Arab J Sci Eng

DOI 10.1007/s13369-017-2752-3

REVIEW ARTICLE - CIVIL ENGINEERING

Recent Advances in Horizontal Jet Grouting (HJG): An Overview

Pierre Guy Atangana Njock1,2 · Jack Shuilong Shen1,2,3 · Giuseppe Modoni4 ·
Arul Arulrajah3

Received: 31 March 2017 / Accepted: 16 July 2017

© King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals 2017

Abstract This paper discusses recent advances in the imple-
mentation of horizontal jet grouting (HJG) for the ground
improvement of soft soil. Field trials of HJG were under-
taken in soft soils in Shanghai, and the research is reported
and discussed in this paper. Particular emphasis was placed
to study the hardening process in non-cohesive soils. The
recent innovations in HJG were found to arise principally
from challenges in implementing jet grouting in sandy soil
and also from the harmful effects on the surrounding caused
by the traditional implementation process. Accordingly, the
recently developed composite jet pipe, pressure-control jet
grouting and control discharge horizontal jet grouting meth-
ods have been successfully implemented to mitigate the
ground upheaval and displacements. Moreover, the charac-
teristics of the jet grout columns obtained with these methods
were found as a rule to perform beyond expectations. It
was also found that the newly developed horizontal twin-jet
grouting technology, underpinned by an instant-solidification
mechanism, overcame challenging issues such as mixing uni-
formity, loss of admixture and hardening. The characteristics
of hardening in particular have initiated new perspectives,
given that a better acquaintance of the mechanisms of harden-
ing and ground displacements is bound to play an important
role in the future practice and the development of the jet
grouting process. Interestingly, smoothed particle hydrody-
namics technique was found to be suited for modeling jet
grouting mechanisms.

Keywords Horizontal jet grouting · Ground displacement ·

B Jack Shuilong Shen
Hardening · Ground improvement
slshen@sjtu.edu.cn
Pierre Guy Atangana Njock
Atangana@sjtu.edu.cn
1 Introduction
Giuseppe Modoni
modoni@unicas.it
Jet grouting is a universally implemented ground improve-
Arul Arulrajah
ment technique for soft soils [1,2]. Jet grouted columns are
aarulrajah@swin.edu.au
created through the injection of cement slurry at very high
1 State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, Shanghai Jiao speed [2–6]. Since there is no requirement for large-scale
Tong University, Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China machinery, the jet grouting technique can be applied in many
2 Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Ship and field situations, e.g., solidification of contaminated soil [7–9],
Deep-Sea Exploration (CISSE), School of Naval bottom soil stabilization of deep excavation [10–13], water-
Architecture, Ocean, and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao
Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
proof wall in embankment or dam [14,15], sealing of leaking
3
of underground structures [16–22] and prevention of ground-
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Centre for
water pumping-induced subsidence or settlement [23–36].
Sustainable Infrastructure, Swinburne University of
Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia Jet grouted columns are also used to mitigate geohazards due
4 to poor control of groundwater during construction [25,37–
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University
of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Via di Biasio 43, 40] and improvement of the long-term creep deformation
03043 Cassino, Italy behavior of soils [41–44].

123

Ground surface
rotary ascent spoil
of the drill backflow
rod
borehole created
up to the
treatment depth
Drilling Jetting and Grouting
Fig. 1 Spoil return during the jet grouting procedure
Based on the fluid injection system, jet grouting methods
can be grouped into three main categories: the mono-fluid
system, the bi-fluid system and the tri-fluid system. The
mono-fluid system relies on the sole action of high-pressure
grout jets to erode and mix the soil, which makes this tech-
nique relatively simple. The bi-fluid system corresponds to
the synchronized injection of compressed air shrouding a
cone of grout at high speeds. The shrouded air substantially
improves the eroding effect of the jet, since it significantly
reduces the exchange of energy and mass between injected
fluid and surrounding mass, increasing in this way the cutting
efficiency of the jet with respect to the distance from the injec-
tion point [49]. The tri-fluid system on the other hand may be
considered as the most complex fluid injection system, as it
involves the interaction of three distinct fluids (air, water and
grout) with the soil. In this system, the grout is injected sep-
arately through a small nozzle to mix the eroded soil, while
water shrouded by air at higher pressure is used as cutting jet
in an upper nozzle. A suitable column of 900–3000 mm in
diameter is usually obtained depending on the type of soil.
Furthermore, to carry out jet grouting treatment, a drill hole
with a small diameter (100–200 mm) is first realized up to the
depth to be treated. Subsequently, a high speed jet of fluid(s)
is injected through small diameter nozzle(s) mounted on a
monitor. Subsequently, columns made of cemented soil are
formed along with the rotatory and slow ascension of the
stem. During the jetting phase, it is essential that excess vol-
umes of the soil–cement mixture (spoils) emerge freely at
the head of the drill as shown in Fig. 1; otherwise, the excess
material may “affect” the ground and create disturbances in
the surrounding.
123
Arab J Sci Eng
Rod
Spoil
Backflow
Monitor
Grout
pipe
Eroded soil
Ejected
Valve
grout
Nozzle
Drilling
device
Completion of
one Column
According to [45], the first registered use of jet grouting
technology dates back to the 1950s in the UK. Yet, along with
a number of technological breakthroughs, this technique has
gradually evolved and has become popular worldwide due to
its numerous advantages. Among them, the field of applica-
tion of jet grouting encompasses virtually all types of soil,
and even certain types of soft rocks [46–50]. Interestingly,
although the versatility of jet grouting has been an asset in its
practice in recent years, the jet grouting technique required
consistent advancements with time. As a result, numerous
advancements have been made regarding both the field imple-
mentation of jet grouting and the evaluation of jet grouting
columns diameter [1,51–53].
A review of recent publications that have addressed jet
grouting developments indicated that many addressed the
development of jet grouting systems [5,46,54,55]; some
focused on the environmental aspect of the jet grouting
method [56], while others covered the models of predict-
ing the diameter of jet grout columns [57]. However, less
attention has been paid to technological innovations in jet
grouting practice such as the need to construct horizontal
jet grout columns efficiently, limiting the influence on the
surrounding and the implementation of jet grouting in cohe-
sionless soils.
In the implementation of jet grouting in cohesionless soils,
it is well recognized that soil properties, such as the soil
cohesion, play an important role in the erosion process [5,49,
58]. However, to date there have only been limited studies on
the effects of soil cohesion on the hardening of the mixture.
In fact, a better understanding of the hardening mechanism
in non-cohesive soils is expected to play an important role in
Arab J Sci Eng
Fig. 2 Arrangement of massive
jet grouting treatments
(modified based on [63])
Jet grouted shaft
Jet grouted block
future jet grouting developments, as well as in the practice
of jet grouting (quality control of grouted element).
The present paper reviews some recent innovations in jet
grouting technology. At first, two negative (opposite) effects
of jet grouting are examined on the basis of two case stud-
ies. Secondly, the implementation of horizontal jet grouting
(HJG) and the twin-jet methods are presented. Subsequently,
field trial tests undertaken in Shanghai are discussed, with a
particular emphasis on the behavior of the hardening process
in non-cohesive soils. Finally, perspectives for future techno-
logical developments are presented. These perspectives relate
to the adoption of the smoothed particle hydrodynamics
(SPH) technique to quantitatively describe the mixture hard-
ening and the ground displacement mechanisms. The recent
innovations on HJG have overcome some of the strongest
challenges in ground improvement practice in recent years.
2 Deformation Induced by Execution of Jet
Grouting
Due to the versatility of the installation equipment, jet grout-
ing can be used in a large number of applications. In some
cases, the jet grout structures are composed of single isolated
columns (e.g., foundation reinforcement—[59]). In other
cases, massive treatments made of overlapping columns are
created to form prescribed alignments (e.g., [60,61]) or mas-
sive bodies [62] (see Fig. 2). In such cases, the injection of
grout can induce deformation of the surrounding soil that
may create outcrops at the ground level with up or down-
(i) (ii)
(i) and (ii): Jet grouted diaphragms
Jet grouted canopy Jet grouted slab
ward settlements. Both events are worthy of attention, as
their occurrence may undermine the serviceability of sur-
rounding buildings and also jeopardize the effectiveness of
jet grouting. Two case studies are presented, where upward
movements and downward settlements have been recorded
as a consequence of massive jet grouting treatments.
2.1 Upward Movements
In the present case, jet grouted columns were constructed to
form a provisional support for a railway tunnel excavated in
urban environment. Details of this case study can be found
in [64,65]. The tunnel was established 5–7 m below ground
in a relatively dense urban perimeter, consisting of one main
street crossing several edifices (Fig. 3).
The construction procedure considered two ground con-
solidation systems to stabilize both the tunnel face and
the tunnel contour. Hence, fiberglass tubes were implanted
within the tunnel face and injected with cement grout to
reduce the front extrusion. Moreover, the contour support was
achieved through the overlapping of sub-horizontal single-
fluid jet grouted columns. The area of interest of the tunnel
was monitored with precision optical levelling systems,
placed at different locations on the ground. Figure 4 shows
the time history of the settlements (during the construction
phase) along both the longitudinal and cross sections, which
demonstrates the impact of a single working process on the
ground response. As depicted in the figure below, the set-
tlements measured at the control points KR33, KR56 and
KR36 are reported together with the vertical “dotted lines”
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 Arab J Sci Eng

Fig. 3 Plan view and

Main road
benchmarks at the ground level 43

(a) and longitudinal section (b) 42

of the tunnel (modified after 30 57
37
41 N
[64]) 32

Excavation
29 56 36
33 40

28
55 Buildings
34 35
39
27 Benchmark
(KR)

(a)
Zone of interest

Main road

Jet grouting
treatment

11.0
6.40

0 10 20

50

(b)

that indicate the execution of jet grouting for each span of
the tunnel. While implementing the first span, an uplift of
the ground level of approximately 80 mm was noticed at the
control point located in the middle of the tunnel. The other
curves show that this uplift reduced rapidly with the dis-
tance from the injection zone. For the construction of the
second and the third spans of the tunnel, uplift was acti-
vated at different points located in front of the tunnel, while
limited effects were noticed on the points located behind,
possibly due to the protection of the previously installed
columns. The movement recorded in the transversal section
(points KR55, KR56 and KR57) at given construction times
is shown in Fig. 4b. This figure shows that the ground uplift
generated by jet grouting is almost symmetrically distributed
above the tunnel. However, it reduces progressively due to
the excavation and became oriented downwards at the end of
construction.
2.2 Downward Movements
This second case concerns an excavation carried out dur-
ing the construction of a metro station in Barcelona. The
excavated pit was practically rectangular in shape with an
approximate area of 500 m2 and a maximum depth of 18.7 m
from the ground surface (established at 4.7 m above the sea
level). The jet grouting technique was implemented in this
case for the construction of bottom plugs (8–10 m thick)
intended to seal the bottom of the excavated pit and thus
prevented uplift due to buoyancy and the anchoring of the
side walls. The settlements caused by the construction of
the excavation plugs were noticed thanks to a series of high
precision optical levelling system, on a network of 35 ref-
erence points carefully positioned all around the station. By
interpolating the monitoring data with a geostatistical, two
settlement maps were obtained. These maps describe and
compare the site condition (ground settlements) before and
after the treatment by jet grouting (Fig. 5). Considering the
highest value of the settlement obtained after the comple-
tion of jet grouting treatment (nearly 55 mm) as reference,
Fig. 5a, b shows that the most detrimental subsidence devel-
oped around the southern perimeter of the station (close
to the ramp giving access to the construction site). To be
more specific, the settlement record history at the vari-
ous benchmarks shows that the largest part of settlements
occurred during the jet grouting implementation phase and
right after its completion (Fig. 5c). The triple-fluid injections
especially produced a sudden escalation of settlement rates
on the closely spaced benchmarks (the point “1” observed
in Fig. 5a is consistent with its corresponding curve in
Fig. 5c).

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Arab J Sci Eng

80
tant after an approximate period of 15 days. The evaluation of
the different results (Fig. 6c) established that the ground sub-
60 sidence produced by the execution of the tri-fluid jet grouting
system was two to six times superior to that induced by the
Settlements (mm)

40
double jet grouting method. As for the double fluid system,
larger final settlements (the order of 8–10 mm) were observed
KR 33
KR 56
around the columns realized with the schemes (systems) C
20
KR 36 and D. However, it is notable that the lifting speed of the
monitor adopted for the previous systems is slower than that
0 used for the system A. In addition, for the systems B, E and
F, the grout was partially injected in the column.
I span

-20
In summary, the two case studies show two different
30/1/02 20/2/02 13/3/02 3/4/02 24/4/02 15/5/02 5/6/02 26/6/02 (opposite) effects of jet grouting on the surrounding envi-
Observation period
ronment. The uplift noticed in the first case was induced by
(a)
30
the clogging of the borehole that prevented the spoils from
KR 55 KR 56 KR 57
emerging at the ground surface, resulting in a sudden buildup
20
of pressure in the injection chamber. In the second case, the
downward settlement is caused by a shrinkage of the cavity
10
formed during treatments (since in this case, very large diam-
Settlements (mm)

eter columns are formed), initially occupied by fresh cement

0
-10
-20
-30
I span
II span
III span
construction end
(b)
Fig. 4 Time history of the settlement along the longitudinal profile (a)
and pattern of settlements on the cross section (b) (modified based on
[64])
The above phenomenon was further explained by the
results of field trials shown in Fig. 6. Here, four bench-
marks were located at different distances from the center
of a jet grouted columns triplet and monitored with topo-
graphic surveillance. Different injection systems having the
characteristics summarized in Table 1 were applied. The
time evolution of settlements on the benchmarks localized
at 3.75 m from the center of the columns triplet is presented
in Fig. 6a, while the spatial distribution of the long-term
settlements is presented in Fig. 6b. These figures show a
gradual increase of downward settlements, rather common to
each case of injection. It can be observed that the backward
movements start right after the beginning of the jet grouting
procedure; however, the increasing rate become more impor-
and remolded soil. The phenomenon progressively slows up
with the hardening of cement and depending on the size of
the cavity.
Interestingly, for the estimation of the displacements
induced by the jet action, the following traditional approaches
are usually utilized: (i) analytical solution for the cavity
expansion [93,94]; (ii) regression analysis based on field
observed data [2,97]; (iii) numerical analysis for simulat-
ing the cavity expansion [95,96]; and (iv) complex function
Tunnel face solution for cavity expansion via considering the total energy
[2]. Also in the future, the SPH simulation may be another
effective way to predict the jetting-induced displacements.
3 Recent Developments in Jet Grouting
Numerous and significant advancements have been achieved
in jet grouting during the last decades to mitigate the above
negative effects [3,46,55–57,67]. This section provides a
succinct discussion on the recent and major innovations of
the jet grouting technique.
3.1 Horizontal Implementation of Jet Grouting
The HJG technique has generally been applied to tunnel engi-
neering for the construction of jet grouted canopy, used to
waterproof the excavated cavity and protect it from the lin-
ing [65,68]. Actually, these actions are aimed at preventing
subsidence which can induce ground movements and cause
disastrous incidents [69].
In recent practice, HJG has been constructed in under-
ground environments due to the challenges of rapid urban-
ization. A detailed description of the equipment (jetting and

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 Arab J Sci Eng

Selements (mm)
Date: 04/06/2007 Date 29/02/2008

(a) (b)

10
Observation time (days)

0 4
28/04/2007

01/06/2008

18/12/2008
18/01/2007

06/08/2007

22/02/2008

09/09/2008

28/03/2009
02/07/2006

14/11/2007
10/10/2006

2
-10
3

-20

-30

A: Execution of diaphragm wall (A)

-40 B: -ll- of diaphragm wall (B)
A B C D C C: -ll- of bi-fluid jet grouting
D: -ll- of tri-fluid jet grouting

-50
1

-60
(c)

Fig. 5 Settlements before (a) at after (b) treatments by jet grouting and settlement evolution on different benchmarks (c) (modified based on [66])

drilling systems) used for this procedure can be found in [70]. ing foundations or buried equipment in urbanized area. As a
Moreover, the procedure adopted in this case (Fig. 7 shows consequence, the innovations achieved in HJG in the recent
an example of methodology) is analogous to the approach years arise principally from these specific issues. Among
used to carry out the vertical jet grouting treatment. In fact, the various innovative approaches committed to alleviate the
once the jet grouting equipment has been arranged on the negative effects of HJG on the surrounding, many involves
site (a), an horizontal drill stem is used to excavate the soil the modification of the conventional equipment used during
up to the target position (b). Once at the treatment location, the jet grouting process.
cement slurry is injected and mixed with the soil (c). Then
the grouted element shaped as the rod is gradually retracted 3.2 Control Discharge Horizontal Jet Grouting
backward. The procedure ends with the complete removal
of the drill stem from the borehole (d). However, during the The control discharge HJG method was discussed, respec-
grouting (c), precautions have to be taken to ensure that the tively, by Shen et al. [70] and Wang et al. [72]. This method
spoil flows out effectively. As a matter of fact, the pressure is basically a triple-fluid-based system. As a time-efficient
induced by the injection of fluid tends to increase the inter- method for the drainage of spoil, this approach is based on
nal pressure of the soil [68,70–72]. Moreover, the injection the use of a larger 125-cm-diameter monitor (compared to the
of fluids at very high speed and the excess of spoils in the soil conventional monitor, usually 95 cm wide) to create a larger
may cause undesirable outcomes (e.g., the ground upheaval annular space between the ground and the stem. Moreover,
noticed in Fig. 4), which are very harmful notably for build- the effectiveness of transport of spoils through this created

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Arab J Sci Eng

Post-treatment period (days) the steel tube and the plastic pipe before the beginning of the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0 procedure. These precautions aimed at preventing the loss of
2
spoil during the treatment. In reality, as the spoil flows out
with the construction ongoing, a pressure sensor was wisely
4
used to quantify the internal pressure of the soil. As a result,
6 the spoil was pumped in an appropriate manner and in syn-
Settlement (mm)

8
chronism with the pressure control.

10
3.3 The Composite Pipe Method
12 Jet grout System A

14
columns triplet System B
In line with the previous approach, the composite pipe
System C
3.75m
System D method abides by the principle that the proper management
16 System E
of the spoil return is crucial for an effective treatment. In
System G
18 this method, the spoil return is guaranteed by a “spoil pipe”
(a) that drained the spoil out under the vacuum effect of a jet
of water (via a water pipe). The transport of high-pressure
Distance from the columns triplet (m)
0 5 10 15 20 25
grout and air is achieved via the corresponding pipes as illus-
trated in Fig. 9. Moreover, the jet grouting process is realized
2 through the action of compressed air shrouding a cone of
high-pressure grout jet and ejected from the outer nozzle
4
(see Fig. 9). In reality, the foundation of the composite pipe
6 technology relies on the vacuum mechanism carried out in
Settlement (mm)

8 the monitor; this mechanism is indeed effective against the

buildup of excessive pressure in the soil, since it allows more
10
control on the spoil flow and reduces the penetration of spoil
12 System A into the ground during its transport. Though, the complexity
System B
14
System C of the pipe arrangement in this method (especially the drilling
System D
System E phase) is quite detrimental for field implementations, owing
16 System F
System G
to the heaviness of the equipment. Consequently, the control
18 discharge HJG method is often preferred as an alternative.
(b) More details about the composite jet pipe method can be
20
found in [73].

3.4 Pressure-Control Jet Grouting Technology

15 G
Measured Settlement(mm)

As for the control discharge HJG and composite pipe meth-

ods, the main objective of pressure-control jet grouting is
10
C
to ensure that the grout pressure does not overcome the
soil resistance. Therefore, the fundamental feature here is
D
the control of the inner stratum pressure [71]. Generally
5 speaking, the implementation of the pressure-control jet
A E F grouting method is quite similar to the approach used for
B
the control discharge HJG. However, the novelty of the
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
former approach relies on automatization in the process;
Total amount of injected cement (kN) indeed, some progresses have been achieved with respect to
(c) particular equipment. This equipment, which includes a mul-
tifunction monitor, an automatic pressure monitoring system
Fig. 6 Settlements caused by the different injection schemes. a Time and a spoil discharge system, is described in detail by the
history; b spatial distribution; c interpretation (recreated after [66])
aforementioned author.
More details about the equipment and the procedures of
space is ensured by a jet of pressurized water injected from the aforementioned jet grouting techniques can be found in
a special nozzle, as shown in Fig. 8. In order to properly respective studies [70–73]. To some extent, it is therefore
implement this technique, it is required to carefully seal both obvious that major advancements in the practice of HJG have

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Table 1 Summary of the parameters adopted for the different injection systems (from [66])
Parameter Double fluid Mixed method Triple fluid
A C D B E F G

Nozzles 4.5 6 Upper = 3.8 4.5 Upper = 5 4.5

diameter, d
(mm)
Lower = 5 Lower = 3.8
Number of 2 1 2 2 2 2
nozzles
Grout 350 400 375 350 400 380 150
pressure
(bar)
Air pressure 10 10 10 10 10 10 >8
(bar)
Water – – – 350 300 380 575
pressure
(bar)
Uplift speed 28 /6 cm 33 /4 cm 55.5 /6 cm 32 /6 cm 55.5 /6 cm 60 /6 cm 60 /6 cm
(s/cm)
Water cement 1.1/1 1/1 1/1 1.1/1 1/1 1/1 1/1
ratio by
weight W/C
Expected 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.3
column
diameter
(m)
Columns 1.58 × 1.38 2.05 × 1.78 2.05 × 1.78 1.58 × 1.38 2.05 × 1.78 2.46 × 2.13 3 × 3.5
mesh
(m × m)

5
2
3
1
6
8 4
7

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Legend: 1-Drill rig; 2-triple rod; 3-monitor; 4-steel tube; 5-pressure sensor; 6-PLC;
7-pump; 8-tank (storing spoil)
Fig. 7 Example of horizontal jet grouting procedure (recreated after [70]). a Installation of equipment, b drilling, c grouting, d completion of a
column. 1 Drill rig; 2 triple rod; 3 monitor; 4 steel tube; 5 pressure sensor; 6 PLC; 7 pump; 8 tank (storing spoil)

addressed the issue of the control of the internal pressure of an effective spoil return has also displayed a precious advan-
the soil. In addition to this crucial aspect (mitigation of the tage in cohesive soil. In fact, it was demonstrated that the
ground upheaval and ground displacements), the insurance of efficient removal of spoil during the jet grouting treatment

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Ground Surface

diaphragm wall

pressure
nozzle annular sensor
space

N1 N3

Monitor Triple Rod

N2 N4
N5

spoil steel tube

special
nozzle sealing of
tubes control valve

Legend: N1, N2-low pressure grout jet; N3,N4-High pressure water

jet shrouded by air; N5-Low pressure water jet

Fig. 8 General principle of the CDHJG method (recreated after [70]). N1, N2 low pressure grout jet; N3, N4 high-pressure water jet shrouded by
air; N5 low pressure water jet

Ground Surface
diaphragm wall

outer nozzle monitor composite pipe

grout pipe vacuum chamber
water pipe water pipe
inner nozzle outer nozzle
A

air pipe

composite
pipe spoil pipe A
spoil

spoil pipe

Section A-A

Fig. 9 Illustration of the principle of CPM (recreated after [73])

has a positive impact on the diameter of grouted columns
[71,72]. Besides, other valuable characteristics often exhib-
ited by the grouted columns in cohesive soil are the good
mixing uniformity and the strength of the columns. How-
ever, in non-cohesive soils, because of the high volume of
water injected and the high pressure of water jets, the soil
particles tend to liquefy, causing the risk of admixtures loss
during the treatment. Of more relevance, since hardening
of the admixture is a time-dependent process, in cohesive
deformable soils, the slow hardening of the mixture may
induce undesirable subsidence due to the existing horizontal
drilling. The aforementioned limitations of HJG in cohesion-
less soils have therefore been the basis for the development
of a new approach.
3.5 Twin-Jet Method
In general, non-cohesive soils exhibit a valuable susceptibil-
ity to fluid erosion; however, the hardening of the soil–cement
mixture in this type of soil is rather poor and requires several

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 Arab J Sci Eng

Water
glass
WGS
(Water Glass Pump
Water Solution)
Nozzle (#1)
(grout+ WGS)

Air Triple
Compressor rod
Jet-soil Rapid
interaction Grout-soil gelling Jet grout
Nozzle (#2)
(grout+ air) admixture column
Cement
Grout Pump
Water

Fig. 10 Illustration of the general principle of the twin-jet grouting method (recreated after [54])

Fig. 11 Schematic of the

nozzles of the monitor used in
twin-jet grouting

days. More to the point, in the case of HJG, the creation of
the drilling tends to cause ground subsidence when the curing
period of the mixture requires time. The principle behind the
“twin-jet grouting technique” is to accelerate the hardening
of the soil–cement mixture during the jet grouting process.
This method is so called because it involves the use of two
kinds of binder, namely the cement and the sodium silicate
(that plays the role of catalyzer). In actual fact, sodium sil-
icate/water glass allows the rapid hardening of the mixture,
which usually occurs within 5–10 s [74]. Figure 10 illustrates
the basic principle of the twin-jet method, and it is worth
mentioning that this method can be executed horizontally or
vertically.
As indicated by the previous diagram, the twin-jet method
is a tri-fluid-based method. In this method, the monitor is
equipped with two nozzles arranged oppositely as shown in
Fig. 11. The role of the first nozzle is to initiate the soil
erosion by the mean of high velocity grout jet shrouded by
compressed air (a). To achieve the targeted diameter and the
speed up of the hardening, a second erosion is performed
from the second nozzle (b). At this stage, the accelerator and
the cement are ejected along the same axis: the former at
low pressure and the latter at very high pressure. The entire
process and the required equipment are well described in
[74].
4 Case Studies: Full Scale Field Tests in Shanghai
4.1 Case #1: Investigation of Jet Grout Columns
Constructed in Soft Soil by RJP Method
Following the anthropic induced accident that occurred on
the Shanghai metro line No 4 in 2003 [69,75], the solution
considered for tunnel remediation was a cut-off excavation.
Jet grouting field trials were undertaken in Shanghai soft
deposits, performed using the Rodin jet Pile method. For this
purpose, four vertical columns (C1, C2, C3 and ST) were con-
structed at different locations of the excavation pit as shown
in Fig. 12.

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Arab J Sci Eng

Diaphragm wall

m
Improvememt area

26 . 5
C3 C2

East pit ST
C1
Position of test columns
185.5m

Fig. 12 Schematic of the excavation pit and the disposition of columns (recreated after [47])

(kN/m ) wn, wL, wp(%)

3
e Cc C(kPa) qc (MPa)
Soil Profile 16 18 20 20 40 60 0.5 1.0 1.50.0 0.5 1.0 20 40 0 20 40
0
Backfill

-10
Clayer silt

-20 Very soft clay

Depth (m)

Stiff silty clay

-30
Sandy silt RJP
Columns
-40
wn ST
Silty Sand wL C1
-50 C2, C3
wp

Cc=compression index; C=cohesion; qc=cone penetration resistance.

Fig. 13 Soil properties and the geological profile of the investigated area (modified from [47])

The geotechnical profile of the site was composed mainly
of backfill (7.6 m), clayey silt (8 m), soft clay (9.8 m), stiff
clay (4.2 m), sandy silt (9.9 m) and silty sand below the later
layer. The soil properties are presented in Fig. 13.
4.2 Case #2: Implementation of the Twin-Jet Method
Horizontally
This case came as part of a tunnel construction project in
the north of Shanghai, which involved the metro line No
11. In this context, during the construction of the entrance
shaft at the “Baili Road” station, 5 columns were constructed
horizontally along the centerline (which is 11.65 m below
the ground surface) of the tunnel entrance. The geological
characteristics of the site and the horizontal jet grout columns
implementation zone are presented in Fig. 14.
4.3 Discussion
The results carried out from the aforementioned field investi-
gations confirmed that the mixing uniformity and the strength
of grouted elements are strongly dependent on the soil prop-
erties. The evaluation of the mixing uniformity was made
by direct field observation, and the unconfined compressive
strength was obtained by laboratory test.
In the first case, as depicted by the monitoring tests results
in Fig. 15, it was obvious that large column diameters were
regularly obtained along with a decrease in cohesion between
the particles. It was also evident that the unconfined com-
pressive strength (UCS) of RJP columns was affected by
mixing uniformity of the mixture soil–cement: the higher
the uniformity, the higher the UCS of the grouted columns.
These conclusions are consistent with the results of labora-
tory test performed by Wang et al. [76]. However, the field

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 Arab J Sci Eng

Fig. 14 Soil properties, horizontal column implementation zone and the geological profile (modified from [74])

Soil profile Column diameter (m) UCS (MPa)

0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8
0
Backfill
-10 Clayer silt

-20 Cement blocks

Depth (m)

Very soft clay

Stiff silty clay

-30 Jet grout
Sandy silt
Columns
-40
ST, C1 ST
Silty Sand
C2 C1
-50 C3 Sand soil C2,C3
qu=unconfined compressive strength of column.

Fig. 15 Tests results of the implementation of RJP in soft deposits (modified from [47])

observations showed that suitable mixing was more effective
with clayey soil than with sandy soil, where gelled cement
blocks were observed instead of a mixture soil–cement (cir-
cled zone). This singularity may be due to the high-pressure
water jets that cause cavitation and local liquidizing during
the jet grouting process. It is believed that the admixture soil–
cement was in a liquid state and the mixed particles separated
before it hardened. As an instant-solidification system, the
twin-jet method would help to efficiently avoid this problem.
Indeed, in the second case where the control discharge hor-
izontal twin-jet grouting was implemented, field observations
showed that the mixing uniformity was excellent. This char-
acteristic can be ascribed to the instantaneous solidification
of the soil–cement mixture, instead of the liquidizing of soil
particles at the contact of fluid at high pressure. Moreover,
the diameter and the UCS of the column obtained from the
twin-jet grouting method were slightly above expectations,
which confirmed the efficacy of this method. In addition, this
example has demonstrated that, although a priori intended for
sandy or non-cohesive soils, the twin-jet grouting method can
also be implemented in clayey soils, or soils presenting chal-
lenging properties. It is believed that depending on the soil
conditions, the twin-jet method can allow important savings
of cost and construction time.
In summary, these two case studies demonstrated promis-
ing results for the practice and development of jet grouting
technology. For instance, it was established that the harden-
ing of admixtures was more effective in cohesive soils than in

123
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non-cohesive soils. As a matter of fact, efficiency was found
to decrease along with the decrease of the cohesion between
the soil particles. As such, the innovative approach of twin-
jet grouting allows for mitigating this problem; however, this
approach does not provide a quantitative description of the
hardening mechanism.
5 Perspectives: SPH Modeling
5.1 Introduction to the SPH
Smoothed particles hydrodynamics (SPH) modeling is a gen-
eral approach for the simulation of bulk matter in motion. The
SPH is basically a mesh-free (or meshless) method based on
Lagrangian formulation of mechanics (which is an alterna-
tive to the conventional Newtonian mechanics) for solving
hydrodynamics problems. This technique was originally for-
mulated by Gingold and Monaghan [86] and Lucy [87] to
simulate problems associated with astrophysics. Other appli-
cations of the SPH model, including fluid dynamics and solid
mechanics, have been reported in several publications [77–
79]. The application of SPH in geotechnical engineering is
very recent and has been pioneered by some scholars [77,85].
The novelty of the SPH modeling lies in a specific method
for smooth interpolation and differentiation within an irregu-
lar grid of moving macroscopic particles [78]. Each particle
represents a discrete portion of a problem space and carries
material field properties (velocity, density, position, pres-
sure) that can be approximated using a well-defined SPH
formulation. According to [79], the solution strategy for
this formulation can be divided into three different steps:
consecutively, the numerical discretization of the system
(approximation of function), the domain discretization into
a finite number of particles (particle approximation), and the
numerical computation of the resulting equations. In the first
step, the field variable f at a point xi of the domain  is
defined by means of a smoothing function W (also called
Kernel function), which determines the contribution of the
different field variables (x j ) to the field variable at xi . The
field function f is preliminary defined by equation (1), where
the parameter h also called smoothing length represents the
radius of the influence zone.
 5.2.1 The Modeling of Soil
 
f (xi ) = f (x j )W xi − x j , h dx

Furthermore, the particle approximation thus determines
the discrete form of the integral smoothing function for a set
of material particles representing the computational domain.
In other terms, the interaction between a given particle xi
with respect to its neighboring particles x j is approximated
by interpolating the Kernel function W within the specific
W(xi-xj,h)
domain of
influence
focal particle
xi
xj
neighboring
particle
r
Fig. 16 The Kernel function W (recreated after [82])
domain of influence , as illustrated in Fig. 16. As for the
last step, it corresponds to the conversion of the integral rep-
resentation into finite summation. Liu and Liu [79,89] and
Liu et al. [88] provide a comprehensive discussion on the
SPH formulation techniques, and the readers can refer to
these studies for further details.
The SPH technique has the advantage of addressing
modeling needs in cases where the traditional methods are
inefficient. As a result, this method has increasingly been
applied to geotechnical engineering in the recent years [81–
85]. The consideration of SPH technique is particularly
relevant in this field since it can be adopted to simulate
complex jet grouting mechanisms. For instance, since the
fluid–soil interaction in SPH is computed at the particle
level, it can therefore be used to predict displacements in
the surrounding soil, in line with the edifying theories dis-
cussed by the relevant literatures [2,3,93,94]. On the other
hand, the SPH presents some advantages that are essential for
understanding mechanisms such as hardening of jet grouting
mixture.
5.2 Modeling of Fluid–Soil Interaction in SPH
This issue has been successfully addressed by the pioneers of
SPH in geotechnical engineering. This section only presents
the major aspects of their formulations.
(1)
Two philosophies of soil modeling have been adopted by pre-
vious studies. In the first approach, the soil was modeled as
a viscous fluid, on account of its consistency with the SPH
equations on the one hand and in order to define a yield crite-
rion analogous to that of Mohr–Coulomb on the other hand.
However, [82] noted that considering the soil as a viscous
fluid may lead to non-negligible inaccuracies regarding the
behavior of soil. Additionally, this model is not sufficiently
123

robust to reflect some crucial properties of the soil such as
water content, compactness and void ratio.
In the second approach, the soil has been modeled as an
elastic-perfectly plastic material, where the elastic behav-
ior of the soil was established on the Hooke’s law, and the
Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion was adopted for the plastic
component. Based on the contemporary theory of elasticity
(Hooke’s law), the strain (deformation) of an elastic mate-
rial is proportional to the stress applied to it. In the elastic
regime, dilatations are as a rule observed when the material is
subjected to hydrostatic stresses (or hydrostatic pressures). In
order to take into account the volume changes of the material
under hydrostatic pressure, Bui et al. [85] therefore recom-
mended to consider the volumetric part of the Hooke’s law
defined by Eq. (2).
 
V ρ the following difficulties: firstly, the localization of moving
P=k = k· −1 (2)
V ρ0
where k represents the stiffness of the soil and V /V the
volumetric strain or dilation. ρ and ρ0 are the density and the
reference density, respectively.
Moreover, the elastic-perfectly plastic model represents a
realistic solution for defining the failure criteria, as well as
describing the flow rule (e.g., change in volume due to shear-
ing) of the material. More relevantly, this model allows for
consideration of particular conditions and different parame-
ters of the problem investigated, such as loading conditions
and drainage conditions, which is particularly relevant for
the determination of pore water pressures in saturated soil.
For instance in [85], the effect of pore water pressure was
estimated through SPH summation, and with consideration
for the pressure of soil particles as influenced by the pressure
of water particles. It should be emphasized that the Hooke’s
law was originally proposed for a spring, and the variant
commonly used in solid mechanics is merely a generaliza-
tion. However in some SPH studies, only the isotropic part
of the Hooke’s law has been considered and incorporated to
soil constitutive models (such as Mohr–Coulomb, Drucker-
Prager failure criteria etc.) for simplification reasons.
5.2.2 The Modeling of Fluid
Two principal methodologies are usually adopted in SPH for
modeling water. For instance, Stefanova et al. [82] suggested
a model of water having the properties of an incompressible
Newtonian fluid, as it is the most commonly adopted assump-
tion for fluid flow. In this case, the pressure is calculated using
Poisson equation. Conversely, [85] considered the water as
a weakly compressible fluid. The particularity of this second
approach relies on the fact that fluid pressure is associated
with particle density via a strong equation of state ([90]),
as the one presented in Eq. (3) [85]. This equation should
123
Arab J Sci Eng
satisfy the Navier–Stokes equations which are the prevalent
governing equations for fluid flow in SPH modeling.
 γ 
ρ
P= −1 B (3)
ρ0
P and B are, respectively, the pressure and the reference pres-
sure, while γ is a constant.
5.3 Advantages of the SPH
As mentioned previously, the SPH was developed to over-
come the deficiencies of the traditional grid-based methods
such as finite discrete method (FDM), finite volume method
(FVM) and finite element method. For the Eulerian methods
(FDM and FVM), these insufficiencies mainly result from
boundaries and interfaces (which is decisive in defining the
time history of a material); secondly, the accurate modeling
of irregular geometries. Liu and Liu [79] even reported that
these methods are unsuitable for particulate flow problems.
As for the FEM (Lagrangian grid-based method), the major
handicap is the significant lack of accuracy when it comes to
deal with large deformation problems. The numerous advan-
tages of the SPH thus seem to be the key for avoiding stability
issues, handling large deformation problems, and represent-
ing the interactions of fluid–structures.
• The first advantage is that the SPH uses a rather simple
interpolation technique and the numerical implementa-
tion is relatively easier compared with the grid-based
methods. In fact, the SPH method is a more straight-
forward approach in terms of mathematical complexity
and calculation time. Moreover, the SPH algorithm is
self-adaptive, and so, significant mesh rezoning is not
required for solving regions of high density.
• Secondly, thanks to its mesh-free nature, the SPH can
easily handle large deformations and deal with complex
geometries. In reality, with the grid-based methods, the
computational domain is discretized into small subdo-
mains; and as a result, the material tends to move along
with the meshing, for large deformation and load transfer
(e.g., [80]). However, since in SPH method the compu-
tational domain is represented by a discrete system of
particles, the classical issues related to mesh distortions
(observed for grid based methods) are thus avoided. In
point of fact, the connection between the particles is time
dependent and defined as part of the calculation process.
• As reported by Liu and Liu [79], the Lagrangian nature
of the SPH technique combined with the invariant nature
of its Galilean algorithm determines the ability of this
meshless method to provide the time history of given
material particles. It is therefore possible to compute the
Arab J Sci Eng
transport of the system. Additionally, given that the SPH
incorporates all the viscous and conductive mechanisms,
it is strongly believed that the interaction between an
injected fluid and the soil can explicitly be observed using
this approach.
• Another valuable benefit of SPH in the modeling of
free surface and fluid flows problems is that the moving
boundaries can easily be tracked, without considering the
discontinuities and singularities of the particles move-
ment.
The definition of boundary conditions in SPH is, however,
problematic due to insertion of fluid particles into the bound-
ary walls, which results in improper distribution of the
particle within the bounded area. Nevertheless, a number of
methodologies have been proposed to overcome this limita-
tion; some of them can be found in [91,92].
6 Conclusions
The jet grouting ground improvement technology is increas-
ingly adopted worldwide, especially in tunneling engineer-
ing, where the need of constructing horizontal columns
remains essential. In addition, this technique has had signifi-
cant technological development in recent years. The present
study has documented the recent practice on HJG. Firstly,
an in-depth discussion of the negative (opposite) effects
resulting from the implementation of jet grouting has been
provided. Secondly, the recent innovations in the practice of
horizontal jet grouting have been presented, as well as the
influence of soil cohesion on the hardening process. Finally,
a new modeling approach for the quantitative description of
the hardening and the ground displacement mechanisms has
been introduced. The main conclusions are as follows:
1. The recent innovations in the practice of HJG have
specifically addressed the issue of control of soil inter-
nal pressure. Recently developed methods, namely the
composite jet pipe method, pressure-control jet grouting
technology, and control discharge horizontal jet grout-
ing, were successfully dedicated to solving the concerns
of ground upheaval and displacements.
2. The aforementioned techniques have allowed to signif-
icantly reduce the negative effect of the traditional jet
grouting procedure on the surrounding soil; moreover,
the efficiency of spoil return guaranteed by these inno-
vations has allowed obtaining more than satisfactorily
jet grout columns characteristics (diameter, UCS, mix-
ing uniformity).
3. The challenging implementation of HJG in non-cohesive
soil has triggered the development of the twin-jet grout-
ing technique. The horizontal twin-jet grouting (HTJG),
due to the instant-solidification mechanism that under-
pins its technology, allows overcoming challenging
issues such as mixing uniformity, loss of admixture and
rapid hardening.
4. The SPH approach seems to have the ability to simu-
late complex jet grouting mechanisms. In fact, using this
modeling method, it may be possible to correlate the
erodibility of the soil with the injected fluid pressure,
which is very crucial for the quantitative description of
the hardening mechanism. Moreover, since the fluid–soil
interaction in SPH is computed at the particle level, it
may also be used to describe the ground displacement
mechanism. Due to a number of advantages, the SPH
technique appears to be a promising modeling method
for jet grouting.
Acknowledgements The research work described herein was funded
by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (Grant
No. 41372283) and National Basic Research Program of China (973
Programme: 2015CB057806). These financial supports are gratefully
acknowledged.
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