SIGNALS and SYSTEMS

reference sheet

by

Remco Litjens
(remco@aura.eecs.berkeley.edu)
 Continuous-time Signals and Systems
General / Miscellaneous
!o = 2
1. To = 2fo angular or fundamental frequency
2. f (,t) = f (t) even function (e.g. cos t)
3. f (,t) = ,f (t) odd function (e.g. sin t)
= sinzz
4.
R
sinc z
1 sin ax 
sinc-function
5. 1 bx dx = b area under a sinc-function
6. e,t (t) = e,0 (t) = (t)
p 2
7. ! = j! j
8. Hlpf (!) = 1 , Hhpf(!)
9. arctan( !0 ) = 2 sgn(!)

Trigonometry
1. sinx = cos(x , 12 )
2. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
3. cos2x = 2cos2 x , 1 = 1 , 2sin2 x
4. sin2x = 2sinxcosx
5. cos( +  ) = coscos , sinsin
6. sin( +  ) = sincos + cossin
7. 2 cos cos = cos( +  ) + cos( ,  )
8. ,2 sin sin = cos( +  ) , cos( ,  )
d
9. d! sin! = cos!
d
10. d! cos! = ,sin!
d 1
11. d! arctan(!) = 1+!2

Complex Numbers
1.
p
j = ,1 imaginary constant
2. z = a + bj = Re[z] + jIm[z] complex number (rectangular or Cartesian form)
3. z = a , bj = Re[z] , jIm[z] complex conjugate of z
4. z = jzjej6 z
p complex number (polar form)
5. jzj = Re2 [z] + Im2 [z] magnitude of complex number z
6. 6 z = arctan( Im[z ] angle or phase of complex number z
Re[z] )

7. ejx = cosx + jsinx Euler's formula

8. in CI : 1 = ej0 ; ,1 = ej ; j = e 12 j ; ,j = e, 12 j basic points on unit circle in CI
9. ejn = (,1)n
10. cos !o t = 12 (ej!o t + e,j!o t )
11. sin !o t = 21j (ej!o t , e,j!o t )
12. 1 a , bj
a + bj = a2 + b2
13. j(a + bj )
(c + dj )j = j(a + bj )j
j(c + dj )j 18. 6 f(a + bj )
(c + dj )g = 6 fa + bj g + 6 fc + dj g
14. z + z = 2Re[z] 19. z , z = 2jIm[z]
15. zz = jzj2 20. 6 z,1 = ,6 z
16. 1 1  j z j = jz  j
z = ( z ) 21.
17. 6 z = ,6 z 22. jz,1 j = jzj,1
Singularity Signals
Rt (s)ds = 1 t  0; and 0 elsewhere unit step function
1. u(t) = ,1
Rt u(s)ds = tu(t) unit ramp function
2.
3.
r(t) = ,1
p(t) = ,1
Rt r(s)ds = 1 t2 u(t) unit parabola function
2
4. (t) = u(t + 12 ) , u(t , 12 ) = 1; jtj  21 ; and 0 elsewhere unit pulse function
5. (t) = r(t + 1) , 2r(t) + r(t , 1) unit triangle function
6. (t) = lim!0 21 ( 2t ) unit impulse or delta function (a.k.a. the "spike")
7. _(t) = dtd (t) doublet

8. (at) = ja1j (t); for a 2 IRnf0g

9. u(at) = u(t)
10. r(at) = a r(t)

11.
R 1 (t)dt = 1
,1
12.
Rb
x(t)(t , a) = x(a)(t , a)
13.
Ra1x(xt)(s()t)(dtt ,=s)dsx(0)=; ifxa(t)< 0 < b; and 0; elsewhere
14.
15.
R,1
1 x(s)(n) (t , s)ds = (,1)n x(n) (t)
sifting or convolution property (integral)
,1

Power and Energy

R
1. E = lim !1 ,  jx(t)j2dt average energy (in joules)
R
2. P = lim !1 21 ,  jx(t)j2dt average power (in watts)

 if 0  E < 1 then P = 0 and the signal is called a energy signal.



if 0 < P < 1 then E = 1 and the signal is called a power signal. R
the energy of a periodic signal is innite and the power equals P = T1o ttoo +To jx(t)j2dt; with to arbitrary.

Convolution

R
1 h(t ,  )x( )d = 1 h( )x(t ,  )d
denition: h(t)
x(t) = ,1
R
,1

1. x1 (t)
x2 (t) = x2 (t)
x1 (t) commutativity property of convolution
2. x1 (t)
(x2 (t)
x3 (t)) = (x1 (t)
x2 (t))
x3 (t)) associativity property of convolution
3. x1 (t)
(x2 (t) + x3 (t)) = x1 (t)
x2 (t) + x1 (t)
x3 (t) distributivity property of convolution

4. trick 1: x(t ,  ) = x(t)

(t ,  ) delay system
5. trick 2: x(t) = x(t)
(t); 8x(t)
6. trick 3: convolving a signal x(t) with u(t) means taking the running time integral of x(t):
7. trick 4: convolving a signal x(t) with dtd (t) means taking the derivative of x(t):
t (s)ds R
8. u(t) = u(t)
(t) = ,1
t u(s)ds R
9. r(t) = u(t)
u(t) = ,1
t r(s)ds
10. p(t) = u(t)
r(t) = ,1
R
"
and conversely
#
8. (t) = dtd (t)
u(t) = dtd u(t)
9. u(t) = dtd (t)
r(t) = dtd r(t)
10. r(t) = dtd (t)
p(t) = dtd p(t)

General Systems
1. y(t) = H [x(t)] system H [
]
2. H [1 x1 (t) + 2 x2 (t)] = 1 H [x1(t)] + 2 H [x2 (t)] condition for linearity of H [
]
3. H [D [x(t)]] = D [H [x(t)]] condition for time-invariance of H [
]
4. y(to ) = H [x(t0)] depends only on x(t) for t = to condition for memoryless property of H [
]
5. y(to ) = H [x(t0)] depends only on x(t) for t  to condition for causality of H [
]

 note that H [x(t)] = x(t) + 1 is non-linear.

 memoryless systems are causal.

Linear Systems
1.
2.
R
g(t; s) = H [(t , s)]
y(t) = ,1 1 g(t; )x( )d
3. check for causality: input (t , s) and check if for any s the output is zero 8 t > s:
4. H is time-invariant () g(t +
; s +
) = g(t;s)

 if H [
] is linear and memoryless, then H [
] will be of the form H [
] = (t)x(t):

Linear and Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems

1. H1 [
]; H2 [
] LTI , H1 [H2 [
]] LTI
2. H1 [
]; H2 [
] LTI , (H1 + H2 )[
] LTI

1. h(t) = H [(t)] impulse response of H [
]

2. ystep = H [u(t)] step response of H [
]
3. yramp = H [r(t)] ramp response of H [
]
4.
R
yparabola = H [p[(t)]
1 h(t) e,j!t dt = jH (!)j ej6 H (!)
parabola response of H [
]
frequency response of H [
] (Fourier transform of h(t)
5.
6.
R
H (!) = ,1
1
H (s) = 0, h(t) e,st dt transfer function of H [
] (Laplace transform of h(t)
7. h(t) real ) H (,!) = H (!)
R
1 h(t ,  )x( )d =
= ,1
R
8. y(t) = h(t)
x(t) = ,1
1 h( )x(t ,  )d = h(t)
x(t) superposition or convolution integral
9. H [ej!t ] = H (!) ej!t for periodic signals (scaling; eigenfunctions / -value)
10. Y (!) = X (!) H (!) Fourier transform of (8)
11. Y (s) = X (s) H (s) Laplace transform of (8)

12. h(t) = dtd (t)

ystep (t) = dtd ystep(t)
13. ystep = dtd (t)
yramp (t) = dtd yramp (t)
14. yramp = dtd (t)
yparabola (t) = dtd yparabola (t)
"
and conversely
#
Rt
12. ystep = h(t)
u(t) = ,1 h(s)ds R
t y (s)ds
13. yramp = h(t)
r(t) =
14. yparabola = h(t)
p(t)
h(t)
u(t)
u(t) = ystep
u(t) = ,1
t
step
R
= h(t)
r(t)
u(t) = yramp
u(t) = ,1 yramp (s)ds

Frequency, Phase and Magnitude Response

1. H (!) = ,1
R1 h(t) e,j!t dt frequency response is F [h(t)]
2. from an LDE with CC: let x(t) = ej!t and y(t) = H (!)ej!t ; solve for H (!)
3. from an LDE with CC: let X (!) = F [x(t)] and Y (!) =pF [y(t)]; solve for H (!) = XY ((!!)) ; using F [x_ (t)] = j!X (!)
if H (!) = K 1+ aj! j1+aj!j 1+(a!)2
4. 1+bj! ; then jH (!)j = jK j j1+bj!j = jK j p1+(b!)2
5. if H (!) = K 1+ aj!
1+bj! ; then 6 H (!) = 6 K + 6 (1 + aj!) , 6 (1 + bj!) = 6 K + arctan(a!) , arctan(b!)

BIBO-Stability
 denition: system H [
] is BIBO-stable i every bounded input results in a bounded output

1. system H [
] is BIBO-stable i ,1

R
1 jh(t)j < 1
2. if system H [
] is BIBO-stable then H (s) = ND((ss)) must be proper, i.e. degree N (s)  degree D(s)
3. if causal system H [
] is BIBO-stable then all the poles of H (s) must lie in the open left-half plane
 necessary conditions 2 and 3 for stability are sucient if H (s) is rational (generally the case)
 for all stable causal systems, the frequency response exists

Distortion
 an LTI system is distortionless if the output y(t) = H [x(t)] = K x(t ,  ); a scaled and shifted replica of the input x(t) ()
() H (!) = K e,j! () jH (!)j is constant and 6 H (!) = ,! is linear in !:
 an LTI system shows amplitude distortion when jH (!)j varies with !:
 an LTI system shows phase distortion when 6 H (!) is non-linear in !; and then we dene g (!) = , d6 d! H (!) as the group delay.

Minimum Phase
A system H [
] is said to be minimum phase, if all poles and zeros of H (s) lie in the open left half plane, so that H ,1 (s) is also minimum
phase; hence a causal system that is minimum phase, is also causally invertible.

Feedback
Given a feedback system block diagram, we can write the equations:
 e(t) = x(t)  y(t)
h2 (t) L! E (s) = X (s)  Y (s)H2 (s) (error function);
 y(t) = e(t)
h1 (t) L! Y (s) = E (s)H1 (s);
 combine: y(t) = x(t)
h1 (t)  y(t)
h2 (t)
h1 (t); L! Y (s) = X (s)H1 (s)  Y (s)H1 (s)H2 (s) , XY ((ss)) = 1HH1 (1s()sH) 2 (s) :
 in control problems, where we try to optimize feedback, we often use the nal value theorem for Laplace transforms;
Finding the Output of LTI Systems
1. y(t) = x(t)
h(t) straight convolution
2. , 1
y(t) = F [X (!)H (!)] using Fourier transforms
2. y(t) = L,1 [X (s)H (s)] using Laplace transforms
3. j! t
if x(t) = e ; then y(t) = H (!o)e
o j! o t using Fourier eigenfunctions
4. if x(t) = est; then y(t) = H (s)est using Laplace eigenfunctions
5. if x(t) = cos(!o t + ) and h(t) is real, then y(t) = jH (!o)jcos(!o t +  + 6 H (!o))
steady-state sinusoidal response
6. if x(t) = sin(!o t + ) and h(t) is real, then y(t) = jH (!o)jsin(!o t +  + 6 H (!o))

7. if x(t) =
P1n=,1 Xnejn!o t; then y(t) = P1n=,1 Xn H (n!steady-state
Psinusoidal
1
response
o)ejn!o t = n=,1 Xn jH (n!o)jej(n!o t + 6 H (n!o ))
using Fourier series
 the transfer function and consequently the impulse response can be derived from any LDE by assuming zero initial conditions.

Remarks
 in LTI systems it makes no dierence if we see h(t) as the input signal and x(t) as the impulse response
of the LTI system (follows directly from the commutativity property of convolution).
 both h(t) and H (!) completely characterize an LTI system.
 for an LTI system H [
] : h(t) = 0 for t < 0 , H [
] is causal.
 a dierentiator (h(t) = _(t)) is causal.
 an ideal dierentiator _(t) is a causal system.
 H (!) real , h(,t) = h(t) ) H [
] is non-causal (unless h(t) = 0 8t 6= 0) =) lters are non-causal
 an LTI system converts a periodic input signal into a periodic output signal.
 if H [
] is LTI and memoryless, then h(t) = 0 for t 6= 0 and H [
] will be of the form H [
] = x(t):
 Fourier Series
Denition of Fourier Series
We can decomposing any periodic power signal (with period To ) into discrete frequencies, each a multiple of !o ; yielding the Fourier series
representation of that signal:

 x(t) = 1
P
1 R
n=,1 Xn e
 Xn = To To x(t)e ,
jn!o t
jn!o t
synthesis equation
dt analysis equation

Properties of Fourier Series (given x(t) !

FS X ):
n

 real signals: if x(t) is real, then X,n = Xn

 real and even signals: if x(t) is real and even in t; then Xn is real and even in n
Ev[x(t)] FS! Re[X (!)] and Re[x(t)] FS! Ev[X (!)]
 real and odd signals: if x(t) is real and odd in t; then Xn is imaginary and odd in n
Od[x(t)] FS! Im[X (!)] and Im[x(t)] FS! Od[X (!)]
 half-wave odd symmetry: if x(t  12 To ) = ,x(t); 8t (e.g. x(t) = sint), then Xn = 0 for n even (in particular, X0 = 0)
 time reversal: x(,t) FS! X,n
 complex conjugate: x (t) FS! X, n and x(,t) FS! Xn
 delay: x(t ,  ) FS! e,jn!o  Xn
 dierentiation: x_ (t) FS! jn!o Xn
 integration: if Xo = 0 then u(t)
x(t) FS! jn! Xn ; for n 6= 0
o
 linearity: x(t) + y(t) FS! Xn + Yn
 PARSEVAL's identity: P = 1
P  P
1 2
P
n=,1 Xn Xn = n=,1 jXn j
1
 power at fundamental frequency of x(t) = n=,1 Xn e o equals jX,1 j2 + jX1 j2
jn! t

Some Examples
 DC: x(t) = 1 FS! Xo = 1; Xn = 0 otherwise
 cosine: cos !o t = 12 (ej!o t + e,j!o t )
 sine: sin !o t = 21j (ej!o t , e,j!o t )
 even square wave: period To ; x1 (t) = 1 for jtj < T1 and x1 (t) = 0 elsewhere in that period:
x1 (t) FS! Xn = n1 sin n!o T1
 odd square wave: x2 (t) is shifted x1 (t)
 even triangle wave: x3 (t) is running time integral of x1 (t)
x3 (t) FS! Xn = , n242 ; for n odd, and Xn = 0; for n even
 pulse train: x4 (t) is same as x1 (t) but shifted by  and with added DC (this changes X0 only):
x4 (t) = 1
P t,kTo , FS to ,jn!o  sinc( nto )
 even impulse train:
P k=,1 ( to ) ! Xn = To e
1 FS
x5 (t) = k=,1 (at , kT ) ! Xn = ja1jT
To
 Fourier Transform
Denition and Interpretation
The Fourier transform X (!) is a decomposition of an (a)periodic signal x(t) into ej!t -type signals with ! real (x(t) and X (!) uniquely
dene each other); we write x(t) F! X (!) :
R
1 X (!)ej!t d!
 x(t) = F ,1 [X (!)] = 21 ,1 synthesis equation
 X (!) = F [x(t)] = ,1
R
1 x(t)e,j!t dt analysis equation

The Fourier transform X (!) exists when it's nite for all !: Allowing -functions, we can accept a broader class of signals: sucient conditions
for the existence of the generalized Fourier transform of x(t) are (1) x(t) is bounded; and (2) x(t) is periodic (E = 1) with nite power.

The interpretation of the Fourier transform is that X (!) contains the frequency content of the signal x(t) for each !: For example, consider
x(t) = 1 F! (!) (DC only), x(t) = ej!o t F! 2(! , !o ) (single frequency at !o ), and nally x(t) = cos !o t F! [(! + !o ) + (! , !o )]
(contains two frequencies: !o and ,!o ). Note: if the signal x(t) is time-limited, X (!) has innite bandwidth.

Properties of Fourier Transforms (given x(t) F

! X (!)):
 real signals: if x(t) is real, then X (!) = X  (,!)  check results
Re[X (!)] = Re[X (,!)] and I m[X (!)] = ,I m[X (,!)]  check results
 real and even signals: if x(t) is real and even in t; then X (!) is real and even in !  check results
E v[x(t)] F! Re[X (!)] and Re[x(t)] F! E v[X (!)]  check results
 real and odd signals: if x(t) is real and odd in t; then X (!) is imaginary and odd in !  check results
Od[x(t)] F! j I m[X (!)] and j I m[x(t)] F! Od[X (!)]  check results
 time reversal: x(,t) F! X (,!)
 complex conjugate: x (t) F! X (,!) and x (,t) F! X  (!)
 linearity: 1 x1 (t) + 2 x2 (t) F! 1 X1 (!) + 2 X2 (!)
 delay: x(t ,  ) F! X (!)e,j!  phase change (of ,! ) only
 scale: x(at) F! ja1j X ( !a )  wide (narrow) in t , narrow (wide) in !
 duality: x(t) F! X (!) , X (t) F! 2x(,!)
 frequency translation: x(t)ej!ot F! X (! , !o )  used for modulation
 dierentiation: dn F n
dtn x(t) ! (j!) X (!)  help solve LDEs
 integration: F 1
u(t)
x(t) ! j! X (!) + X (0)(!)  -function accounts for DC in x(t)
 convolution: x1 (t)
x2 (t) F! X1 (!)
X2 (!)
 multiplication: x1 (t)
x2 (t) F! 21 X1 (!)
X2 (!)
 t-multiplication: tx(t) F! j d!d X (!)
x(t)cos!o t F! 12 [X (! , !o ) + X (! + !o )]
 modulation:
 PARSEVAL's identity: E = ,1
R R
1 jx(t)j2dt = 1 1 jX (!)j2d!
2 ,1

Some Examples and Facts

R
1 x(t)dt is the DC level/power of signal x(t)
 X (0) = ,1
R
1 X (!)d! is the total power in x(t)
 x(0) = 21 ,1

 h(t) F! H (!) frequency response

 t1 F! ,j sgn(!) = e,j 2 sgn(!) Hilbert transform; FT exists, even though x(t) is unbounded
 hHT
x(t) phase shifts x(t) only
  HHT [cos t] = sin t and HHT [sin t] = cos t
 HHT [HHT [x(t)]] = ,x(t)
 sgn(t) F! j!2
 ( tto ) F! to sinc( !t2o )
 sinc( t ) F! ( ! 2 )
 for  > 0; e u(t) F! +j!
, t
 for  > 0; e,jtj F! 22
2+!
2
 e,t2 F! e,f 2 = e, !4
 sin !o t F! j [(! , !o ) , (! + !o )]
 cos !o t F! [(! , !o ) + (! + !o )]
 0 F! 0
 1 F! 2(!)
 (t) F! 1
 (t , to ) F! e,j!to
 _ (t) F! j!
 u(t) F! j!1 + (!)
 ( Tt ) = T1 ( Tt )
( Tt ) F! Tsinc2 ( !T
2 )
 ej!o t F! 2(! , !o )
P
 1
P
F 2 1
n=,1 (t , nT ) ! T n=,1 (! , n!o )
 _ (t) + (t) + 21 sgn(t) F! j! + 1 + j!1
 the Fourier transform of a Gaussian e, 21 ( x,  )2 is another Gaussian of the same form
P
 the Fourier transform of a Fourier Series x(t) = 1
P
jk! t F 1
k=,1 Xk e o ! 2 k=,1 Xk (! , k!o )
 Laplace Transform
Denition of Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform X (s) is a decomposition of an (a)periodic signal x(t) into signals of the type est = et ej!t with s =  + j! complex.
Compared to the Fourier transform, the extra (real) exponential et allows us to treat a broader class of signals. The et part is used to model
growth or decay, while the ej!t part models the oscillatory behavior of x(t): Again, x(t) and X (s) uniquely dene each other and here we write
x(t) L! X (s) :
R1 R1
 unilateral LT: X (s) = L[x(t)] =
( bilateral LT: X (s) = L[x(t)] =
R 01, xx((tt))ee,,ststdtdt == R0,1x(xt()te),e,tte,ej!t
,j!t )
,1 ,1

Note that the ULT only works for (real world) "causal" signals while the BLT permits us to consider any signal; furthermore, if x(t) = 0 for t < 0
(causal) then the ULT and the BLT are the same. Both the ULT and the BLT have regions of convergence (ROC) over which the transform
exists. A ROC is the range of values of s over which the integral converges. A ROC cannot contain a pole, in fact for causal signals/systems, the
ROC contains all s to the right of the rightmost pole. If x(t) is of nite duration, ROCx = CI :

Any signal x(t) that is of exponential order, i.e. jx(t)j does not increase faster than A ect with A and c real constants, can be transformed into
X (s): Examples of signals that are not of exponential order, consider x(t) = et2 u(t) and x(t) = ttu(t) = et ln t u(t):

Properties of Unilateral Laplace Transforms (given x(t) ! X (s) with ROCx):

L

 linearity: 1 x1 (t) + 2 x2 (t) L! 1 X1 (s) + 2 X2 (s) at least ROCx1 \ ROCx2

 delay ( > 0): L
x(t ,  )u(t ,  ) ! X (s)e ,s ROCx
 scale: for real a > 0 : x(at) L! a1 X ( as ) fs j as 2 ROCx g
 frequency translation: x(t)e,t L! X (s + ) fs j (s + ) 2 ROCx g
 dierentiation: dnn x(t) L! sn X (s) , sn,1 x(0,) , ::: , sx(n,2) (0, ) , x(n,1) (0,) at least ROCx
 integration:
dt
for t > 0 : u(t)
x(t) L! 1s X (s) + 1s ,1 0, x( )d R at least ROCx \ fs j Re(s) > 0g
 convolution: L
x1 (t)
x2 (t) ! X1 (s)
X2 (s) at least ROCx1 \ ROCx2
 t-multiplication: L
t
x(t) ! , ds dX ( s ) ROCx
 initial value: lims!1 sX (s) = limt!0+ x(t); if this limit exists
 nal value: lims!0 sX (s) = limt!1 x(t); if this limit exists
IMPORTANT: sin t u(t) L! s21+1 ; so lims!0 sX (s) = 0; but lim t ! 1 sin t u(t) clearly does not exist!!!

Some Examples
 h(t) L! H (s) transfer function

 0 L! 0  _ (t) L! s all s
 (t) L! 1 all s  (t ,  ) L! e,s all s
 u(t) L! 1s Re[s] > 0  ,u(,t) L! 1s Re[s] < 0
 r(t) L! s12 Re[s] > 0  ,r(,t) L! s1 Re[s] < 0
 (tnn,,1)!
1
u(t) L! s1n Re[s] > 0  , (tnn,,1)!
1
u(,t) L! s1n Re[s] < 0
 e,t u(t) L! s+1  Re[s] > ,Re[]  ,e,t u(,t) L! s+1  Re[s] < ,Re[]
 (tnn,,1)! e u(t) L! (s+1)n
1 ,t
Re[s] > ,Re[]  , (tnn,,1)! e u(,t) L! (s+1)n
1 ,t
Re[s] < ,Re[]
 (sin !o t)u(t) L! s2!+o!o2 Re[s] > 0  (e,t sin !o t)u(t) L! (s+!)o2 +!o2 Re[s] > ,Re[]
 (cos !o t)u(t) L! s2 +s!o2 Re[s] > 0  (e,t cos !o t)u(t) L! (s+s+)2+!o2 Re[s] > ,Re[]
 Linear Dierential Equations
Solving LDE w/CC using Fourier transforms
One can solve LDE w/CC using Fourier transforms or Laplace transforms. Below we show how to do it with Laplace transform. For Fourier
transforms, the procedure is identical: nd h(t) = F ,1 [H (!)] with H (!) = XY ((!!)) and X (!) = F [(t)] = 1: Y (!) follows from using the
dierentiation property for Fourier transforms and some algebraic manipulations.
Example: if y(t) , y_ (t) , 30y(t) = x(t); then for x(t) = (t) we nd (j!)2 H (!) , (j!)H (!) , 30H (!) = 1 () H (!) = (j!)2 ,1(j!),30 ; so
h(t) = F ,1 [ (j!+5)(1 j!,6) ] = F ,1 [ ,j!1=+511 ] + F ,1 [ j!
1=11 ] = , 1 e,5t u(t) + 1 e6t u(t): Note that this system is BIBO unstable.
,6 11 11

Solving LDE w/CC using Laplace transforms

We show how the unilateral Laplace transform can be used to solve linear dierential equations with constant coecients. In particular, the
integration property of the unilateral Laplace transform is utilized. The procedures are not shown for the general case, but rather for an example.
Example: Assume we are given the following LDE w/CC that we are trying to solve:
y(t) + 2y_ (t) + y(t) = 2x_ (t)
with initial conditions y_ (0,) = 2; y(0, ) = 2 and x(0,) = 0:
First, take the unilateral Laplace transform of both sides, using the dierentiation property:
[s2 Y (s) , sy(0, ) , y_ (0,)] + a[sY (s) , y(0, )] + Y (s) = c[sX (s) , x(0,)] () Y (s) = s(2 +s22X+(2ss))++12 + 4

For input signal x(t) = cost u(t) L! s2s+1 :

2s + 6 + 2s
s 3 + 8s2 + 2s + 6
Y (s) = s2 + 2s + s12 +1 = 2s(s + 1 5 s ,1 ,t ,t
1)2 (s2 + 1) = s + 1 + (s + 1)2 + s2 + 1 () y(t) = L [Y (s)] = (e + 5te + cost)u(t)

ZIR and ZSR

The zero-input response yzir (t) is y(t) when the non-zero intial conditions are assumed to contain all information about what happened in the
past, and for t  to ; there is no input to the system: x(t) = 0; for t  to : So yzir (t) is the system response to initial conditions only. In the example
above, yzir (t) = (2e,t + 4te,t )u(t):
The zero-state response yzsr (t) is y(t) when zero initial conditions are assumed and for t  to ; the input x(t) is known. In the example,
yzsr (t) = (,e,t + te,t + cost)u(t):
Note that y(t) = yzir (t) + yzsr (t) always holds. In the example: yzir (t) + yzsr (t) = (2e,t + 4te,t)u(t) + (,e,t + te,t + cost)u(t) =
(e,t + 5te,t + cost)u(t) = y(t):

Partial Fraction Expansions

Sorry, I never found the time to do this section: see your notes!
 Discrete-time Signals and Systems
General Remarks
Since in discrete time, when observing some continuous-time signal at times t = nT; complex exponentials ej!1 nT and ej!2 nT with
!2 = !1 + 2T ; look exactly identical, we introduce the concept of normalized frequency:
 !T (note that we basically only
rescaled the time axis). All of this implies that DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS HAVE PERIODIC DTFTs, with period 2T
in unnormalized frequency and period 2 in normalized frequency.

In discrete-time, high frequencies lie around odd multiples of ; while low frequencies lie around even multiples of : Consequently,
an ideal low-pass lter with cut-o frequency
1 <  has impulse response hlpf [n] =
1 sinc n
1 and a pulse train as frequency response.
The frequency response of a high-pass, bandpass or notch lter is simply a shifted and possibly duplicated version of the frequency
response of a low-pass lter.

Singularity Signals
delta function
P P
1. [n] = u[n] , u[n , 1] = 1; n = 0; and 0 elsewhere
2. u[n] = nk=,1 [k] = 1 unit step function
P
1
3. x[n] = k=,1 x[k] [n]
k=0 [n , k] = 1 n  0; and 0 elsewhere
sifting property (sum)

Convolution
 denition: h[n]
x[n] = P1k=,1 x[k] h[n , k] = P1k=,1 x[n , k] h[k] often very easy to do!

1. trick 1: x[n , no ] = x[n]

[n , no ] delay system
2. trick 2: x[n] = x[n]
[n]; 8x[n]
P
3. trick 3: nk=,1 x[n] = u[n]
x[n] convolving with u[n] means taking the running sum

 example: u[n]
u[n] = P1k=,1 u[k] u[n , k] = Pnk=0 1 = (n + 1)u[n]

BIBO-Stability
 denition: system H [
] is BIBO-stable i every bounded input results in a bounded output

1. system H [
] is BIBO-stable i 1

Pk=,1 jh[k]j < 1
2. causal system H [
] is BIBO-stable i all the poles of H (z) are strictly inside the unit circle

 for all stable causal systems, the frequency response exists

Finding the Output of LTI Systems

1. h[n] = H [[n]] unit sample response
2. y[n] = x[n]
h[n] straight convolution
3. y[n] = F ,1 [X (ej
)H (ej
)] using Discrete-time Fourier transforms
4. y[n] = L,1 [X (z)H (z)] using Z-transforms
5. if x[n] = ej
o n ; then y[n] = H (ej
o )ej
o n using Fourier eigenfunctions
6. if x[n] = zn ; then y[n] = H (z)zn using Z-eigenfunctions
7. if x[n] = cos(
o n + ) and h[n] is real, then y[n] = jH (e )jcos(
o n +  + 6 H (ej
o ))
j
o
steady-state sinusoidal response
8. if x[n] = sin(
o n + ) and h[n] is real, then y[n] = jH (ej
o )jsin(
o n +  + 6 H (ej
o ))
steady-state sinusoidal response
 the transfer function and consequently the impulse response can be derived from any LDE by assuming
zero initial conditions.
 Discrete-time Fourier Transform
Denition of Discrete-time Fourier Transform:
The Discrete-time Fourier transform X (
) is a decomposition of an (a)periodic signal x[n] into ej
n -type signals with
real (x[n] and
X (
) uniquely dene each other). X (
) is periodic in
with period 2: We write x[n] F! X (
) :

 x[n] = F ,1 [X (
)] =
R
1
o +2
P 2
o X (
)ejn
d
synthesis equation
 X (
) = F [x(t)] = 1 ,jn
analysis equation
n=,1 x[n]e

The discrete-time Fourier transform X (

) exists when it's nite for all
: The interpretation of the discrete-time Fourier transform is that X (!)
contains the frequency content of the signal x[n]: The DTFT is always periodic. Often, the DTFT of a discrete-time signal can be found
more easily, by writing x[n] as a sampled continuous-time signal x[n] = x(nT ) = 1
P
P 1
n=,1 x(nT )e
,j!nT P
n=,1 x(nT )(t , nT ); which has Fourier transform
; the change of variables !T =
gives the DTFT of x[n] : X (
) = 1 n=,1 x[n]e
,jn
(EXTREMELY HELPFUL!).

Properties of Discrete-time Fourier Transforms (given x[n] ! X (

)):
F

 real signals: if x[n] is real, then X (

) = X  (,
)  check results
Re[X (
)] = Re[X (,
)] and I m[X (
)] = ,I m[X (,
)]  check results
 real and even signals: if x[n] is real and even in n; then X (
) is real and even in
 check results
E v[x[n]] F! Re[X (
)] and Re[x[n]] F! E v[X (
)]  check results
 real and odd signals: if x[n] is real and odd in n; then X (
) is imaginary and odd in
 check results
Od[x[n]] F! j I m[X (
)] and j I m[x[n]] F! Od[X (
)]  check results
 time reversal: x[,n] F! X (,
)
 complex conjugate: x [n] F! X (,
)
 linearity: 1 x1 [n] + 2 x2 [n] F! 1 X1 (
) + 2 X2 (
)
 delay: x[n , no ] F! X (
)e,jno
 phase change (of ,no
) only
 frequency translation: x[n]ej
on F! X (
,
o )  used for modulation
 rst dierence: x[n] , x[n , 1] F! X (
)(1 , e,j
)
 running sum: u[n]
x[n] F! 1,e1,j
X (
) + X (0) 1
P k=,1 (
, 2k)  -functions account for DC in x[n]
F
 convolution:
 multiplication:
R
x1 [n]
x2 [n] ! X1 (
)
X2 (
)
x1 [n]
x2 [n] F! 21

oo +2 X1 ()
X2 (
, )d  periodic convolution
 n-multiplication: n x[n] F! j dd
X (
)
 upsampling: x(k) [n] F! X (k
)  x(k) [n] = x[ nk ]; if n is a multiple of k

 PARSEVAL's identity:
Pn=,1 jx[n]j2 = 21 R
o+2 jX (
)j2d

E = 1
and 0 otherwise

o

Some Examples
 h[n] F! H (
) frequency response
 sin
o n F! j
P1 ,1 [(
,
o , 2k) , (
+
o , 2k)]
 cos
o n F! 
P1kk==,1 [(
,
o , 2k) + (
+
o , 2k)]

 0 F! 0  1 F! 2 1
Pk=,1 (
, 2k)
 [n] F! 1 F
 [n , no ] ! e,jno

 u[n] F! 1,1ej
+ 
P1  ej
o n F! 2 1
P

1 sinc(
1 n ) F!
P1k=,1((

,2
,2k2k) ) k=,infty (
,
o , 2k)
k=,1 1
 Z-Transform or DT Laplace Transform
Denition of Z-Transform:
The Z-transform X (z) is a decomposition of an (a)periodic signal x(t) into signals of the type z,n = r,n e,jn
with z = rej
complex.
Compared to the discrete-time Fourier transform, the extra (real) exponential r,n allows us to treat a broader class of signals. The r,n part
is used to model growth or decay, while the e,jn! part models the oscillatory behavior of x(t): Again, x[n] and X (z) uniquely dene each
other and here we write x[n] Z! X (z) :
P1
 unilateral ZT: X (z) = Z [x[n]] =
( bilateral ZT: X (z) = Z [x[n]] =
P1kk==0,1x[nx][zn,]zn,n )
Note that the UZT only works for (real world) "causal" signals while the BZT permits us to consider any signal; furthermore, if x[n] = 0 for
n < 0 (causal) then the UZT and the BZT are the same. Both the UZT and the BZT have regions of convergence (ROC) over which the
transform exists. A ROC is the range of values of z over which the integral converges. A ROC cannot contain a pole, in fact for causal signals/
systems, the ROC contains all z on the outside of the circle that crosses the outermost pole. If x[n] is of nite duration, ROCx = CI ; except
possibly for z = 0 and z = 1:

Any signal x[n] that is of exponential order, i.e. jx[n]j does not increase faster than A cn with A and c real constants, can be transformed
into X (z): As an example of a signal that is not of exponential order, consider for instance x[n] = 2n2 u[n]

Properties of Unilateral Z-Transforms (given rightsided x[n] Z! X (z) with ROCx ):

 linearity: 1 x1 [n] + 2 x2 [n] Z! 1 X1 (z) + 2 X2 (z) at least ROCx1 \ ROCx2
 time reversal: x[,n] Z! X (z,1 ) fz j z,1 2 ROCx g
 delay (M > 0): x[n , M ] Z! z,M X (z) ROCx
 advance (M > 0): x[n + M ] Z! zM fX (z) , x[M , 1]z,(M ,1) ,


, x[0]g ROCx
 frequency translation: x[n]p,n Z! X (pz)
 running sum:
P
u[n]
x[n] = nk=,1 x[k] Z! 1,z1,1 X (z)
fz j pz 2 ROCx g
at least ROCx \ fz jjzj > 1g
 convolution: Z
x1 [n]
x2 [n] ! X1 (z)
X2 (z) at least ROCx1 \ ROCx2
 n-multiplication: Z
n
x[n] ! ,z dz dX ( z ) ROCx
 initial value: limz!1 X (z) = x[0]; which always exists
 nal value: limz!1 (1 , z,1 )X (z) = limn!1 x[n]; if this limit exists
Z
FOR A TWOSIDED x[n] ! X (z) (useful for INITIAL CONDITIONS in LDEs):
 delay (M > 0): x[n , M ] Z! z,M X (z) + fx[,M ] + x[,M + 1]z,1 +


+ x[,1]z,M +1 g

Some Examples
 h[n] Z! H (z) transfer function

 0 Z! 0
 [n] Z! 1 all z  [n , M ] Z! z,M all s except 0 (1) if m > 0 (m < 0)
 u[n] Z! 1,z1,1 jzj > 1  u[,n , 1] Z! 1,z1,1 jzj < 1
 n u[n] Z! 1,z1 ,1 jzj > jj  ,n u[,n , 1] Z! 1,z1 ,1 jzj < jj
 nn u[n] Z! (1,zz,,11 )2 jzj > jj  ,nn u[,n , 1] Z! (1,zz,,11 )2 jzj < jj
 [cos
o n]u[n] Z! 1,[21,cos[cos
o]z,1 jzj > 1 [sin
o]z,,11 ,2
 [sin
o n]u[n] Z! 1,[2cos jz j > 1

o ]z,1 +z,2,1
o]z +z ,1
 [rn cos
o n]u[n] Z! 1,[21rcos
,[rcos
o]z

o]z,1 +r2 z,2 jzj > jrj  [rn sin
o n]u[n] Z! 1,[2rcos
[rsin
o,]z1 2 ,2

o]z +r z jzj > jrj
 Linear Dierence Equations
Solving LDE w/CC using Z-transforms
We show how the unilateral Z-transform can be used to solve linear dierential equations with constant coecients. In particular, the delay
property of the unilateral Z-transform is utilized. The procedures are not shown for the general case, but rather for an example.
Example: Assume we are given the following LDE w/CC that we are trying to solve:
y[n] , 2y[n , 1] = x[n] + x[n , 1]
with initial conditions y[,1] = 1 and x[,1] = 0:
First, take the unilateral Z-transform of both sides, using the delay property:
Y (z) , [2z,1 Y (z) + 2y[,1]] = X (z) + [z,1 X (z) + x[,1]] ()
,1
() Y (z) = (1 , z,11+)(1z , 2z,1 ) + x[,11],+2z2,y[1,1] ;
wherein inverse Z-transform of the rst part equals the zero-state-response:
,1 z,1
yzsr [n] = Z [ (1 , z,11+)(1z , 2z,1 ) ] = Z [ (1 , z,1 )(1
1 1
, 2z,1 ) ] + Z [ (1 , z,1 )(1 , 2z,1 ) ] = ([n] + [n , 1])
Z [ (1 , z,1 )(1 , 2z,1 ) ] =
= ([n] + [n , 1])
Z [ 1 ,,z1,1 + 1 , 22z,1 ] = ([n] + [n , 1])
(,u[n] + 2
2n u[n]) = ,u[n] , u[n , 1] + 2n+1 u[n] + 2n u[n , 1]:
Secondly, we have the zero-input-response:
yzir [n] = Z [ (1 , 22z,1 ) ] = 2
2n u[n] = 2n+1 u[n]:
The actual output y[n] is the sum of the two:
y[n] = yzir [n] + yzir [n] = ,u[n] , u[n , 1] + 2n+1 u[n] + 2nu[n , 1] + 2n+1 u[n] = ,u[n] , u[n , 1] + 2n+2 u[n] + 2n u[n , 1]:

Partial Fraction Expansions

Suppose we are given Y (z) = (1,z,1 )(1 1 ,1 (see also above) that we wish to expand into partial fractions. The procedure for doing this, is to
,2z )
rst factor and expand into partial fractions Y (zz) ; expressed in terms of z :
Y (z) = z
1 z ,1 2
z z (1 , z,1 )(1 , 2z,1 ) = (z , 1)(z , 2) = z , 1 + z , 2 ;
whereafter we multiply both sides again by z and write the partial fractions in terms of z,1 ; so that we can use the Z-transform tables in order to
nd y[n] :
Y (z) = 1 ,,z1,1 + 1 , 22z,1 =) y[n] = ,u[n] + 2
2n u[n] = ,u[n] + 2n+1 u[n]:
 Comparison of FS and FT
Decomposing a periodic signal into discrete frequencies, each a multiple of some basic frequency !o ; gives us the Fourier series representation
of that signal. With Fourier transforms, we can decompose aperiodic signals into its component frequencies, which, however, are not multiples
of some frequency, but rather range from ! = ,1 to ! = 1: For periodic signals, x(t); F [x(t) and the FS represenation all carry the same
information.
How to get from FS to FT? If a periodic signal x(t) is written as a Fourier Series, x(t) = 1 P jn! t
n=,1 Xn e o ; then its Fourier Transform is

X (!) = F [x(t)] = F [
1 X
Xn ejn!o t ] =
1 X
Xn F [ejn!o t ] = 2
1 X
Xn (! , n!o ):
n=,1 n=,1 n=,1
How to get from FT to FS (if the signal is periodic)? If a periodic signal x(t) is written as a Fourier Series,
Xn = T1 X (!) j !=n!o :
o
THIS SECTION IS FINISHED NOR CLEAR TO MYSELF; APOLOGIES.

Comparison of FT and ULT

The Laplace transform is a more general transform than the Fourier transform, meaning that it can be used for all signals that can be Fourier
transformed, and more. From the denitons, the relationshipbetween the Laplace and Fourier transform seems to follow relativelystraightforwardly:
X (s) = F [x(t) e,t ] and F [x(t)] = X (j!)
However, we should distinguish between three cases:
Case (a): when ROCx includes the j!-axis then X (s) j s=j! = X (j!) = F [x(t)] and F ,1 [X (j!)] = x(t):
Case (b): when ROCx is just bounded by the j!-axis then F [x(t)] can sometimes be computed, but if so, then F [x(t)] 6= X (j!) and
F ,1 [X (j!)] 6= x(t): For example, u(t) L! 1s with ROC = fs j Re[s] > 0g; but u(t) F! j!1 + (!) 6= j!1 = X (j!): Furthermore,
F ,1 [ j!1 ] = 12 sgn(t):
Case (c): when ROCx doesn't include the j!-axis then F [x(t)] cannot be computed. Although X (j!) may be dened, F ,1 [X (j!)] 6= x(t):
For example, et u(t) L! s,1 1 with ROC = fs jRe[s] > 1g; F [et u(t)] is undened and F ,1 [ j!1,1 ] = ,e,t u(,t):

 F ,1 [ j!1, ] = ,et u(,t) for complex 

j j
 F ,1 [ 1,1!2 ] = F ,1 [ (j!+j)(1 j!,j) ] = F ,1 [ (j!2+j) ] , F ,1 [ (j!2,j) ] = j4 sgn(t)(e,jt + ejt ) = 12 sgn(t)sin(t)

Comparison of DTFT and UZT

The Z-transform is a more general transform than the discrete-time Fourier transform, meaning that it can be used for all signals that can
be Fourier transformed, and more. From the denitons, the relationship between the Laplace and Fourier transform seems to follow relatively
straightforwardly:
X (z) = F [x[n] r,n ] and F [x[n]] = X (ej
)
However, as above, we should distinguish between the cases where the ROC contains the unit circle (given by jzj = 1 , z = ej
), is just bounded
by it, or does not contain it at all. These three cases lead to perfectly similar conclusion about the existence of the Fourier transform as in the
continuous-time case above.
 Modulation
NOTE:  modulators are generally time-variant systems;
 some modulators are linear, some non-linear;
 asynchronous demodulators can only demodulate DSB-AM-LC;
 synchronous demodulators can demodulate all linear schemes discussed;
 (with synchronous we mean that the received signal is multiplied with a copy of the carrier;)

 WB-FM is much more noise immune than AM, since noise mainly eects the amplitude
of a signal and not so much the (instantaneous) frequency; furthermore, the amount of
used bandwidth is much larger for WB-FM, leading to better noise immunity.

Motivation for Modulation

 baseband signals will not propagate, but higher frequency signals will;
 in order to simultaneously send multiple signals, one must use (distinct) carrier frequencies to prevent (limit) interference.

Assumptions and Terminology

 In H [m(t)] = x(t); H [
] is the modulation system, m(t) the message or modulating signal and x(t) the transmitted modulated signal;
 the message signal, m(t) F! M (!); is bandlimited to j!j  2BM rad=s; furthermore, we assume jm(t)j  1; 8t;
 the modulated signal, x(t) F! X (!); is a narrowband bandpass signal, centered at !c and has bandwidth 2BX  !c rad=s;

Underlying Fourier Transform Properties

 ej!o t F! 2(! , !o )
 x(t)ej!ot F! X (! , !o )  frequency translation

Overview of Analog Modulation Systems

Amplitude Modulation (linear):  Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (DSB-AM)
 Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation with Large Carrier (DSB-AM-LC; a.k.a. broadcast AM)
 Single-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (SSB-AM)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM; see notes 15)

Angle Modulation (non-linear):  Narrowband Frequence Modulation (NB-FM)

 Narrowband Phase Modulation (NB-PM)
 Wideband Frequency Modulation (WB-FM)
 Wideband Phase Modulation (WB-PM)

Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (DSB-AM)

  modulation: H [m(t)] = x(t) = m(t) cos !c t F! X (!) = 21 M (!)
[(! + !c ) + (! , !c )] = 12 [M (! + !c ) + M (! , !c )];
 demodulation: y(t) = x(t) cos !c t = m(t) cos2 !ct = 21 m(t) + 12 m(t)cos 2!ct F! Y (!) = 21 M (!) + 14 [M (! + 2!c ) + M (! , 2!c)];
subsequently, an ideal LPF with Hlpf (!) = 1(0); j!j  (>)2BM passes 21 m(t) only;
 remarks:  demodulator must have the cos !c t carrier in phase lock to carrier at modulator, which requires a phase locked loop;
 you can demodulate SSB-AM using imperfect carrier cos(!c t + ) : received signal is 12 cos() m(t) : ne as long as cos() 6= 0;
 you can demodulate SSB-AM using imperfect carrier cos([!c +
!]t);
 the modulated signal x(t) takes up twice the bandwidth 2BM of the message signal m(t) : BX = 2BM ;
 DSB-AM: power-ecient, wastes bandwidth, requires synchronized reception.

Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation w/ Large Carrier (DSB-AM-LC)

 modulation: H [m(t)] = x(t) = [1 + m(t)] cos !c t F! X (!) = [(! + !c ) + (! , !c )] + 2 [M (! , !c ) + M (! + !c )];
 demodulation: (sync) y(t) = x(t) cos !ct = [1 + m(t)] cos2 !c t = F! Y (!) = YDSB-AM (!) + 4 [(! , 2!c ) + 2(!) + (! + 2!c )];
subsequently, an ideal LPF with Hlpf (!) = 1(0); j!j  (>)2BM passes 14 + 2 m(t) only;
(async) x(t) ,! rectier ,! y(t) = j x(t) j ,! LPF ,! z(t) = 1 + m(t) ,! capacitor ,! m(t);
 remarks:  demodulation of DSB-AM-LC can be done asynchronously, i.e. there is no need for synchronization of
demodulator to modulator;
  is the modulation index;
 if the amplitude of m(t) = (>)1 we have full modulation (overmodulation ,! distorted recovery);
1 2 PM
 power eciency is poor (= 1 (1+
2 < 50%); because of large carrier;
2 2 PM )
 the modulated signal x(t) takes up twice the bandwidth 2BM of the message signal m(t) : BX = 2BM ;
 DSB-AM-LC: power-inecient, wastes bandwidth, does not require synchronized reception.

Single-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (SSB-AM)

Upper-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (USB-AM)

 modulation: H [m(t)] = xu (t) = m(t) cos !c t , m^ (t) sin !c t F! Xu (!) = M (! + !c ) u(,! , !c ) + M (! , !c ) u(! , !c );
 demodulation: y(t) = xu (t) cos !c t =


= 21 m(t) + 12 m(t) cos 2!ct , 12 m^ (t) sin 2!ct ,! LPF ,! z(t) = 12 m(t);

Lower-Sideband Amplitude Modulation (LSB-AM)

 modulation: H [m(t)] = xl (t) = m(t) cos !c t + m^ (t) sin !c t F! Xl (!) = M (! + !c ) u(! + !c ) + M (! , !c ) u(,! + !c );
 demodulation: y(t) = xl (t) cos !c t =


= 12 m(t) + 21 m(t) cos 2!c t + 12 m^ (t) sin 2!c t ,! LPF ,! z(t) = 21 m(t);

Remarks on SSB-AM

 Hilbert transformer is a system with hHT (t) = t1 and HHT (!) = ,j sgn(!) = e,j 2 sgn(!) (phase shift); x^(t) = x(t)
hHT ;
 power ecient: no carrier transmitted;
  bandwidth ecient: now the modulated signal x(t) takes up the same amount of bandwidth as the message signal: BX = BM :
 you can demodulate SSB-AM using imperfect carrier cos(!c t + ) : received signal is 12 cos() m(t) : ne as long as cos() 6= 0 (see notes 15);
 you can demodulate SSB-AM using imperfect carrier cos([!c +
!]t) (see notes 15);
 SSB-AM: power-ecient, no waste of bandwidth, requires synchronized reception.

Design of AM Receivers (DSB-AM-LC)

P
 total received signal is xtot = Nn=1 [1 + mn (t)] cos !cn t; the sum of N DSB-AM-LC signals; we need message signal mn (t) only;
 solution A : use a tunable BPF; however it is hard to make a (multi-stage) lter with suciently shapr cuto;
 solution B : heterodyne receiver;
 solution C : superheterodyne receiver;
 SEE NOTES - SEE NOTES - SEE NOTES - SEE NOTES - SEE NOTES

Angle Modulation (FM and PM)

 A: PM: x(t) = A cos[!c t + (t)]; with (t) = 
m(t); with j
j   the phase deviation constant;

 B: FM:
(t) = 
m(t) is the instantaneous phase;
R
x(t) = A cos[!c t + (t)]; with (t) = !
,1t m(s)ds; with ! the frequency deviation constant;


!(t) = dtd [!c t + (t)] = !c + !
m(t is the instantaneous frequency;

 we speak of NARROWBAND angle modulation when j(t)j  1; hence ej(t)  1 + j(t); so x(t)  cos !c t , (t) sin !c t;
 note that in narrowband angle modulation a LARGE CARRIER cos !c t is transmitted (inecient!)

NARROWBAND PHASE MODULATION (NB-PM)

 modulation:  = 
m(t); so H [m(t)] = x(t) = cos !c t , 
m(t) sin !c t F! X (!) = [(! , !c ) + (! + !c )]+
+ 2j 
[M (! , !c ) , M (! + !c )] (similar to DSB-AM-LC);

NARROWBAND FREQUENCY R t
MODULATION (NB-FM)
 modulation:  = !
,1 m(s)ds; with j(t)j  1; hence m(t) cannot have a DC component, hence M (!)j!=0 = 0;
H [m(t)] = x(t) = cos !c t , (t) sin !c t F! X (!) = [(! , !c ) + (! + !c)] + 2j [(! , !c ) , (! + !c)];
with (!) = !
Mj!(!) ; so X (!) = [(! , !c ) + (! + !c )] + !2
[ M!(!,,!!c c ) , M!(!++!!c c ) ];
 Examples of Systems and their Properties
time BIBO
system linear invariant causal memoryless stable

(CT-1) y(t) = x(t)

sin(t)u(t) yes yes yes no
(CT-2)
(CT-3)
R p
y(t) = x(t)
cos(t)u(t)
y(t) = ,1t x(s)ds
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
(CT-4) y(t) = x(2t) + 1 no no no no
(CT-5) y(t) = x(t)
et u(t + 1) yes yes no no
(CT-6)
R
y(t) = x(,t)
t,1 x(s)ds
yes no no no
(CT-7)
(CT-8)
R
y(t) = ,1
y(t) = ,1t e,(t,s) x2 (s)ds
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
(CT-9)
(CT-10)
R
y(t) = jx(t)j
y(t) = ,11 e,jt,sj x(s)ds
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no

(DT-1) y[n] = 0 yes yes yes yes

(DT-2) y[n] = cos(n)2x[n] no no yes yes
(DT-3)
(DT-4)
P
y[n] + y[n , 1] = x[n]
y[n] = nk=,1 x[k]
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
 Electronics
1. v(t) = i(t)R RESISTOR
2. R1 and R2 in series equals R1 + R2 I same; V = V1 + V2 (splits)
3. R1 and R2 in parallel equals (R,1 1 + R,2 1 ),1 V same; I = I1 + I2 (splits)

4. i(t) = C dvdt(t) CAPACITOR

5. C1 and C2 in series equals (C1,1 + C2,1 ),1 q (charge) same; V = qC ,1
6. C1 and C2 in parallel equals C1 + C2 V same; q = CV

7. v(t) = L didt(t) INDUCTOR

8. L1 and L2 in series equals
9. L1 and L2 in parallel equals

10. KCL Kircho's Current Law (KCL)

11. KVL Kircho's Voltage Law (KVL)

 inductors and capacitors (amount of charge) are components with memory.

 resistors and opamps are memoryless components.
 a circuit with an L and a C in parallel is of order 2; a circuit with two L's or C 's in parallel is of order 1:
 

, @  LDE
substitute x(t) = ej!t

,  @@ 
,
, @ and y(t) = H (!)ej!t ;
solve for H (!)

 
h(t) H (!)


Fourier transform
H (!) = jH (!)jej6 H (!)

jH (!)j

 6 H (!)

Figure 0.1: Relations between System Descriptors.


,@
LDE
substitute x(tL) L! X (s)

,  @ 
,, @@ and y(t) ! Y (s);Y (s)
solve for H (s) = X (s)

 
h(t)
Laplace transform
H (s)
write H (s) = N (s)


D(s) and
solve N (s) = 0 ,! Zeroes
solve D(s) = 0 ,! Poles


Poles
Zeroes

Figure 0.2: Relations between System Descriptors.