Complex numbers

23
Complex numbers

23.1 Cartesian complex numbers Problem 2. Solve the quadratic equation

2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0.
(i) If the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x + 5 = 0 is
solved using the quadratic formula then,
 Using the quadratic formula,
−2 ± [(2)2 − (4)(1)(5)] 
x=
2(1) −3 ± [(3)2 − 4(2)(5)]
√ √ x=
−2 ± [−16] −2 ± [(16)(−1)] 2(2)
= = √ √ √
2 2 −3 ± −31 −3 ± (−1) 31
√ √ √ = =
−2 ± 16 −1 −2 ± 4 −1 4 4
√
= = −3 ± j 31
2 2 =
√ 4
= −1 ± 2 −1 √
√ 3 31
It is not possible to evaluate −1 in real Hence x = − ± j or −0.750 ± j1.392,
4 4
terms.
√ However, if an operator j is defined as correct to 3 decimal places.
j = −1 then the solution may be expressed as
x = −1 ± j2. (Note, a graph of y = 2x 2 + 3x + 5 does not cross
(ii) −1 + j2 and −1 − j2 are known as complex the x-axis and hence 2x 2 + 3x + 5 = 0 has no real
numbers. Both solutions are of the form a + jb, roots.)
‘a’ being termed the real part and jb the imag-
inary part. A complex number of the form Problem 3. Evaluate
a + jb is called cartesian complex number. −4
(a) j3 (b) j4 (c) j23 (d)
(iii) In pure √mathematics the symbol i is used to j9
indicate −1 (i being the first letter of the word
imaginary). However i is the symbol of electric (a) j 3 = j2 × j = (−1) × j = − j, since j2 = −1
current in engineering, and to avoid possible
confusion the next
√ letter in the alphabet, j, is (b) j 4 = j2 × j2 = (−1) × (−1) = 1
used to represent −1.
(c) j 23 = j × j22 = j × ( j2 )11 = j × (−1)11
Problem 1. Solve the quadratic equation = j × (−1) = − j
x 2 + 4 = 0.
(d) j 9 = j × j8 = j × ( j2 )4 = j × (−1)4
√ = j×1=j
Since x 2 + 4 = 0 then x 2 = −4 and x = −4.
−4 −4 −4 −j 4j
  √ Hence = = × = 2
i.e., x = [(−1)(4)] = (−1) 4 = j(±2) j 9 j j −j −j
√
= ± j2, (since j = −1) 4j
= = 4 j or j4
(Note that ± j2 may also be written ±2 j). −(−1)
250 COMPLEX NUMBERS

vertical (or y) axis is used to represent the imaginary

Now try the following exercise.
Exercise 100 Further problems on the
introduction to cartesian complex numbers
In Problems 1 to 3, solve the quadratic equations.
1. x 2 + 25 = 0 [± j5]
axis. Such a diagram is called an Argand diagram.
In Fig. 23.1, the point A represents the complex
number (3 + j2) and is obtained by plotting the
co-ordinates (3, j2) as in graphical work. Fig-
ure 23.1 also shows the Argand points B, C and
D representing the complex numbers (−2 + j4),
(−3 − j5) and (1 − j3) respectively.

2. 2x 2 + 3x + 4 = 0
√

3 23 23.3 Addition and subtraction of

− ±j or − 0.750 ± j1.199
4 4 complex numbers
3. 4t 2 − 5t + 7 = 0 Two complex numbers are added/subtracted by
√

5 87 adding/subtracting separately the two real parts and

±j or 0.625 ± j1.166 the two imaginary parts.
8 8
For example, if Z1 = a + jb and Z2 = c + jd,
1 4
4. Evaluate (a) j8 (b) − 7 (c) 13 then Z1 + Z2 = (a + jb) + (c + jd)
j 2j
[(a) 1 (b) −j (c) −j2] = (a + c) + j(b + d)
and Z1 − Z2 = (a + jb) − (c + jd)
= (a − c) + j(b − d)

23.2 The Argand diagram Thus, for example,

(2 + j3) + (3 − j4) = 2 + j3 + 3 − j4
A complex number may be represented pictorially
on rectangular or cartesian axes. The horizontal = 5 − j1
(or x) axis is used to represent the real axis and the and (2 + j3) − (3 − j4) = 2 + j3 − 3 + j4
= −1 + j7
Imaginary The addition and subtraction of complex numbers
axis
may be achieved graphically as shown in the Argand
B diagram of Fig. 23.2. (2 + j3) is represented by vec-
j4
tor OP and (3 − j4) by vector OQ. In Fig. 23.2(a)
j3 by vector addition (i.e. the diagonal of the parallel-
A
ogram) OP + OQ = OR. R is the point (5, −j1).
j2
Hence (2 + j3) + (3 − j4) = 5 − j1.
j
In Fig. 23.2(b), vector OQ is reversed (shown as OQ )
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 Real axis since it is being subtracted. (Note OQ = 3 − j4
−j and OQ = −(3 − j4) = −3 + j4).
OP − OQ = OP + OQ = OS is found to be the
−j 2 Argand point (−1, j7).
−j 3
D
Hence (2 + j3) − (3 − j4) = − 1 + j7
−j 4

C
−j5 Problem 4. Given Z1 = 2 + j4 and Z2 = 3 − j
determine (a) Z1 + Z2 , (b) Z1 − Z2 , (c) Z2 − Z1
and show the results on an Argand diagram.
Figure 23.1
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 251

Imaginary Each result is shown in the Argand diagram of

axis Fig. 23.3.

P (2+j 3) Imaginary
j3 axis

j2 (−1+j5)
j5

j j4
(5+j 3)
j3
0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis
−j R (5−j ) j2

−j2 j

−j3 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Real axis

−j4 −j
Q (3−j 4)
−j2
(a) −j3

Imaginary
axis
−j4 E
−j5 (1−j5)
S (−1+j 7)
j7

j6
Figure 23.3
j5

Q' j4
23.4 Multiplication and division of
j3 P (2+j 3)
complex numbers
j2
(i) Multiplication of complex numbers is
j achieved by assuming all quantities involved
are real and then using j2 = −1 to simplify.
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 Real axis
−j
Hence (a + jb)(c + jd)

−j 2 = ac + a( jd) + ( jb)c + ( jb)( jd)

−j 3 = ac + jad + jbc + j2 bd
−j 4 Q (3−j4)
= (ac − bd) + j(ad + bc),
(b) since j2 = −1
Figure 23.2
Thus (3 + j2)(4 − j5)

(a) Z1 + Z2 = (2 + j4) + (3 − j) = 12 − j15 + j8 − j2 10

= (2 + 3) + j(4 − 1) = 5 + j3
(b) Z1 − Z2 = (2 + j4) − (3 − j)
= (2 − 3) + j(4 −(−1)) = −1 + j5
(c) Z2 − Z1 = (3 − j) − (2 + j4)
= (3 − 2) + j(−1 − 4) = 1 − j5
= (12 − (−10)) + j(−15 + 8)
= 22 − j 7
(ii) The complex conjugate of a complex num-
ber is obtained by changing the sign of the
imaginary part. Hence the complex conjugate
of a + jb is a − jb. The product of a complex
252 COMPLEX NUMBERS

number and its complex conjugate is always a Z1 Z2 (1 − j3)(−2 + j5)

(c) =
real number. Z1 + Z2 (1 − j3) + (−2 + j5)
For example, 13 + j11
= , from part (a),
(3 + j4)(3 − j4) = 9 − j12 + j12 − j2 16 −1 + j2
= 9 + 16 = 25 13 + j11 −1 − j2
= ×
[(a + jb)(a − jb) may be evaluated ‘on sight’as −1 + j2 −1 − j2
a2 + b2 ]. −13 − j26 − j11 − j2 22
(iii) Division of complex numbers is achieved by =
12 + 22
multiplying both numerator and denominator
by the complex conjugate of the denominator. 9 − j37 9 37
= = −j or 1.8 − j7.4
5 5 5
For example,
2 − j5 2 − j5 (3 − j4) (d) Z1 Z2 Z3 = (13 + j11)(−3 − j4), since
= ×
3 + j4 3 + j4 (3 − j4) Z1 Z2 = 13 + j11, from part (a)
6 − j8 − j15 + j2 20 = −39 − j52 − j33 − j2 44
=
32 + 42
= (−39 + 44) − j(52 + 33)
−14 − j23 −14 23
= = −j = 5 − j85
25 25 25
or −0.56 − j0.92
Problem 6. Evaluate:
Problem 5. If Z1 = 1 − j3, Z2 = −2 + j5 and  
2 1 + j3 2
Z3 = −3 − j4, determine in a + jb form: (a) (b) j
(1 + j)4 1 − j2
Z1
(a) Z1 Z2 (b)
Z3
Z1 Z2 (a) (1 + j)2 = (1 + j)(1 + j) = 1 + j + j + j2
(c) (d) Z1 Z2 Z3
Z1 + Z 2 = 1 + j + j − 1 = j2

(1 + j)4 = [(1 + j)2 ]2 = ( j2)2 = j2 4 = −4

(a) Z1 Z2 = (1 − j3)(−2 + j5)
2 2 1
= −2 + j5 + j6 − j2 15 Hence = =−
(1 + j)4 −4 2
= (−2 + 15) + j(5 + 6), since j2 = −1, 1 + j3 1 + j3 1 + j2
(b) = ×
= 13 + j11 1 − j2 1 − j2 1 + j2
Z1 1 − j3 1 − j3 −3 + j4 1 + j2 + j3 + j2 6 −5 + j5
(b) = = × = =
Z3 −3 − j4 −3 − j4 −3 + j4 12 + 22 5
−3 + j4 + j9 − j2 12 = −1 + j1 = −1 + j
=
32 + 42
 2
9 + j13 9 13 1 + j3
= = + j = (−1 + j)2 = (−1 + j)(−1 + j)
25 25 25 1 − j2
or 0.36 + j0.52 = 1 − j − j + j2 = −j2
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 253

 2
1 + j3 23.5 Complex equations
Hence j = j(− j2) = − j2 2 = 2,
1 − j2
since j2 = −1 If two complex numbers are equal, then their real
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal.
Hence if a + jb = c + jd, then a = c and b = d.
Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 101 Further problems on opera- Problem 7. Solve the complex equations:
tions involving Cartesian complex numbers (a) 2(x + jy) = 6 − j3
1. Evaluate (a) (3 + j2) + (5 − j) and (b) (1 + j2)(−2 − j3) = a + jb
(b) (−2 + j6) − (3 − j2) and show the
results on an Argand diagram.
[(a) 8 + j (b) −5 + j8] (a) 2(x + jy) = 6 − j3 hence 2x + j2y = 6 − j3
2. Write down the complex conjugates of Equating the real parts gives:
(a) 3 + j4, (b) 2 − j. 2x = 6, i.e. x = 3
[(a) 3 − j4 (b) 2 + j] Equating the imaginary parts gives:
In Problems 3 to 7 evaluate in a + jb form 2y = −3, i.e. y = − 23
given Z1 = 1 + j2, Z2 = 4 − j3, Z3 = −2 + j3 E
and Z4 = −5 − j. (b) (1 + j2)(−2 − j3) = a + jb
3. (a) Z1 + Z2 − Z3 (b) Z2 − Z1 + Z4 −2 − j3 − j4 − j2 6 = a + jb
[(a) 7 − j4 (b) −2 − j6] Hence 4 − j7 = a + jb
Equating real and imaginary terms gives:
4. (a) Z1 Z2 (b) Z3 Z4
a = 4 and b = −7
[(a) 10 + j5 (b) 13 − j13]
5. (a) Z1 Z3 + Z4 (b) Z1 Z2 Z3 Problem 8. Solve the equations:
[(a) −13 − j2 (b) −35 + j20] √
(a) (2 − j3) = (a + jb)
Z1 Z1 + Z3 (b) (x − j2y) + ( y − j3x) = 2 + j3
6. (a) (b)
Z2 Z2 − Z4
  √
−2 11 −19 43 (a) (2 − j3) = (a + jb)
(a) +j (b) +j
25 25 85 85
Hence (2 − j3)2 = a + jb,
Z1 Z3 Z1
7. (a) (b) Z2 + + Z3 i.e. (2 − j3)(2 − j3) = a + jb
Z1 + Z3 Z4
  Hence 4 − j6 − j6 + j2 9 = a + jb
3 41 45 9
(a) +j (b) −j
26 26 26 26 and −5 − j12 = a + jb
1− j 1 Thus a = −5 and b = −12
8. Evaluate (a) (b)
1+ j 1+ j (b) (x − j2y) + (y − j3x) = 2 + j3
 
1 1 Hence (x + y) + j(−2y − 3x) = 2 + j3
(a) − j (b) −j
2 2
  Equating real and imaginary parts gives:
−25 1 + j2 2 − j5
9. Show that − x+y =2 (1)
2 3 + j4 −j
= 57 + j24 and −3x − 2y = 3 (2)
i.e. two simultaneous equations to solve
254 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Multiplying equation (1) by 2 gives: Imaginary

axis
2x + 2y = 4 (3)
Z
Adding equations (2) and (3) gives:
r jy
−x = 7, i.e., x = −7
θ
From equation (1), y = 9, which may be O A Real axis
x
checked in equation (2).

Now try the following exercise.

Figure 23.4
Exercise 102 Further problems on complex
equations
In Problems 1 to 4 solve the complex equations. *
i.e. r = (x 2 + y2 )
1. (2 + j)(3 − j2) = a + jb [a = 8, b = −1]
  (iii) θ is called the argument (or amplitude) of Z
2+ j 3 1
2. = j(x + jy) x= ,y=− and is written as arg Z.
1− j 2 2
By trigonometry on triangle OAZ,
√
3. (2 − j3) = (a + jb) [a = −5, b = −12]
y
arg Z = θ = tan−1
4. (x − j2y) − ( y − jx) = 2 + j [x = 3, y = 1] x

5. If Z = R + jωL + 1/jωC, express Z in (iv) Whenever changing from cartesian form to

(a + jb) form when R = 10, L = 5, C = 0.04 polar form, or vice-versa, a sketch is invalu-
and ω = 4. [Z = 10 + j13.75] able for determining the quadrant in which the
complex number occurs.

23.6 The polar form of a complex
number
(i) Let a complex number z be x + jy as shown
in the Argand diagram of Fig. 23.4. Let dis-
tance OZ be r and the angle OZ makes with the
positive real axis be θ.
Problem 9. Determine the modulus and argu-
ment of the complex number Z = 2 + j3, and
express Z in polar form.
Z = 2 + j3 lies in the first quadrant as shown in
Fig. 23.5.

From trigonometry, x = r cos θ and

y = r sin θ Imaginary
axis
Hence Z = x + jy = r cos θ + jr sin θ
j3
= r(cos θ + j sin θ)
r
Z = r(cos θ + j sin θ) is usually abbreviated to
Z = r ∠θ which is known as the polar form of
a complex number. θ
(ii) r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of Z and 0 2 Real axis
is written as mod Z or |Z|.
r is determined using Pythagoras’ theorem on
triangle OAZ in Fig. 23.4, Figure 23.5
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 255
 √
Modulus, |Z| = r = (22 + 32 ) = 13 or 3.606, (c) −3 − j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the
correct to 3 decimal places. third quadrant.
Argument, arg Z = θ = tan−1 3 Modulus, r = 5 and α = 53◦ 8 , as above.
2
= 56.31◦ or 56◦ 19 Hence the argument = 180◦ + 53◦ 8 = 233◦ 8 ,
which is the same as −126◦ 52 .
In polar form, 2 + j3 is written as 3.606∠56◦ 19 .
Hence (−3 − j4) = 5∠233◦ 8 or 5∠−126◦ 52
(By convention the principal value is normally
Problem 10. Express the following complex used, i.e. the numerically least value, such that
numbers in polar form: −π < θ < π).
(a) 3 + j4 (b) −3 + j4 (d) 3 − j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the fourth
quadrant.
(c) −3 − j4 (d) 3 − j4
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53◦ 8 , as above.
(a) 3 + j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the first Hence (3 − j4) = 5∠−53◦ 8
quadrant.
Problem 11. Convert (a) 4∠30◦ (b) 7∠−145◦
Imaginary into a + jb form, correct to 4 significant figures. E
axis

(−3+j4) j4 (3+j 4) (a) 4∠30◦ is shown in Fig. 23.7(a) and lies in the
first quadrant.
j3

r j2 r
Imaginary
j axis
α θ
−3 −2 −1 α α1 2 3 Real axis
4 jy
−j 30°
0 Real axis
−j 2 x
r
r
−j 3

−j4 (a)
(−3−j4) (3−j4)

Figure 23.6 x
α Real axis
 145°
Modulus, r = (32 + 42 ) = 5 and argument jy 7
θ = arctan 43 = 53.13◦ = 53◦ 8 .
(b)
Hence 3 + j4 = 5∠53◦ 8
Figure 23.7
(b) −3 + j4 is shown in Fig. 23.6 and lies in the
second quadrant.
Using trigonometric ratios, x = 4 cos 30◦ = 3.464
Modulus, r = 5 and angle α = 53◦ 8 , from and y = 4 sin 30◦ = 2.000.
part (a).
Hence 4∠30◦ = 3.464 + j2.000
Argument = 180◦ − 53◦ 8 = 126◦ 52 (i.e. the
argument must be measured from the positive (b) 7∠145◦ is shown in Fig. 23.7(b) and lies in the
real axis). third quadrant.
Hence −3 + j4 = 5∠126◦ 52 Angle α = 180◦ − 145◦ = 35◦
256 COMPLEX NUMBERS

Hence x = 7 cos 35◦ = 5.734 Addition and subtraction in polar form is not possible
directly. Each complex number has to be converted
and y = 7 sin 35◦ = 4.015 into cartesian form first.
Hence 7∠−145◦ = −5.734 − j4.015
2∠30◦ = 2(cos 30◦ + j sin 30◦ )
Alternatively
= 2 cos 30◦ + j2 sin 30◦ = 1.732 + j1.000
7∠−145◦ = 7 cos (−145◦ ) + j7 sin (−145◦ )
5∠−45◦ = 5(cos(−45◦ ) + j sin(−45◦ ))
= −5.734 − j4.015
= 5 cos(−45◦ ) + j5 sin(−45◦ )
= 3.536 − j3.536
23.7 Multiplication and division in 4∠120◦ = 4( cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ )
polar form = 4 cos 120◦ + j4 sin 120◦
If Z1 = r1 ∠θ1 and Z2 = r2 ∠θ2 then: = −2.000 + j3.464
(i) Z1 Z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ) and Hence 2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦
Z1 r1 = (1.732 + j1.000) + (3.536 − j3.536)
(ii) = ∠(θ1 − θ2 )
Z2 r2
− (−2.000 + j3.464)
= 7.268 − j6.000, which lies in the
Problem 12. Determine, in polar form: fourth quadrant
 
(a) 8∠25◦ × 4∠60◦ 
−1 −6.000
= [(7.268) + (6.000) ]∠ tan
2 2
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠−44◦ × 2∠80◦ 7.268
= 9.425∠−39.54◦ or 9.425∠−39◦ 32
(a) 8∠25◦ ×4∠60◦ =(8×4)∠(25◦ +60◦)=32∠85◦
(b) 3∠16◦ × 5∠ − 44◦ × 2∠80◦ Now try the following exercise.
=(3×5×2)∠[16◦ + (−44◦ )+80◦ ]=30∠52◦ Exercise 103 Further problems on polar
form
Problem 13. Evaluate in polar form 1. Determine the modulus and argument of
π π (a) 2 + j4 (b) −5 − j2 (c) j(2 − j).
16∠75◦ 10∠ × 12∠ ⎡ ⎤
(a) (b) 4
π
2 (a) 4.472, 63◦ 26
2∠15◦ 6∠− ⎢ ⎥
3 ⎣(b) 5.385, −158◦ 12⎦

(c) 2.236, 63◦ 26

16∠75◦ 16
(a) = ∠(75◦ − 15◦ ) = 8∠60◦ In Problems 2 and 3 express the given Cartesian
2∠15◦ 2 complex numbers in polar form, leaving answers
π π in surd form.
10∠ × 12∠   
(b) 4 2 = 10 × 12 ∠ π + π − − π
π 2. (a) 2 + j3 (b) −4 (c) −6 + j
6∠ − 6 4 2 3 √

3 (a) 13∠56◦ 19 (b) 4∠180◦

13π 11π √
= 20∠ or 20∠− or (c) 37∠170◦ 32
12 12
20∠195◦ or 20∠−165◦ 3. (a) −j3 (b) (−2 + j)3 (c) j3 (1 − j)
√

Problem 14. Evaluate, in polar form (a) 3∠−90◦ (b) 125∠100◦ 18

√
2∠30◦ + 5∠−45◦ − 4∠120◦ . (c) 2∠−135◦
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 257

In Problems 4 and 5 convert the given polar com- R L R C

plex numbers into (a + jb) form giving answers
correct to 4 significant figures. VR VL VR VC
l l
4. (a) 5∠30◦ (b) 3∠60◦ (c)7∠45◦
⎡ ⎤ V V
(a) 4.330 + j2.500
⎣(b) 1.500 + j2.598⎦ Phasor diagram Phasor diagram
VR l
(c) 4.950 + j4.950 VL V φ

5. (a) 6∠125◦ (b) 4∠π (c) 3.5∠−120◦

⎡ ⎤ θ
(a) −3.441 + j4.915 VC
VR l
⎣(b) −4.000 + j0 ⎦ (a) (b) V

(c) −1.750 − j3.031

Figure 23.8
In Problems 6 to 8, evaluate in polar form.
Similarly, for the R−C circuit shown in
6. (a) 3∠20◦ × 15∠45◦ Fig. 23.8(b), VC lags I by 90◦ (i.e. I leads VC by
90◦ ) and VR − jVC = V , from which R − jXC = Z
(b) 2.4∠65◦ × 4.4∠−21◦ 1
(where XC is the capacitive reactance ohms). E
[(a) 45∠65◦ (b) 10.56∠44◦ ] 2πfC
7. (a) 6.4∠27◦ ÷ 2∠−15◦
(b) 5∠30◦ × 4∠80◦ ÷ 10∠−40◦ Problem 15. Determine the resistance and
series inductance (or capacitance) for each of the
[(a) 3.2∠42◦ (b) 2∠150◦ ]
following impedances, assuming a frequency of
π π 50 Hz:
8. (a) 4∠ + 3∠
6 8 (a) (4.0 + j7.0)  (b) −j20 
(b) 2∠120◦ + 5.2∠58◦ − 1.6∠−40◦
(c) 15∠−60◦ 
[(a) 6.986∠26◦ 47 (b) 7.190∠85◦ 46 ]

(a) Impedance, Z = (4.0 + j7.0)  hence,

resistance = 4.0
and reactance = 7.00 .
Since the imaginary part is positive, the reac-
23.8 Applications of complex numbers tance is inductive,
There are several applications of complex numbers i.e. XL = 7.0 
in science and engineering, in particular in electrical
Since XL = 2π f L then inductance,
alternating current theory and in mechanical vector
analysis. XL 7.0
The effect of multiplying a phasor by j is to rotate L= = = 0.0223 H or 22.3 mH
2π f 2π(50)
it in a positive direction (i.e. anticlockwise) on an
Argand diagram through 90◦ without altering its (b) Impedance, Z = j20, i.e. Z = (0 − j20)  hence
length. Similarly, multiplying a phasor by −j rotates resistance = 0 and reactance = 20 . Since the
the phasor through −90◦ . These facts are used in imaginary part is negative, the reactance is cap-
a.c. theory since certain quantities in the phasor dia- 1
grams lie at 90◦ to each other. For example, in the acitive, i.e., XC = 20  and since XC =
2π f C
R−L series circuit shown in Fig. 23.8(a), VL leads then:
I by 90◦ (i.e. I lags VL by 90◦ ) and may be written
1 1
as jVL , the vertical axis being regarded as the imagi- capacitance, C = = F
nary axis of an Argand diagram. Thus VR + jVL = V 2π f XC 2π(50)(20)
and since VR = IR, V = IXL (where XL is the induc-
tive reactance, 2πf L ohms) and V = IZ (where Z is 106
= µF = 159.2 µF
the impedance) then R + jXL = Z. 2π(50)(20)
258 COMPLEX NUMBERS

(c) Impedance, Z
Problem 17. For the parallel circuit shown in
◦ ◦ ◦
= 15∠−60 = 15[ cos (−60 ) + j sin (−60 )] Fig. 23.9, determine the value of current I and
its phase relative to the 240 V supply, using
= 7.50 − j12.99  complex numbers.

Hence resistance = 7.50

and capacitive reac-
tance, XC = 12.99  R1 = 4 Ω XL = 3 Ω

1 R2 = 10 Ω
Since XC = then capacitance,
2π f C
1 106
C= = µF
2π f XC 2π(50)(12.99) R3 = 12 Ω XC = 5 Ω
= 245 µF l

Problem 16. An alternating voltage of 240 V, 240 V, 50 Hz

50 Hz is connected across an impedance of
(60 − j100) . Determine (a) the resistance Figure 23.9
(b) the capacitance (c) the magnitude of the
impedance and its phase angle and (d) the current
flowing. V
Current I = . Impedance Z for the three-branch
Z
parallel circuit is given by:
(a) Impedance Z = (60 − j100) .
1 1 1 1
Hence resistance = 60
= + + ,
Z Z1 Z2 Z3
(b) Capacitive reactance XC = 100  and since where Z1 = 4 + j3, Z2 = 10 and Z3 = 12 − j5
1
XC = then 1 1
2π f C Admittance, Y1 = =
Z1 4 + j3
1 1
capacitance, C = = 1 4 − j3 4 − j3
2πfXC 2π(50)(100) = × = 2
4 + j3 4 − j3 4 + 32
106 = 0.160 − j0.120 siemens
= µF
2π(50)(100)
1 1
= 31.83 µF Admittance, Y2 = = = 0.10 siemens
Z2 10
(c) Magnitude of impedance, 1 1
Admittance, Y3 = =
 Z3 12 − j5
|Z| = [(60)2 + (−100)2 ] = 116.6

1 12 + j5 12 + j5
  = × = 2
−100 12 − j5 12 + j5 12 + 52
Phase angle, arg Z = tan −1 = −59◦ 2
60 = 0.0710 + j0.0296 siemens
V 240∠0◦ Total admittance, Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
(d) Current flowing, I = =
Z 116.6∠−59◦ 2 = (0.160 − j0.120) + (0.10)
= 2.058 ∠ 59◦ 2 A + (0.0710 + j0.0296)
The circuit and phasor diagrams are as shown in = 0.331 − j0.0904
Fig. 23.8(b).
= 0.343∠−15◦ 17 siemens
 COMPLEX NUMBERS 259

V Direction of resultant force

Current I = = VY
Z  
= (240∠0◦ )(0.343∠−15◦ 17 )
= 82.32 ∠ −15◦ 17 A
Problem 18. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of the three coplanar
forces given below, when they act at a point.
Force A, 10 N acting at 45◦ from the positive
horizontal axis.
Force B, 87 N acting at 120◦ from the positive
horizontal axis.
Force C, 15 N acting at 210◦ from the positive
horizontal axis.
The space diagram is shown in Fig. 23.10. The forces
may be written as complex numbers.
8N 10 N
210°
120°
45°
= tan−1
6.499
= 146◦ 46
−9.919
(since −9.919 + j6.499 lies in the second quadrant).
Now try the following exercise.
Exercise 104 Further problems on applica-
tions of complex numbers
1. Determine the resistance R and series induc-
tance L (or capacitance C) for each of
the following impedances assuming the
frequency to be 50 Hz.
(a) (3 + j8)  (b) (2 − j3) 
(c) j14  (d) 8∠−60◦ 
⎡ ⎤
(a) R = 3 , L = 25.5 mH
⎢ (b) R = 2 , C = 1061 µF ⎥ E
⎢ ⎥
⎢ (c) R = 0, L = 44.56 mH ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(d) R = 4 , C = 459.4 µF
2. Two impedances, Z1 = (3 + j6)  and
Z2 = (4 − j3)  are connected in series to
a supply voltage of 120 V. Determine the
magnitude of the current and its phase angle
relative to the voltage.
15 N [15.76 A, 23◦ 12 lagging]
Figure 23.10 3. If the two impedances in Problem 2 are
connected in parallel determine the current
Thus force A, fA = 10∠45◦ , force B, fB = 8∠120◦ flowing and its phase relative to the 120 V
and force C, fC = 15∠210◦ .
The resultant force
= f A + fB + fC
= 10∠45◦ + 8∠120◦ + 15∠210◦
= 10(cos 45◦ + j sin 45◦ ) + 8(cos 120◦
supply voltage. [27.25 A, 3◦ 22 lagging]
4. A series circuit consists of a 12  resistor, a
coil of inductance 0.10 H and a capacitance
of 160 µF. Calculate the current flowing
and its phase relative to the supply voltage
of 240 V, 50 Hz. Determine also the power
factor of the circuit.
[14.42 A, 43◦ 50 lagging, 0.721]
+ j sin 120◦ ) + 15(cos 210◦ + j sin 210◦ )
5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 23.11, deter-
= (7.071 + j7.071) + (−4.00 + j6.928) mine the current I flowing and its phase
relative to the applied voltage.
+ (−12.99 − j7.50) [14.6 A, 2◦ 30 leading]
= −9.919 + j6.499 6. Determine, using complex numbers, the
magnitude and direction of the resultant of
Magnitude of resultant force the coplanar forces given below, which are
 acting at a point. Force A, 5 N acting hori-
= [(−9.919)2 + (6.499)2 ] = 11.86 N zontally, Force B, 9 N acting at an angle of
260 COMPLEX NUMBERS
 
135◦ to force A, Force C, 12 N acting at an by: pψ = −
jh
(±jmψ). Determine an
angle of 240◦ to force A. 2π  
[8.394 N, 208◦ 40 from force A] mh
expression for p. ±
2π
9. An aircraft P flying at a constant height has
XC = 20 Ω R1 = 30 Ω
a velocity of (400 + j300) km/h. Another
aircraft Q at the same height has a veloc-
ity of (200 − j600) km/h. Determine (a) the
R2 = 40 Ω XL = 50 Ω velocity of P relative to Q, and (b) the veloc-
ity of Q relative to P. Express the answers
in polar form, correct to the nearest km/h.

R3 = 25 Ω (a) 922 km/h at 77.47◦

(b) 922 km/h at −102.53◦
l 10. Three vectors are represented by P, 2∠30◦ ,
Q, 3∠90◦ and R, 4∠−60◦ . Determine in
V = 200 V polar form the vectors represented by (a)
P + Q + R, (b) P − Q − R.
Figure 23.11

(a) 3.770∠8.17◦
(b) 1.488∠100.37◦
7. A delta-connected impedance ZA is 11. In a Schering bridge circuit,
given by:
ZX = (RX − jXCX ), Z2 = −jXC2 ,
Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 Z3 =
(R3 )(− jXC3 )
and Z4 = R4
ZA = (R3 − jXC3 )
Z2
1
Determine ZA in both Cartesian and polar where XC =
2π f C
form given Z1 = (10 + j0) ,
At balance: (ZX )(Z3 ) = (Z2 )(Z4 ).
Z2 = (0 − j10)  and Z3 = (10 + j10) .
C3 R4
[(10 + j20) , 22.36∠63.43◦ ] Show that at balance RX = and
C2
C2 R3
8. In the hydrogen atom, the angular momen- CX =
R4
tum, p, of the de Broglie wave is given
 Complex numbers

24
De Moivre’s theorem
= 2197∠22.14◦ (since 382.14◦
24.1 Introduction
≡ 382.14◦ − 360◦ = 22.14◦ )
From multiplication of complex numbers in polar
form, or 2197∠22◦ 8

(r ∠θ) × (r ∠θ) = r 2 ∠2θ Problem 2. Determine the value of (−7 + j5)4 ,

expressing the result in polar and rectangular
Similarly, (r ∠θ)×(r ∠θ)×(r ∠θ) = r 3∠3θ, and so on.
forms.
In general, De Moivre’s theorem states:

[r∠θ]n = rn∠nθ  5
(−7 + j5) = [(−7)2 + 52 ]∠ tan−1 E
−7
The theorem is true for all positive, negative and frac- √ ◦
tional values of n. The theorem is used to determine = 74∠144.46
powers and roots of complex numbers. (Note, by considering the Argand diagram, −7 + j5
must represent an angle in the second quadrant and
not in the fourth quadrant.)
24.2 Powers of complex numbers Applying De Moivre’s theorem:
√
For example [3∠20◦ ]4 = 34 ∠(4×20◦ ) = 81∠80◦ by (−7 + j5)4 = [ 74∠144.46◦ ]4
De Moivre’s theorem. √
= 744 ∠4 × 144.46◦
Problem 1. Determine, in polar form = 5476∠577.84◦
(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 (b) (−2 + j3)6 . = 5476∠217.84◦ or
5476∠217◦ 15 in polar form
(a) [2∠35◦ ]5 = 25 ∠(5 × 35◦ ), Since r ∠θ = r cos θ + jr sin θ,
from De Moivre’s theorem 5476∠217.84◦ = 5476 cos 217.84◦
= 32∠175◦ + j5476 sin 217.84◦
 3
(b) (−2 + j3) = [(−2)2 + (3)2 ]∠ tan−1 = −4325 − j3359
−2
√ ◦ i.e. (−7 + j5)4 = −4325 − j3359
= 13∠123.69 , since −2 + j3
lies in the second quadrant in rectangular form
√
(−2 + j3) = [ 13∠123.69◦ ]6
6
Now try the following exercise.
√
= ( 13)6 ∠(6 × 123.69◦ ),
Exercise 105 Further problems on powers
by De Moivre’s theorem of complex numbers
= 2197∠742.14◦
1. Determine in polar form (a) [1.5∠15◦ ]5
= 2197∠382.14◦ (since 742.14 (b) (1 + j2)6 .
≡ 742.14◦ − 360◦ = 382.14◦ ) [(a) 7.594∠75◦ (b) 125∠20◦ 37 ]
262 COMPLEX NUMBERS

2. Determine in polar and cartesian forms Hence

(a) [3∠41◦ ]4 (b) (−2 − j)5 .   
(5 + j12) = [13∠67.38◦ ] and [13∠427.38◦ ]
 
(a) 81∠164◦ , −77.86 + j22.33 1 1
(b) 55.90∠−47◦ 10 , 38 − j41 = [13∠67.38◦ ] 2 and [13∠427.38◦ ] 2
 
3. Convert (3 − j) into polar form and hence 1 1 ◦
= 13 ∠
2 × 67.38 and
evaluate (3 − 7
√j) , giving the answer in polar 2
form. [ 10∠−18◦ 26 , 3162∠−129◦ 2 ]  
1 1 ◦
In problems 4 to 7, express in both polar and 13 ∠
2 × 427.38
2
rectangular forms.
√ √
= 13∠33.69◦ and 13∠213.69◦
4. (6 + j5)3 [476.4∠119◦ 25 , −234 + j415]
= 3.61∠33◦ 41 and 3.61∠213◦ 41
5. (3 − j8)5
[45530∠12◦ 47 , 44400 + j10070] Thus, in polar form, the two roots are
3.61∠33◦ 41 and 3.61∠−146◦ 19 .
6. (−2 + j7)4 [2809∠63◦ 47 , 1241 + j2520] √ √
13∠33.69◦ = 13( cos 33.69◦ + j sin 33.69◦ )

(38.27 × 106 )∠176◦ 9 , = 3.0 + j2.0

7. (−16 − j9)6
106 (−38.18 + j2.570) √ √
13∠213.69◦ = 13( cos 213.69◦ + j sin 213.69◦ )
= −3.0 − j2.0

24.3 Roots of complex numbers Thus, in cartesian form the two roots are
±(3.0 + j2.0).
The square root of a complex number is determined From the Argand diagram shown in Fig. 24.1 the
by letting n = 1/2 in De Moivre’s theorem, two roots are seen to be 180◦ apart, which is always
true when finding square roots of complex numbers.
 1 1 1 √ θ
i.e. [r ∠θ] = [r ∠θ] 2 = r 2 ∠ θ = r ∠
2 2
Imaginary axis
There are two square roots of a real number, equal
in size but opposite in sign. j2

3.61
213° 41'
Problem 3. Determine the two square roots of 33° 41'
−3
the complex number (5 + j12) in polar and carte- 3 Real axis

sian forms and show the roots on an Argand 3.61

diagram. −j2

 12 Figure 24.1
(5 + j12) = [52 + 122 ]∠ arctan
5
= 13∠67.38◦
When determining square roots two solutions result. In general, when finding the nth root of a complex
To obtain the second solution one way is to number, there are n solutions. For example, there
express 13∠67.38◦ also as 13∠(67.38◦ + 360◦ ), i.e. are three solutions to a cube root, five solutions to a
13∠427.38◦ . When the angle is divided by 2 an angle fifth root, and so on. In the solutions to the roots of a
less than 360◦ is obtained. complex number, the modulus, r, is always the same,
 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM 263

√
but the arguments, θ, are different. It is shown in (−14 + j3) = 205∠167.905◦
Problem 3 that arguments are symmetrically spaced
on an Argand diagram and are (360/n)◦ apart, where *   
n is the number of the roots required. Thus if one of −2 −2 2
the solutions to the cube root of a complex number (−14 + j3) 5 = 205 5 ∠ − × 167.905◦
5
is, say, 5∠20◦ , the other two roots are symmetrically
spaced (360/3)◦ , i.e. 120◦ from this root and the
three roots are 5∠20◦ , 5∠140◦ and 5∠260◦ . = 0.3449∠−67.164◦

or 0.3449∠−67◦ 10
1
Problem 4. Find the roots of [(5 + j3)] 2 in There are five roots to this complex number,
rectangular form, correct to 4 significant figures.
 
−2 1 1
x 5 = = √
√ 2 5 2
x
(5 + j3) = 34∠30.96◦ x5

Applying De Moivre’s theorem: The roots are symmetrically displaced from one
another (360/5)◦ , i.e. 72◦ apart round an Argand
*
1 1 diagram. E
(5 + j3) 2 = 34 2 ∠ 21 × 30.96◦ Thus the required roots are 0.3449∠−67◦ 10 ,
0.3449∠4◦ 50 , 0.3449∠76◦ 50 , 0.3449∠148◦ 50
= 2.415∠15.48◦ or 2.415∠15◦ 29 and 0.3449∠220◦ 50 .
The second root may be obtained as shown above, Now try the following exercise.
i.e. having the same modulus but displaced (360/2)◦
from the first root.
Exercise 106 Further problems on the
1
Thus, (5 + j3) 2 ◦
= 2.415∠(15.48 + 180 ) ◦ roots of complex numbers
In Problems 1 to 3 determine the two square roots
= 2.415∠195.48◦ of the given complex numbers in cartesian form
In rectangular form: and show the results on an Argand diagram.
1. (a) 1 + j (b) j
2.415∠15.48◦ = 2.415 cos 15.48◦ 
(a) ±(1.099 + j0.455)

+ j2.415 sin 15.48◦ (b) ±(0.707 + j0.707)
= 2.327 + j0.6446 2. (a) 3 − j4 (b) −1 − j2 
and ◦
2.415∠195.48 = 2.415 cos 195.48 ◦ (a) ±(2 − j)
(b) ±(0.786 − j1.272)
+ j2.415 sin 195.48◦
= −2.327 − j0.6446 3π
3. (a) 7∠60◦ (b) 12∠
2 
1 (a) ±(2.291 + j1.323)
Hence [(5 + j3)] 2 = 2.415∠15.48◦ and
(b) ±(−2.449 + j2.449)
2.415∠195.48◦ or
± (2.327 + j0.6446). In Problems 4 to 7, determine the moduli and
arguments of the complex roots.
1
Problem 5. Express the roots of 4. (3 + j4) 3 
−2 Moduli 1.710, arguments 17◦ 43 ,
(−14 + j3) 5 in polar form.
137◦ 43 and 257◦ 43
264 COMPLEX NUMBERS

√
1 By definition, j = (−1), hence j2 = −1, j3 = −j,
5. (−2 + j) 4
⎡ ⎤ j4 = 1, j5 = j, and so on.
Moduli 1.223, arguments
⎣ 38◦ 22 , 128◦ 22 , ⎦ θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
Thus e jθ = 1 + jθ − − j + + j − · · ·
◦  ◦  2! 3! 4! 5!
218 22 and 308 22
Grouping real and imaginary terms gives:
1  
6. (−6 − j5) 2
θ2 θ4
e = 1−
jθ
+ − ···
Moduli 2.795, arguments 2! 4!
 
109◦ 54 , 289◦ 54 θ3 θ5
+j θ − + − ···
−2 3! 5!
7. (4 − j3) 3 
Moduli 0.3420, arguments 24◦ 35 , However, from equations (2) and (3):
144◦ 35 and 264◦ 35  
θ2 θ4
1− + − · · · = cos θ
8. For a transmission line, the characteristic 2! 4!
 
impedance Z0 and the propagation coefficient θ3 θ5
γ are given by: and θ− + − · · · = sin θ
 
3! 5!
R + jωL
Z0 = and
G + jωC Thus e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ (4)

γ = [(R + jωL)(G + jωC)]
Writing −θ for θ in equation (4), gives:
Given R = 25 , L = 5 × 10−3 H,
G = 80 × 10−6 siemens, C = 0.04 × 10−6 F e j(−θ) = cos(−θ) + j sin(−θ)
and ω = 2000 πrad/s, determine, in polar

Z0 = 390.2∠ − 10.43◦ , However, cos(−θ) = cos θ and sin(−θ) = −sin θ
form, Z0 and γ. γ = 0.1029∠61.92◦
Thus e −jθ = cos θ − j sin θ (5)

The polar form of a complex number z is:

24.4 The exponential form of a z = r(cos θ + j sin θ). But, from equation (4),
complex number cos θ + j sin θ = e jθ .

Certain mathematical functions may be expressed as

Therefore z = re jθ
power series (for example, by Maclaurin’s series—
see Chapter 8), three example being:
When a complex number is written in this way, it is
x2 x3 x4 x5 said to be expressed in exponential form.
(i) ex = 1 + x + + + + + · · · (1) There are therefore three ways of expressing a
2! 3! 4! 5!
x 3 x 5 x 7 complex number:
(ii) sin x = x − + − + ··· (2)
3!
2
5!
4
7!
6 1. z = (a + jb), called Cartesian or rectangu-
x x x lar form,
(iii) cos x = 1 − + − + ··· (3)
2! 4! 6!
2. z = r(cos θ + j sin θ) or r ∠θ, called polar form,
Replacing x in equation (1) by the imaginary number and
jθ gives:
3. z = re jθ called exponential form.
( jθ)2 ( jθ)3 ( jθ)4 ( jθ)5
e jθ = 1+jθ+ + + + +· · ·
2! 3! 4! 5! The exponential form is obtained from the polar
π
j2 θ2 j3 θ3 j4 θ4 j5 θ5 form. For example, 4∠30◦ becomes 4e j 6 in expo-
= 1 + jθ + + + + + ···
2! 3! 4! 5! nential form. (Note that in re jθ , θ must be in radians.)
 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM 265

Problem 6. Change (3 − j4) into (a) polar If z = re jθ then ln z = ln (re jθ )

form, (b) exponential form. = ln r + ln e jθ
i.e. ln z = ln r + jθ,
(a) (3 − j4) = 5∠−53.13◦ or 5∠−0.927 by the laws of logarithms
in polar form
−j0.927 (a) Thus if z = 4e j1.3 then ln z = ln (4e j1.3 )
(b) (3 − j4) = 5∠−0.927 = 5e = ln 4 + j1.3
in exponential form (or 1.386 + j1.300) in Cartesian form.
(b) (1.386 + j1.300) = 1.90∠43.17◦ or 1.90∠0.753
in polar form.
Problem 7. Convert 7.2e j1.5 into rectangular
form.
Problem 11. Given z = 3e1−j , find ln z in polar
form.
7.2e j1.5 = 7.2∠1.5 rad(= 7.2∠85.94◦ ) in polar form
= 7.2 cos 1.5 + j7.2 sin 1.5 If z = 3e1−j , then
ln z = ln (3e1−j )
= (0.509 + j7.182) in rectangular form E
= ln 3 + ln e1−j
= ln 3 + 1 − j
π
1+j 3
Problem 8. Express z = 2e in Cartesian = (1 + ln 3) − j
form.
= 2.0986 − j1.0000
= 2.325∠−25.48◦ or 2.325∠−0.445
 π
z = (2e1 ) e j 3 by the laws of indices
π Problem 12. Determine, in polar form,
= (2e1 )∠ (or 2e∠60◦ )in polar form ln(3 + j4).
3
 π π
= 2e cos + j sin
3 3
= (2.718 + j4.708) in Cartesian form
Problem 9. Change 6e2−j3 into (a + jb) form.
6e2−j3 = (6e2 )(e−j3 ) by the laws of indices
= 6e2 ∠−3 rad (or 6e2 ∠−171.890 )
in polar form
= 6e2 [cos(−3) + j sin(−3)]
= (−43.89 − j6.26) in (a + jb) form
Problem 10. If z = 4e j1.3 , determine ln z (a) in
Cartesian form, and (b) in polar form.
ln(3 + j4) = ln[5∠0.927] = ln[5e j0.927 ]
= ln 5 + ln(e j0.927 )
= ln 5 + j0.927
= 1.609 + j0.927
= 1.857∠29.95◦ or 1.857∠0.523
Now try the following exercise.
Exercise 107 Further problems on the
exponential form of complex numbers
1. Change (5 + j3) into exponential form.
[5.83e j0.54 ]
2. Convert (−2.5 + j4.2) into exponential form.
[4.89e j2.11 ]
3. Change 3.6e j2 into cartesian form.
[−1.50 + j3.27]
266 COMPLEX NUMBERS

⎡ ⎤
π
4. Express 2e3+j 6 in (a + jb) form. (a) 2.06∠35.26◦ or
[34.79 + j20.09] ⎢ 2.06∠0.615 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(b) 4.11∠66.96◦ or
5. Convert 1.7e1.2−j2.5 into rectangular form. 4.11∠1.17
[−4.52 − j3.38]
9. When displaced electrons oscillate about an
6. If z = 7e j2.1 , determine ln z (a) in Cartesian equilibrium position the displacement x is
form, and (b) in polar ⎡ form. ⎤ given by the equation:
(a) ln 7 + j2.1 3 √ 4
(4mf −h2 )
⎣(b) 2.86∠47.18◦ or ⎦ ht
− 2m + j 2m−a t
2.86∠0.82 x = Ae
Determine the real part of x in terms of t,
7. Given z = 4e1.5−j2 , determine ln z in polar assuming (4mf − h2 ) is positive.
form. [3.51∠−34.72◦ or 3.51∠−0.61] 
ht
√ 
− 2m (4mf − h2 )
8. Determine in polar form (a) ln(2 + j5) Ae cos 2m − a t
(b) ln(−4 − j3)
 Matrices and Determinants

25
The theory of matrices and determinants

25.1 Matrix notation 25.2 Addition, subtraction and

multiplication of matrices
Matrices and determinants are mainly used for the
solution of linear simultaneous equations. The the- (i) Addition of matrices
ory of matrices and determinants is dealt with in this
chapter and this theory is then used in Chapter 26 to Corresponding elements in two matrices may be
solve simultaneous equations. added to form a single matrix.
The coefficients of the variables for linear simul-
taneous equations may be shown in matrix form. The
Problem 1. Add the matrices
coefficients of x and y in the simultaneous equations    
2 −1 −3 0
x + 2y = 3 (a) −7 4 and 7 −4 and
4x − 5y = 6    
3 1 −4 2 7 −5
  (b) 4 3 1 and −2 1 0
1 2
become 4 −5 in matrix notation. 1 4 −3 6 3 4

Similarly, the coefficients of p, q and r in the (a) Adding the corresponding elements gives:
equations    
2 −1 −3 0
1.3p − 2.0q + r = 7 −7 4 + 7 −4
 
3.7p + 4.8q − 7r = 3 2 + (−3) −1 + 0
= −7 + 7 4 + (−4)
4.1p + 3.8q + 12r = −6  
−1 −1
  =
1.3 −2.0 1 0 0
become 3.7 4.8 −7 in matrix form. (b) Adding the corresponding elements gives:
4.1 3.8 12    
The numbers within a matrix are called an array and 3 1 −4 2 7 −5
the coefficients forming the array are called the ele- 4 3 1 + −2 1 0
ments of the matrix. The number of rows in a matrix 1 4 −3 6 3 4
 
is usually specified by m and the number of columns 3+2 1 + 7 −4 + (−5)
by n and
 a matrix  referred to as an ‘m by n’ matrix. = 4 + (−2) 3 + 1 1+0
2 3 6 1+6 4 + 3 −3 + 4
Thus, 4 5 7 is a ‘2 by 3’ matrix. Matrices can-  
5 8 −9
not be expressed as a single numerical value, but they = 2 4 1
can often be simplified or combined, and unknown 7 7 1
element values can be determined by comparison
methods. Just as there are rules for addition, sub-
traction, multiplication and division of numbers in (ii) Subtraction of matrices
arithmetic, rules for these operations can be applied
to matrices and the rules of matrices are such that If A is a matrix and B is another matrix, then (A − B)
they obey most of those governing the algebra of is a single matrix formed by subtracting the elements
numbers. of B from the corresponding elements of A.
268 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
 
−3 + 2 − 1 0 + ( − 1) − 0
Problem 2. Subtract = 7 + (−7) − (−2) −4 + 4 − (−4)
   
−3 0 2 −1  
(a) 7 −4 from −7 4 and −2 −1
= 2 4 as obtained previously
   
2 7 −5 3 1 −4
(b) −2 1 0 from 4 3 1
6 3 4 1 4 −3 (iii) Multiplication

When a matrix is multiplied by a number, called

To find matrix A minus matrix B, the elements of scalar multiplication, a single matrix results in
B are taken from the corresponding elements of A. which each element of the original matrix has been
Thus: multiplied by the number.
   
2 −1 −3 0  
(a) −7 4 − 7 −4 −3 0
  Problem 4. If A = 7 −4 ,
2 − (−3) −1 − 0  
= −7 − 7 4 − (−4)   1 0
  2 −1
B = −7 4 and C = −2 −4 find
5 −1
= −14 8 2A − 3B + 4C.
   
3 1 −4 2 7 −5
(b) 4 3 1 − −2 1 0 For scalar multiplication, each element is multiplied
1 4 −3 6 3 4 by the scalar quantity, hence
     
3−2 1 − 7 −4 − (−5)
−3 0 −6 0
= 4 − (−2) 3 − 1 1−0 2A = 2 7 −4 = 14 −8
1−6 4 − 3 −3 − 4
     
1 −6 1 2 −1 6 −3
= 6 2 1 3B = 3 −7 4 = −21 12
−5 1 −7    
1 0 4 0
and 4C = 4 −2 −4 = −8 −16
Problem 3. If
    Hence 2A − 3B + 4C
−3 0 2 −1      
A= 7 −4 , B = −7 4 and −6 0 6 −3 4 0
= 14 −8 − −21 12 + −8 −16
 
1 0  
C = −2 −4 find A + B − C. −6 − 6 + 4 0 − (−3) + 0
= 14 − (−21) + (−8) −8 − 12 + (−16)
 
  −8 3
−1 −1 = 27
A+B = −36
0 0
(from Problem 1)
    When a matrix A is multiplied by another matrix B, a
−1 −1 1 0
Hence, A + B − C = 0 0 − −2 −4
single matrix results in which elements are obtained
  from the sum of the products of the corresponding
−1 − 1 −1 − 0 rows of A and the corresponding columns of B.
= 0 − (−2) 0 − (−4) Two matrices A and B may be multiplied together,
  provided the number of elements in the rows of
−2 −1
= 2 4
matrix A are equal to the number of elements in the
columns of matrix B. In general terms, when multi-
Alternatively A + B − C plying a matrix of dimensions (m by n) by a matrix of
      dimensions (n by r), the resulting matrix has dimen-
−3 0 2 −1 1 0 sions (m by r). Thus a 2 by 3 matrix multiplied by a
= 7 −4 + −7 4 − −2 −4 3 by 1 matrix gives a matrix of dimensions 2 by 1.
 THE THEORY OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 269

     
2 3 −5 7 3 4 0
Problem 5. If A = 1 −4 and B = −3 4 Problem 7. If A = −2 6 −3 and
find A × B. 7 −4 1
 
2 −5
  B= 5 −6 , find A × B.
C C −1 −7
Let A × B = C where C = C11 C12
21 22

C11 is the sum of the products of the first row ele- The sum of the products of the elements of each row
ments of A and the first column elements of B taken of the first matrix and the elements of each column of
one at a time, the second matrix are taken one at a time. Thus:
   
i.e. C11 = (2 × (−5)) + (3 × (−3)) = −19 3 4 0 2 −5
−2 6 −3 × 5 −6
C12 is the sum of the products of the first row ele- 7 −4 1 −1 −7
⎛ ⎞
ments of A and the second column elements of B, [(3 × 2) [(3 × (−5))
taken one at a time, ⎜ + (4 × 5) +(4 × (−6)) ⎟
⎜ + (0 × (−1))] +(0 × (−7))] ⎟
i.e. C12 = (2 × 7) + (3 × 4) = 26 ⎜ ⎟
⎜[(−2 × 2) [(−2 × (−5)) ⎟
⎜ ⎟
C21 is the sum of the products of the second row ⎜
= ⎜ + (6 × 5) +(6 × (−6)) ⎟ ⎟
elements of A and the first column elements of B, ⎜ + (−3 × (−1))] +(−3 × (−7))]⎟
⎜ ⎟
taken one at a time, ⎜[(7 × 2) [(7 × (−5)) ⎟
⎝ + (−4 × 5) +(−4 × (−6)) ⎠
i.e. C21 = (1 × ( − 5)) + (−4 × (−3)) = 7
+ (1 × (−1))] +(1 × (−7))]
Finally, C22 is the sum of the products of the second  
26 −39 F
row elements of A and the second column elements = 29 −5
of B, taken one at a time, −7 −18
i.e. C22 = (1 × 7) + ((−4) × 4) = −9
  Problem 8. Determine
−19 26    
Thus, A × B = 7 −9 1 0 3 2 2 0
2 1 2 × 1 3 2
1 3 1 3 2 0
Problem 6. Simplify
   
3 4 0 2 The sum of the products of the elements of each row
−2 6 −3 × 5 of the first matrix and the elements of each column of
7 −4 1 −1 the second matrix are taken one at a time. Thus:
   
1 0 3 2 2 0
2 1 2 × 1 3 2
The sum of the products of the elements of each 1 3 1 3 2 0
row of the first matrix and the elements of the second ⎛ ⎞
matrix, (called a column matrix), are taken one at a [(1 × 2) [(1 × 2) [(1 × 0)
time. Thus: ⎜ + (0 × 1) + (0 × 3) + (0 × 2) ⎟
⎜ + (3 × 3)] + (3 × 2)] + (3 × 0)]⎟
    ⎜ ⎟
3 4 0 2 ⎜[(2 × 2) [(2 × 2) [(2 × 0) ⎟
−2 6 −3 × ⎜ ⎟
5 =⎜ ⎜ + (1 × 1) + (1 × 3) + (1 × 2) ⎟
7 −4 1 −1 ⎟
  ⎜ + (2 × 3)] + (2 × 2)] + (2 × 0)]⎟
(3 × 2) + (4 × 5) + (0 × (−1)) ⎜ ⎟
⎜[(1 × 2) [(1 × 2) [(1 × 0) ⎟
= (−2 × 2) + (6 × 5) + (−3 × (−1)) ⎝ + (3 × 1) + (3 × 3) + (3 × 2) ⎠
(7 × 2) + (−4 × 5) + (1 × (−1)) + (1 × 3)] + (1 × 2)] + (1 × 0)]
   
26 11 8 0
= 29 = 11 11 2
−7 8 13 6
270 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

⎛ 3⎞
In algebra, the commutative law of multiplication  
states that a × b = b × a. For matrices, this law is 3.1 2.4 6.4
⎜ ⎟
only true in a few special cases, and in general A × B F = −1.6 3.8 −1.9 G = ⎝ 4⎠
5.3 3.4 −4.8 2
is not equal to B × A. 1
5
      
4 1 0
2 3 −2
H= −11 K = 0 1
Problem 9. If A = 1 0 and 5 J=
  7 1 0
2 3
B = 0 1 show that A × B  = B × A. Addition, subtraction and multiplication
    In Problems 1 to 12, perform the matrix opera-
2 3 2 3 tion stated.
A×B= 1 0 × 0 1 ⎡⎛ 1
  1 ⎞⎤
3 −
[(2 × 2) + (3 × 0)] [(2 × 3) + (3 × 1)] ⎢⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎥
= [(1 × 2) + (0 × 0)] [(1 × 3) + (0 × 1)] 1. A + B ⎣⎝ 1 2 ⎠⎦
  −4 6
4 9 3 5
= 2 3 ⎡⎛ ⎞⎤
1
    7 −1 6
2 3 2 3 ⎢⎜ 2⎟ ⎥
B×A= 0 1 × 1 0 ⎢⎜ 1 ⎟⎥
2. D + E ⎢⎜ 3 3 7⎟ ⎥
  ⎢⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 3
2 ⎦
⎠
[(2 × 2) + (3 × 1)] [(2 × 3) + (3 × 0)]
= [(0 × 2) + (1 × 1)] [(0 × 3) + (1 × 0)] 4 7 −3
5
  ⎡⎛ 1
7 6 2 ⎞⎤
= 1 0 2 −1
⎢⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎥
    3. A − B ⎣⎝ 2
4 9 7 6 3 ⎠⎦
Since 2 3  = 1 0 , then A × B  = B × A −3 7
3 5
 
4.8 −7.73̇
4. A + B − C
Now try the following exercise. −6.83̇ 10.3
 
Exercise 108 Further problems on addition, 18.0 −1.0
5. 5A + 6B −22.0 31.4
subtraction and multiplication of matrices
In Problems 1 to 13, the matrices A to K are: 6. 2D + 3E − 4F 
⎛ 1 

  2⎞ 4.6 −5.6 −12.1

3 −1 ⎜ 17.4 −9.2 28.6
A = −4 B= ⎝ 2 3⎟ −14.2
3⎠
7 0.4 13.0
1
− −  
3 5 −11
  7. A × H 43
−1.3 7.4
C= ⎡⎛ 5
2.5 −3.9 3 ⎞⎤
  ⎢⎜ 6
1 2
4 −7 6 8. A × B 5 ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ ⎠⎦
D = −2 4 0 1 13
5 7 −4 −4 −6
3 15
⎛ ⎞  
1 −6.4 26.1
3 6 9. A × C 22.7 −56.9
⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜
E =⎜ 5 − 7⎟  

⎟ 135
⎝ 3
3⎠ −52
10. D × J
−1 0 −85
5
 THE THEORY OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 271

⎡⎛ ⎞⎤
1  
⎢⎜ 2
3 6
⎟⎥ (1 + j) j2
⎢⎜ 2 ⎟⎥ Problem 11. Evaluate  − j3 (1 − j4)
11. E × K ⎢⎜ 12 − ⎟⎥
⎢⎜ 3⎟ ⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
−  
0 (1 + j) j2
5 
 
 − j3 (1 − j4) = (1 + j)(1 − j4) − ( j2)(− j3)
55.4 3.4 10.1
12. D × F −12.6 10.4 −20.4 = 1 − j4 + j − j2 4 + j2 6
−16.9 25.0 37.9 = 1 − j4 + j − (−4) + (−6)
13. Show that A⎡× C  = C ×
A  ⎤ since from Chapter 23, j2 = −1
−6.4 26.1 = 1 − j4 + j + 4 − 6
⎢A × C = 22.7 −56.9 ⎥
⎢  ⎥ = −1 − j3
⎢ −33.5 −53.1 ⎥
⎢C × A = ⎥
⎣ 23.1 −29.8 ⎦  
5∠30◦ 2∠−60◦ 
Hence they are not equal Problem 12. Evaluate 3∠60◦ 4∠−90◦ 

25.3 The unit matrix  

5∠30◦ 2∠−60◦ 
  ◦ ◦
3∠60◦ 4∠−90◦  = (5∠30 )(4∠−90 )
A unit matrix, I, is one in which all elements
of the leading diagonal (\) have a value of 1 and − (2∠−60◦ )(3∠60◦ )
all other elements have a value of 0. Multiplication = (20∠−60◦ ) − (6∠0◦ )
of a matrix by I is the equivalent of multiplying by
1 in arithmetic. = (10 − j17.32) − (6 + j0) F
= (4 − j17.32) or 17.78∠−77◦
25.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2 Now try the following exercise.
matrix
  Exercise 109 Further problems on 2 by 2
a b determinants
The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix, c d is  
defined as (ad − bc). 3 −1
1. Calculate the determinant of −4 7
The elements of the determinant of a matrix are
written
 between  Thus, the determinant
 vertical lines. [17]
3 −4 3 −4 2. Calculate the determinant of
  ⎛ 1
of 1 6 is written as 1 6 and is equal to 2⎞  
(3 × 6) − (−4 × 1), i.e. 18 − (−4) or 22. Hence the ⎜ 2 3⎟ 7
⎝ 1 −
determinant of a matrix can be
 expressed as a single 3⎠ 90
3 −4 − −
numerical value, i.e. 1 
6 = 22.
3 5
3. Calculate
 the determinant
 of
−1.3 7.4
Problem 10. Determine the value of 2.5 −3.9 [−13.43]
   
3 −2  j2 −j3
   [−5 + j3]
7 4 4. Evaluate (1 + j) j 
 
 2∠40◦ 5∠−20◦ 
  
5. Evaluate 7∠−32◦ 4∠−117◦ 
3 −2
   
7 4 = (3 × 4) − (−2 × 7) (−19.75 + j19.79)
= 12 − (−14) = 26 or 27.95∠134.94◦
272 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

(iii) multiplying this new matrix

 by the reciprocal of
25.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a p q
2 by 2 matrix the determinant of r s
 
The inverse of matrix A is A−1 such that A × A−1 = I, 1 2
the unit matrix.  Thus the inverse of matrix 3 4 is

1 2
Let matrix A be 3 4 and let the inverse matrix,   −2 1

1 4 −2
 
1 =
3 1
−1 a b 4 − 6 −3 −
A be c d . 2 2
as obtained previously.
Then, since A × A−1 = I,
     
1 2 a b 1 0 Problem 13. Determine the inverse of
 
3 4 × c d = 0 1 3 −2
Multiplying the matrices on the left hand side, gives 7 4
   
a + 2c b + 2d 1 0  
3a + 4c 3b + 4d = 0 1 p q
The inverse of matrix r s is obtained by inter-
Equating corresponding elements gives: changing the positions of p and s, changing the signs
of q and r and
 multiplying
 by the reciprocal of the
b + 2d = 0, i.e. b = −2d p q
4 determinant r s . Thus, the inverse of
and 3a + 4c = 0, i.e. a = − c
3    
3 −2 1 4 2
4 = (3 × 4) − ( − 2 × 7) −7 3
Substituting for a and b gives:
⎛ ⎞ 7
4   ⎛ ⎞
− c + 2c −2d + 2d 2 1
⎜  3  ⎟ 1 0  
⎝ ⎠= 0 1 42 ⎜ 13 13 ⎟
4
3 − c + 4c 3(−2d) + 4d
1 = =⎜
⎝
⎟
3 26 −7 3 −7 3 ⎠
    26 26
2
c 0 1 0
i.e. 3 = 0 1
0 −2d Now try the following exercise.

2 3
showing that c = 1, i.e. c = and −2d = 1, i.e. Exercise 110 Further problems on the
3 2 inverse of 2 by 2 matrices
1  
d =− 3 −1
2 1. Determine the inverse of −4
4 7
Since b = −2d, b = 1 and since a = − c, a = −2. ⎡⎛ ⎞⎤
3 7 1
    ⎢⎜ 17 17 ⎟⎥
1 2 a b ⎢⎜ ⎟⎥
Thus the inverse of matrix 3 4 is c d that ⎣⎝ 4 3 ⎠⎦
 
−2 1 17 17
is, 3 1 ⎛ ⎞
− 1 2
2 2 ⎜ 2 3⎟
There is, however, a quicker method of obtaining 2. Determine the inverse of ⎜
⎝ 1
⎟
3⎠
the inverse of a 2 by
 2 matrix.
 − −
p q ⎡⎛ 3 5 ⎞⎤
For any matrix r s the inverse may be 5 4
⎢⎜ 7 7 8 ⎟⎥
7 ⎟⎥
obtained by: ⎢⎜
⎣⎝ 2 3 ⎠⎦
(i) interchanging the positions of p and s, −4 −6
(ii) changing the signs of q and r, and 7 7
 THE THEORY OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 273
 
−1.3 7.4 The value of this determinant is the sum of the prod-
3. Determine the inverse of 2.5 −3.9 ucts of the elements and their cofactors, of any row
⎡  ⎤ or of any column. If the second row or second col-
0.290 0.551 umn is selected, the element 0 will make the product
⎣ 0.186 0.097 ⎦ of the element and its cofactor zero and reduce the
correct to 3 dec. places amount of arithmetic to be done to a minimum.
Supposing a second row expansion is selected.
The minor of 2 is the value of the determinant
remaining when the row and column containing the
25.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3 2 (i.e. the second row and the first column),
 is cov-
 4 −1
matrix ered up. Thus the cofactor of element 2 is −3 −2
(i) The minor of an element of a 3 by 3 matrix is i.e. −11. The sign of element 2 is minus, (see (ii)
the value of the 2 by 2 determinant obtained by above), hence the cofactor of element 2, (the signed-
covering up the row and column containing that minor)
  +11. Similarly the minor of element 7 is
is
3 4 
element.  

1 2 3
 1 −3 i.e. −13, and its cofactor is +13. Hence the
Thus for the matrix 4 5 6 the minor of value of the sum of the products of the elements and
7 8 9 their cofactors is 2 × 11 + 7 × 13, i.e.,
 
element 4 is obtained bycovering the row 3 4 −1
 
1 2 0 7 = 2(11) + 0 + 7(13) = 113
(4 5 6) and the column 4 , leaving the 2 by 1 −3 −2
  7 The same result will be obtained whichever row or
2 3
2 determinant 8 9, i.e. the minor of element column is selected. For example, the third column
F
expansion
 is     
4 is (2 × 9) − (3 × 8) = −6. 2 0 3 4 3 4
  
(−1) 1 −3 − 7 1 −3 + (−2) 2 0
(ii) The sign of a minor depends on its posi-
tion within
 the matrix, the sign pattern = 6 + 91 + 16 = 113, as obtained previously.
+ − +
being − + − . Thus the signed-minor  
 1 4 −3
+ − +  
  Problem 15. Evaluate −5 2 6
1 2 3 −1 −4 2
of element 4 in the matrix 4 5 6 is
  7 8 9  
2 3  1 4 −3
− 8 9 = −(−6) = 6.  
Using the first row: −5 2 6
−1 −4 2
The signed-minor of an element is called the      
 2 6 −5 6 −5 2
cofactor of the element. = 1 −4 2 − 4 −1 2 + (−3) −1 −4
(iii) The value of a 3 by 3 determinant is the = (4 + 24) − 4(−10 + 6) − 3(20 + 2)
sum of the products of the elements and their
cofactors of any row or any column of the = 28 + 16 − 66 = −22
corresponding 3 by 3 matrix.  
 1 4 −3
 
There are thus six different ways of evaluating a 3×3 Using the second column: −5 2 6
determinant—and all should give the same value. −1 −4 2
     
−5 6  1 −3  1 −3
 
= −4 −1 2 + 2 −1  
Problem 14. Find the value of
  2 −(−4) −5 6
3 4 −1
  = −4(−10 + 6) + 2(2 − 3) + 4(6 − 15)
2 0 7
1 −3 −2 = 16 − 2 − 36 = −22
274 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
 
8 −2 −10
Problem 16. Determine the value of  
4. Evaluate 2 −3 −2 [−328]
  6 3 8
 j2 (1 + j) 3
 
(1 − j) 1 j 5. Calculate the determinant of
 0 5
j4  
3.1 2.4 6.4
−1.6 3.8 −1.9 [−242.83]
Using the first column, the value of the determinant is: 5.3 3.4 −4.8
 
 j2 2 j 
     
1 j  (1 + j) 3 6. Evaluate (1 + j) 1 −3 [−2 − j]
(j2) j4 5  − (1 − j) 
 j4 5
 5 −j4 0 
   
(1 + j) 3 3∠60◦ j2 1 
+ (0)  1  
j 7. Evaluate  0 (1 + j) 2∠30◦ 
 0 2 j5 
= j2(5 − j2 4) − (1 − j)(5 + j5 − j12) + 0  
26.94∠−139.52◦ or
= j2(9) − (1 − j)(5 − j7) (−20.49 − j17.49)

= j18 − [5 − j7 − j5 + j2 7] 8. Find the eigenvalues λ that satisfy the follow-

ing equations:
= j18 − [−2 − j12]  
(2 − λ) 2 

= j18 + 2 + j12 = 2 + j30 or 30.07∠86.19◦ (a) −1 (5 − λ) = 0
 
(5 − λ) 7 −5 
 
Now try the following exercise. (b) 0 (4 − λ) −1  = 0
 2 8 (−3 − λ)
Exercise 111 Further problems on 3 by 3 (You may need to refer to chapter 1, pages
determinants 8–11, for the solution of cubic equations).
1. Find the matrix of minors of [(a) λ = 3 or 4 (b) λ = 1 or 2 or 3]
 
4 −7 6
−2 4 0
5 7 −4
 

−16 8 −34 25.7 The inverse or reciprocal of a

−14 −46 63 3 by 3 matrix
−24 12 2
The adjoint of a matrix A is obtained by:
2. Find the matrix of cofactors of
  (i) forming a matrix B of the cofactors of A, and
4 −7 6
−2 4 0 (ii) transposing matrix B to give BT , where BT is
5 7 −4 the matrix obtained by writing the rows of B
 
as the columns of BT . Then adj A = BT .
−16 −8 −34
14 −46 −63 The inverse of matrix A, A−1 is given by
−24 −12 2
adj A
3. Calculate the determinant of A−1 =
  |A|
4 −7 6
−2 4 0 [−212] where adj A is the adjoint of matrix A and |A| is the
5 7 −4 determinant of matrix A.
 THE THEORY OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 275

adjoint
Problem 17. Determine the inverse of the Inverse =
⎛ ⎞ determinant
3 4 −1  
matrix ⎝2 0 7⎠ −17 9 15
The matrix of cofactors is 23 −13 −21
1 −3 −2 18 −10 −16
The transpose
 of the matrix of
 cofactors (i.e. the
adj A −17
The inverse of matrix A, A−1 = 23 18
|A| adjoint) is 9 −13 −10
15 −21 −16
The adjoint of A is found by:  
1 5 −2
(i) obtaining the matrix of the cofactors of the The determinant of 3 −1 4
elements, and −3 6 −7

(ii) transposing this matrix. = 1(7 − 24) − 5(−21 + 12) − 2(18 − 3)

 
 0 7 = −17 + 45 − 30 = −2

The cofactor of element 3 is + −3 −2 = 21.
 
  1 5 −2
2 7 Hence the inverse of 3 −1 4

The cofactor of element 4 is − 1 −2 = 11, and −3 6 −7
so on.  
  −17 23 18
21 11 −6 9 −13 −10
The matrix of cofactors is 11 −5 13 15 −21 −16
28 −23 −8 = F
−2
The transpose of the matrix of cofactors, i.e. the  
adjoint of the matrix,
 is obtained by writing
 the rows 8.5 −11.5 −9
21 11 28 = −4.5 6.5 5
as columns, and is 11 −5 −23 −7.5 10.5 8
−6 13 −8
Now try the following exercise.
From Problem 14, the determinant of
  Exercise 112 Further problems on the
3 4 −1
  inverse of a 3 by 3 matrix
2 0 7 is 113.
1 −3 −2 1. Write down the transpose of
   
3 4 −1 4 −7 6
Hence the inverse of 2 0 7 is −2 4 0
1 −3 −2 5 7 −4
 

  4 −2 5
21 11 28 −7 4 7
11 −5 −23   6 0 −4
−6 13 −8 1 21 11 28
or 11 −5 −23
113 113 −6 13 −8 2. Write down the transpose of
⎛ ⎞
3 6 21
Problem 18. Find the inverse of ⎝ 5 − 2 7⎠
3
  −1 0 35 ⎡⎛ ⎞⎤
1 5 −2
3 5 −1
3 −1 4
−3 6 −7 ⎣⎝ 6 − 23 0⎠⎦
1 3
2 7 5
276 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

3. Determine the adjoint of 5. Find the inverse of

   
4 −7 6 4 −7 6
−2 4 0 −2 4 0
5 7 −4 5 7 −4
 

−16 14 −24  

−8 −46 −12 1 −16 14 −24

−34 −63 2 − −8 −46 −12
212 −34 −63 2
4. Determine the adjoint of ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ 3 6 21
3 6 21 6. Find the inverse of ⎝ 5 − 23 7⎠
⎝ 5 − 2 7⎠ −1 0 35
3
−1 0 35 ⎡ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
⎡⎛ 2 ⎞⎤ − 5 −3 35 42 13
− 5 −3 35 42 13 ⎢ 15 ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎢⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎣− ⎝−10 2 103
−18 21 ⎠⎦
⎣⎝−10 2 10 3
−18 21 ⎠⎦ 923
− 23 −6 −32
− 23 −6 −32
 Matrices and Determinants

26
The solution of simultaneous
equations by matrices and
determinants
(ii) The matrix equation is
26.1 Solution of simultaneous      
equations by matrices 3 5 x 7
4 −3 × y = 19
(a) The procedure for solving linear simultaneous  
3 5
equations in two unknowns using matrices is: (iii) The inverse of matrix 4 −3 is
(i) write the equations in the form  
a1 x + b1 y = c1
1 −3 −5
3 × (−3) − 5 × 4 −4 3
a2 x + b2 y = c2 ⎛3 ⎞
5
(ii) write the matrix equation corresponding to
these equations, ⎜
i.e. ⎝ 29 29 ⎟
⎠
F
      4 −3
a b x c
i.e. a1 b1 × y = c1 29 29
2 2 2
 
a 1 b1 (iv) Multiplying each side of (ii) by (iii) and remem-
(iii) determine the inverse matrix of a b bering that A × A−1 = I, the unit matrix, gives:
2 2 ⎛3 5⎞  
    
1 b2 −b1 1 0 x ⎜ 29 29 ⎟ 7
i.e.
a1 b2 − b1 a2 −a2 a1 0 1 y = ⎝ 4 −3 ⎠ × 19
(from Chapter 25) 29 29
⎛ 21 95 ⎞
(iv) multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse   +
matrix, and x ⎜ 29 29 ⎟
Thus y = ⎝ ⎠
(v) solve for x and y by equating corresponding 28 57
elements. −
29 29
   
x 4
Problem 1. Use matrices to solve the simulta-
i.e. y = −1
neous equations: (v) By comparing corresponding elements:
3x + 5y − 7 = 0 (1) x=4 and y = −1
4x − 3y − 19 = 0 (2) Checking:
equation (1),
(i) Writing the equations in the a1 x+b1 y = c form 3 × 4 + 5 × (−1) − 7 = 0 = RHS
gives:
equation (2),
3x + 5y = 7
4 × 4 − 3 × (−1) − 19 = 0 = RHS
4x − 3y = 19
278 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

(b) The procedure for solving linear simulta- The adjoint of A is the transpose of the matrix of
neous equations in three unknowns using the cofactors of the elements (see Chapter 25).
matrices is: The matrix of cofactors is
 
(i) write the equations in the form 14 16 5
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 0 −5 5
7 −2 −5
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 and the transpose of this matrix gives
 
(ii) write the matrix equation corresponding 14 0 7
to these equations, i.e. adj A = 16 −5 −2
      5 5 −5
a1 b1 c1 x d1
a2 b2 c2 × y = d2 The determinant of A, i.e. the sum of the prod-
a3 b3 c3 z d3 ucts of elements and their cofactors, using a first
row expansion is
(iii) determine the inverse matrix of      
  −3 4 2 4 2 −3
a1 b1 c1  
1−2 −2 − 1 3 −2 + 1 3 −2
a2 b2 c2 (see Chapter 25)
a3 b3 c3
= (1 × 14) − (1 × (−16)) + (1 × 5) = 35
(iv) multiply each side of (ii) by the inverse
Hence the inverse of A,
matrix, and  
(v) solve for x, y and z by equating the −1 1 14 0 7
A = 16 −5 −2
corresponding elements. 35 5 5 −5
(iv) Multiplying each side of (ii) by (iii), and
Problem 2. Use matrices to solve the simulta- remembering that A × A−1 = I, the unit matrix,
neous equations: gives
x+y+z−4=0 (1)    
1 0 0 x
2x − 3y + 4z − 33 = 0 (2) 0 1 0 × y
3x − 2y − 2z − 2 = 0 (3) 0 0 1 z
   
1 14 0 7 4
(i) Writing the equations in the a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = = 16 −5 −2 × 33
35 5 5 −5 2
d1 form gives:  
x+y+z =4 x 1
y =
2x − 3y + 4z = 33 z 35
3x − 2y − 2z = 2  
(14 × 4) + (0 × 33) + (7 × 2)
(ii) The matrix equation is × (16 × 4) + ((−5) × 33) + ((−2) × 2)
      (5 × 4) + (5 × 33) + ((−5) × 2)
1 1 1 x 4
2 −3 4 × y = 33  
1 70
3 −2 −2 z 2 = −105
35 175
(iii) The inverse matrix of  
  2
1 1 1
A = 2 −3 4 = −3
3 −2 −2 5

is given by (v) By comparing corresponding elements, x = 2,

y = −3, z = 5, which can be checked in the
adj A original equations.
A−1 =
|A|
 THE SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS BY MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 279

8. In a mechanical system, acceleration ẍ,

Now try the following exercise. velocity ẋ and distance x are related by the
simultaneous equations:
Exercise 113 Further problems on solving 3.4ẍ + 7.0ẋ − 13.2x = −11.39
simultaneous equations using matrices
−6.0ẍ + 4.0ẋ + 3.5x = 4.98
In Problems 1 to 5 use matrices to solve the
simultaneous equations given. 2.7ẍ + 6.0ẋ + 7.1x = 15.91

1. 3x + 4y = 0 Use matrices to find the values of ẍ, ẋ and x.

[ẍ = 0.5, ẋ = 0.77, x = 1.4]
2x + 5y + 7 = 0 [x = 4, y = −3]
2. 2p + 5q + 14.6 = 0
3.1p + 1.7q + 2.06 = 0
[p = 1.2, q = −3.4] 26.2 Solution of simultaneous
equations by determinants
3. x + 2y + 3z = 5
2x − 3y − z = 3 (a) When solving linear simultaneous equations in
two unknowns using determinants:
−3x + 4y + 5z = 3
(i) write the equations in the form
[x = 1, y = −1, z = 2]
a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0
4. 3a + 4b − 3c = 2
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0
−2a + 2b + 2c = 15
7a − 5b + 4c = 26 and then F
[a = 2.5, b = 3.5, c = 6.5] (ii) the solution is given by
x −y 1
5. p + 2q + 3r + 7.8 = 0 = =
Dx Dy D
2p + 5q − r − 1.4 = 0
 
5p − q + 7r − 3.5 = 0 b1 c1 
where Dx =  
[p = 4.1, q = −1.9, r = −2.7] b 2 c2 
i.e. the determinant of the coefficients left
6. In two closed loops of an electrical cir- when the x-column is covered up,
cuit, the currents flowing are given by the  
simultaneous equations: a1 c1 
Dy =  
I1 + 2I2 + 4 = 0 a2 c2 
5I1 + 3I2 − 1 = 0 i.e. the determinant of the coefficients left
Use matrices to solve for I1 and I2 . when the y-column is covered up,
 
[I1 = 2, I2 = −3] a1 b1 
and D=  
a2 b2 
7. The relationship between the displacement,
s, velocity, v, and acceleration, a, of a piston i.e. the determinant of the coefficients left
is given by the equations: when the constants-column is covered up.
s + 2v + 2a = 4
3s − v + 4a = 25 Problem 3. Solve the following simultaneous
equations using determinants:
3s + 2v − a = −4
Use matrices to determine the values of s, v 3x − 4y = 12
and a. 7x + 5y = 6.5
[s = 2, v = −3, a = 4]
280 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Following the above procedure: where Du is the determinant of coefficients left

(i) 3x − 4y − 12 = 0 when the u column is covered up,
7x + 5y − 6.5 = 0  
3.5 −21
 
x −y 1 i.e. Du =  
(ii)  = =  6.1 −33
−4 −12  3 −12  3 −4
     
 5 −6.5 7 −6.5 7 5 = (3.5)(−33) − (−21)(6.1)
= 12.6
x  
i.e. 1 −21
(−4)(−6.5) − (−12)(5) Similarly, Da = 1 −33
−y = (1)(−33) − (−21)(1)
=
(3)(−6.5) − (−12)(7) = −12
 
1 1 3.5
= and D = 1 6.1
(3)(5) − (−4)(7)
x −y 1 = (1)(6.1) − (3.5)(1) = 2.6
i.e. = =
26 + 60 −19.5 + 84 15 + 28 u −a 1
Thus = =
x −y 1 12.6 −12 26
i.e. = = 12.6
86 64.5 43 i.e. u= = 4.846 m/s
x 1 86 2.6
Since = then x = =2 12
86 43 43 and a= = 4.615 m/s2 ,
2.6
and since
each correct to 4 significant
−y 1 64.5 figures
= then y = − = −1.5
64.5 43 43
Problem 5. Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to an
electric circuit results in the following equations:
Problem 4. The velocity of a car, accelerating
at uniform acceleration a between two points, is (9 + j12)I1 − (6 + j8)I2 = 5
given by v = u + at, where u is its velocity when −(6 + j8)I1 + (8 + j3)I2 = (2 + j4)
passing the first point and t is the time taken
to pass between the two points. If v = 21 m/s Solve the equations for I1 and I2
when t = 3.5 s and v = 33 m/s when t = 6.1 s,
use determinants to find the values of u and a,
each correct to 4 significant figures. Following the procedure:

(i) (9 + j12)I1 − (6 + j8)I2 − 5 = 0

Substituting the given values in v = u + at gives: −(6 + j8)I1 + (8 + j3)I2 − (2 + j4) = 0
21 = u + 3.5a (1) I1
(ii)  
33 = u + 6.1a (2) −(6 + j8) −5 
 
 (8 + j3) −(2 + j4)
(i) The equations are written in the form
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0, −I2
=  
i.e. u + 3.5a − 21 = 0  (9 + j12) −5 

and u + 6.1a − 33 = 0 −(6 + j8) −(2 + j4)

(ii) The solution is given by 1

=  
−a  (9 + j12) −(6 + j8)
u
= =
1 
−(6 + j8) (8 + j3) 
Du Da D
 THE SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS BY MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 281
 
I1 a1 b1 c1 
 
(−20 + j40) + (40 + j15) and D is a2 b2 c2 
a b3 c3 
3
−I2 i.e. the determinant of the coefficients
=
(30 − j60) − (30 + j40) obtained by covering up the constants
1 column.
=
(36 + j123) − (−28 + j96)
Problem 6. A d.c. circuit comprises three
I1 −I2
= closed loops. Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to the
20 + j55 −j100 closed loops gives the following equations for
1 current flow in milliamperes:
=
64 + j27 2I1 + 3I2 − 4I3 = 26
20 + j55 I1 − 5I2 − 3I3 = −87
Hence I1 =
64 + j27 −7I1 + 2I2 + 6I3 = 12
58.52∠70.02◦
= = 0.84∠47.15◦ A Use determinants to solve for I1 , I2 and I3
69.46∠22.87◦
100∠90◦
and I2 = (i) Writing the equations in the
69.46∠22.87◦ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 form gives:
= 1.44∠67.13◦ A
2I1 + 3I2 − 4I3 − 26 = 0
(b) When solving simultaneous equations in three I1 − 5I2 − 3I3 + 87 = 0
unknowns using determinants: −7I1 + 2I2 + 6I3 − 12 = 0
F
(i) Write the equations in the form (ii) the solution is given by
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 I1 −I2 I3 −1
= = =
a2 x + b 2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 DI 1 DI2 DI 3 D
a3 x + b 3 y + c3 z + d3 = 0 where DI1 is the determinant of coefficients
and then obtained by covering up the I1 column, i.e.,
(ii) the solution is given by  
 3 −4 −26 
x −y z −1  
= = = DI1 =  −5 −3 87 
Dx Dy Dz D  2 6 −12 
     
b1 c1 d1  −3 87  −5 87 

where Dx is b2 c2 d2 
 = (3)  6 −12 − (−4)  2 −12
b c d   
3 3 3
−5 −3
i.e. the determinant of the coefficients 
+ (−26)  2 
obtained by covering up the x column. 6
 
a1 c1 d1  = 3(−486) + 4(−114) − 26(−24)
 
Dy is a2 c2 d2  = −1290
a c d   
3 3 3  2 −4 −26 
 
i.e., the determinant of the coefficients DI2 =  1 −3 87 
obtained by covering up the y column.  −7 6 −12 
 
a1 b1 d1  = (2)(36 − 522) − (−4)(−12 + 609)
 
Dz is a2 b2 d2 
a b d  + (−26)(6 − 21)
3 3 3
i.e. the determinant of the coefficients = −972 + 2388 + 390
obtained by covering up the z column. = 1806
282 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
 
 2 3 −26  4. 1.2p − 2.3q − 3.1r + 10.1 = 0
 
DI 3 =  1 −5 87 
 −7 2 −12  4.7p + 3.8q − 5.3r − 21.5 = 0
3.7p − 8.3q + 7.4r + 28.1 = 0
= (2)(60 − 174) − (3)(−12 + 609)
[p = 1.5, q = 4.5, r = 0.5]
+(−26)(2 − 35) x y 2z 1
5. − + =−
= −228 − 1791 + 858 = −1161 2 3 5 20
  x 2y z 19
 2 3 −4  + − =
  4 3 2 40
and D =  1 −5 −3 
 −7 2 6  59
x+y−z =
60
= (2)(−30 + 6) − (3)(6 − 21)  
7 17 5
x= ,y = ,z = −
+ (−4)(2 − 35) 20 40 24
= −48 + 45 + 132 = 129 6. In a system of forces, the relationship
between two forces F1 and F2 is given by:
Thus
I1 −I2 I3 −1 5F1 + 3F2 + 6 = 0
= = = 3F1 + 5F2 + 18 = 0
−1290 1806 −1161 129
Use determinants to solve for F1 and F2 .
giving
[F1 = 1.5, F2 = −4.5]
−1290
I1 = = 10 mA, 7. Applying mesh-current analysis to an a.c.
−129 circuit results in the following equations:
1806
I2 = = 14 mA (5 − j4)I1 − (−j4)I2 = 100∠0◦
129
(4 + j3 − j4)I2 − (−j4)I1 = 0
1161
and I3 = = 9 mA Solve the equations for I1 and I2.
129
 
I1 = 10.77∠19.23◦ A,
Now try the following exercise. I2 = 10.45∠−56.73◦ A

Exercise 114 Further problems on solving 8. Kirchhoff’s laws are used to determine the
simultaneous equations using determinants current equations in an electrical network
and show that
In Problems 1 to 5 use determinants to solve
the simultaneous equations given. i1 + 8i2 + 3i3 = −31
1. 3x − 5y = −17.6 3i1 − 2i2 + i3 = −5
7y − 2x − 22 = 0 2i1 − 3i2 + 2i3 = 6
[x = −1.2, y = 2.8] Use determinants to find the values of i1 , i2
and i3 . [i1 = −5, i2 = −4, i3 = 2]
2. 2.3m − 4.4n = 6.84
8.5n − 6.7m = 1.23
9. The forces in three members of a framework
[m = −6.4, n = −4.9] are F1 , F2 and F3 . They are related by the
3. 3x + 4y + z = 10 simultaneous equations shown below.
2x − 3y + 5z + 9 = 0 1.4F1 + 2.8F2 + 2.8F3 = 5.6
x + 2y − z = 6 4.2F1 − 1.4F2 + 5.6F3 = 35.0
[x = 1, y = 2, z = −1] 4.2F1 + 2.8F2 − 1.4F3 = −5.6
 THE SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS BY MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 283

Find the values of F1 , F2 and F3 using

Problem 7. Solve the following simultaneous
determinants.
equations using Cramers rule
[F1 = 2, F2 = −3, F3 = 4]
x+y+z =4
10. Mesh-current analysis produces the follow-
ing three equations: 2x − 3y + 4z = 33
3x − 2y − 2z = 2
20∠0◦ = (5 + 3 − j4)I1 − (3 − j4)I2
10∠90◦ = (3 − j4 + 2)I2 − (3 − j4)I1 − 2I3
−15∠0◦ − 10∠90◦ = (12 + 2)I3 − 2I2 (This is the same as Problem 2 and a comparison
of methods may be made). Following the above
Solve the equations for the loop currents method:
I1 , I2 and I3 .  

 1 1 1 
I1 = 3.317∠22.57◦ A  
◦
I2 = 1.963∠40.97 A D= 2 −3 4 
 3−2 −2 
I3 = 1.010∠−148.32◦ A
= 1(6 − (−8)) − 1((−4) − 12)
+1((−4) − (−9)) = 14 + 16 + 5 = 35
 
 4 1 1 
 
26.3 Solution of simultaneous Dx =  33 −3 4 
 2 −2 −2 
equations using Cramers rule
= 4(6 − (−8)) − 1((−66) − 8)
Cramers rule states that if +1((−66) − (−6)) = 56 + 74 − 60 = 70
 
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = b1  1

4 1 

F
Dy =  2 33 4 
a21 x + a22 y + a23 z = b2  3 2 −2 
a31 x + a32 y + a33 z = b3 = 1((−66) − 8) − 4((−4) − 12) + 1(4 − 99)
Dx Dy Dz = −74 + 64 − 95 = −105
then x = , y = and z =  
D D D  1 1 4 
 
  Dz =  2 −3 33 
 a11 a12 a13   3 −2 2 
 
where D =  a21 a22 a23  = 1((−6) − (−66)) − 1(4 − 99)
 a 
31 a32 a33
  + 4((−4) − (−9)) = 60 + 95 + 20 = 175
 b1 a12 a13 
 
Dx =  b2 a22 a23  Hence
 b a a 
3 32 33
Dx 70 Dy −105
x= = = 2, y = = = −3
i.e. the x-column has been replaced by the R.H.S. D 35 D 35
b column, Dz 175
  and z = = =5
 a11 b1 a13  D 35
 
Dy =  a21 b2 a23 
 a b3 a33 
31 Now try the following exercise.
i.e. the y-column has been replaced by the R.H.S.
b column, Exercise 115 Further problems on solving
  simultaneous equations using Cramers rule
 a11 a12 b1 
  1. Repeat problems 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 of Exercise
Dz =  a21 a22 b2 
 a a32 b3  113 on page 279, using Cramers rule.
31
2. Repeat problems 3, 4, 8 and 9 of Exercise 114
i.e. the z-column has been replaced by the R.H.S. on page 282, using Cramers rule.
b column.
284 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

We conclude from the above example that if

26.4 Solution of simultaneous
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = b1
equations using the Gaussian
elimination method a21 x + a22 y + a23 z = b2
a31 x + a32 y + a33 z = b3
Consider the following simultaneous equations: the three-step procedure to solve simultaneous
equations in three unknowns using the Gaussian
x+y+z =4 (1) elimination method is:
2x − 3y + 4z = 33 (2) a21
3x − 2y − 2z = 2 (3) 1. Equation (2) − × equation (1) to form equa-
a11
a31
Leaving equation (1) as it is gives: tion (2 ) and equation (3) − × equation (1) to
a11
x+y+z =4 (1) form equation (3 ).

Equation (2) − 2 × equation (1) gives: a32

2. Equation (3 )− × equation (2 ) to form equa-
0 − 5y + 2z = 25 (2 ) a22
tion (3 ).
and equation (3) − 3 × equation (1) gives:
3. Determine z from equation (3 ), then y from
0 − 5y − 5z = −10 (3 )
equation (2 ) and finally, x from equation (1).
Leaving equations (1) and (2 ) as they are gives:
x+y+z =4 (1) Problem 8. A d.c. circuit comprises three
closed loops. Applying Kirchhoff’s laws to the
0 − 5y + 2z = 25 (2 ) closed loops gives the following equations for
Equation (3 ) − equation (2 ) gives: current flow in milliamperes:
0 + 0 − 7z = −35 (3 ) 2I1 + 3I2 − 4I3 = 26 (1)
By appropriately manipulating the three original I1 − 5I2 − 3I3 = −87 (2)
equations we have deliberately obtained zeros in the −7I1 + 2I2 + 6I3 = 12 (3)
positions shown in equations (2 ) and (3 ).
Use the Gaussian elimination method to solve
Working backwards, from equation (3 ), for I1 , I2 and I3 .
−35
z= = 5,
−7 (This is the same example as Problem 6 on page 281,
and a comparison of methods may be made)
from equation (2 ),
Following the above procedure:
−5y + 2(5) = 25,
1. 2I1 + 3I2 − 4I3 = 26 (1)
from which,
1
25 − 10 Equation (2) − × equation (1) gives:
y= = −3 2
−5 0 − 6.5I2 − I3 = −100 (2 )
and from equation (1), −7
Equation (3) − × equation (1) gives:
x + (−3) + 5 = 4, 2
0 + 12.5I2 − 8I3 = 103 (3 )
from which,
2. 2I1 + 3I2 − 4I3 = 26 (1)
x=4+3−5=2
0 − 6.5I2 − I3 = −100 (2 )
(This is the same example as Problems 2 and 7, 12.5
and a comparison of methods can be made). The Equation (3 ) − × equation (2 ) gives:
above method is known as the Gaussian elimination −6.5
method. 0 + 0 − 9.923I3 = −89.308 (3 )
 THE SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS BY MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 285

3. From equation (3 ), equations:

−89.308 6.2 ẍ + 7.9ẋ + 12.6x = 18.0

I3 = = 9 mA, 7.5ẍ + 4.8ẋ + 4.8x = 6.39
−9.923
13.0ẍ + 3.5ẋ − 13.0x = −17.4
from equation (2 ), −6.5I2 − 9 = −100, By using Gaussian elimination, determine the
acceleration, velocity and displacement for
−100 + 9 the system, correct to 2 decimal places.
from which, I2 = = 14 mA [ẍ = −0.30, ẋ = 0.60, x = 1.20]
−6.5
2. The tensions, T1 , T2 and T3 in a simple
and from equation (1), 2I1 + 3(14) − 4(9) = 26, framework are given by the equations:
5T1 + 5T2 + 5T3 = 7.0
26 − 42 + 36 20 T1 + 2T2 + 4T3 = 2.4
from which, I1 = = 4T1 + 2T2 = 4.0
2 2
= 10 mA Determine T1 , T2 and T3 using Gaussian
elimination.
Now try the following exercise. [T1 = 0.8, T2 = 0.4, T3 = 0.2]
3. Repeat problems 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 of Exer-
Exercise 116 Further problems on solv- cise 113 on page 279, using the Gaussian
ing simultaneous equations using Gaussian elimination method.
elimination
4. Repeat problems 3, 4, 8 and 9 of Exercise 114
1. In a mass-spring-damper system, the acceler- on page 282, using the Gaussian elimination F
ation ẍ m/s2 , velocity ẋ m/s and displacement method.
x m are related by the following simultaneous
Complex numbers and Matrices and Determinants

Assignment 7
6. Determine A × B (4)
This assignment covers the material contained
in Chapters 23 to 26. 7. Calculate the determinant of matrix C (4)
The marks for each question are shown in 8. Determine the inverse of matrix A (4)
brackets at the end of each question.
9. Determine E × D (9)
10. Calculate the determinant of matrix D (6)
1. Solve the quadratic equation x 2 − 2x + 5 = 0 and
show the roots on an Argand diagram. (9) 11. Solve the following simultaneous equations:
2. If Z1 = 2 + j5, Z2 = 1 − j3 and Z3 = 4 − j deter- 4x − 3y = 17
mine, in both Cartesian and polar forms, the value x+y+1=0
Z1 Z2
of + Z3 , correct to 2 decimal places. using matrices. (6)
Z1 + Z2
(9) 12. Use determinants to solve the following simul-
taneous equations:
3. Three vectors are represented by A, 4.2∠45◦ , B,
5.5∠−32◦ and C, 2.8∠75◦ . Determine in polar 4x + 9y + 2z = 21
form the resultant D, where D = B + C − A. −8x + 6y − 3z = 41
(8) 3x + y − 5z = −73 (10)
4. Two impedances, Z1 = (2 + j7) ohms and 13. The simultaneous equations representing the cur-
Z2 = (3 − j4) ohms, are connected in series to rents flowing in an unbalanced, three-phase,
a supply voltage V of 150∠0◦ V. Determine the star-connected, electrical network are as follows:
magnitude of the current I and its phase angle 2.4I1 + 3.6I2 + 4.8I3 = 1.2
relative to the voltage. (6)
−3.9I1 + 1.3I2 − 6.5I3 = 2.6
5. Determine in both polar and rectangular 1.7I1 + 11.9I2 + 8.5I3 = 0
forms: Using matrices, solve the equations for I1 , I2
(a) [2.37∠35◦ ]4 (b) [3.2 − j4.8]5 and I3 (10)
√
(c) [−1 − j3] (15)
In questions 6 to 10, the matrices stated are:
   
−5 2 1 6
A= 7 −8 B = −3 −4
 
j3 (1 + j2)
C = (−1 − j4) −j2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 −1 3 −1 3 0
D = ⎝−5 1 0⎠ E = ⎝ 4 −9 2 ⎠
4 −6 2 −5 7 1