a phenyl group attached to every other carbon
atom. Polystyrene is produced by free radical vinyl polymerization, from
the monomer styrene.

Characteristics:
Polystyrene(PS) is clear, rigid, brittle and moderately strong. Its electrical properties as
a dielectric material are good, but has relatively low heat resistance. Polystyrene is
soluble in most chlorinated and aromatic solvents, but not in alcohols.
polystyrene(ps)
 polystyrene(ps)
Uses:

Polystyrene, a hard, stiff, brilliantly transparent synthetic resin produced

by the polymerization of styrene. It is widely employed in the food-service
industry as rigid trays and containers, disposable eating utensils, and
foamed cups, plates, and bowls.
 conclusion
I conclusion,I am so happy to complete this project. This
project has taught me a lot about polymers. I got to learn
some new word like monomers,vinyl chloride groups and a lot
more.

I got to know about the different types of polymers which

are natural and synthetic polymers. I also learned that a
wide variety of products we use in our daily life are
actually made of polymers as their main bases and has
variety of uses in the science field.
 bibliography
Websites:
www.google.com
www.bpf.co.uk.
www.curbellplastics.com
Books:
Nootan publication chemistry class 12