MODULE 2 GEOTECHENGG mk2

Module 2 – Compressibility and Settlement Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Civil Engineering
Compressibility
and Settlement
Module 2 – Geotechnical Engineering
Objective After the lecture, the student must be able to calculate settlement and
its rate of consolidation from different physical processes, having a
profound understanding of the stresses in the soil mass.
Content In this lecture discusses the various factors that influence settlement
and presents method of predicting its magnitude and addresses the
rate of settlement, it includes
 Consolidation (Primary) Settlement and its processes
 Interpretation and Analysis of Laboratory Consolidation Tests
 Secondary Settlement, and Elastic Settlement
 Time Rate of Consolidation
 *Calculation of Settlement under a Footing
Activities During the module, students will perform graded activities to measure
their progress during the course; Quiz, group activities, seatwork, class
discussion, problem set computations, recitation are expected.
Readings B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Foundation Engineering (7th Edition)

Stamford, Connecticut, USA : Cengage Learning
Credits to Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon for the original content
Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 1 of 39

Module 2 – Compressibility and Settlement
1.1 INTRODUCTION
“Less than 10 years ago the Foundation Committee of a well-known engineering society decided, at one of its
meetings, that the word “settlement” should be avoided in public discussions, because it might disturb the peace
of mind of those who are to be served by the engineering profession.”
Karl Terzaghi, 1939
In mechanics of materials, we learned that changes in normal stresses in any object always produce corresponding
normal strains, and the integration of these strains over the length of the object is its deformation or displacement.
This principle also applies to soils, and is important because many civil engineering projects impart loads onto the
ground, which will produce increase in the vertical effective stress, σ′z .
Just any other material, these stress increases induced vertical strains, εz , in the soil, which cause the ground surface
to move downward. We call this downward movement settlement. Whenever settlement occurs over a large area, it
is sometimes called subsidence. Whenever σ′z increases, there always will be corresponding settlement, δ. Thus the
issue facing a geotechnical engineer is not if settlements will occur, but rather the magnitudes of these settlements
and how they compare with tolerable limits.
1.2 PHYSICAL PROCESSES OF SETTLEMENT
Settlement is a displacement caused by a change in stress, we can compute the magnitude of settlement if we know
(a) the magnitude of the change in stress and (b) strain properties of soil. For many materials, such as concrete and
steel, this is relatively simple to obtain by utilizing the stress-strain diagram. However, soils, because of their particulate
and multiphase makeup, have a much more complicated stress-strain behavior that reflects multiple physical
processes, some of which are time-dependent. Related to these various processes, we can define three different
types of settlement.
(a) Distortion Settlement, δD (or ∆HD ), also termed as elastic settlement, is the settlement that results from lateral
movement of the soil in response to changes in effective vertical stress. Distortion settlement occurs without
volume change and is similar the Poisson’s effect where an object loaded in the vertical direction expands
laterally. This settlement primary occur when the load is confined to a small area, such as a structural foundation,
or near the edges of large loaded areas, such as embankments
(b) Consolidation Settlement, δC (or ∆HC ), also known as primary consolidation settlement, occurs when a soil is
subjected to an increase in effective vertical stress and the individual particles respond by rearranging into a
tighter packing. The volume of the solid particles remain virtually unchanged, so the change in total volume (and
the resulting strain) is due solely to decrease in the volume of voids. As we know pore water is incompressible,
so if the soil is saturated, this reduction in volume of voids can only occur if some of the pore water is squeezed
out. All soils experience some consolidation when they are subjected to any increase in 𝜎𝑧′ , and this is usually the
most important source of settlement. In some cases, this process occurs as quickly as the load is applied, but in
other situations it occurs much more slowly. The rate of consolidation will depend on the degree of saturation
of the soil, its hydraulic properties and other factors.

(c) Secondary Compression Settlement, δS (or ∆HS ) , is primarily due to particle reorientation, creep, and
decomposition of organic materials. This particle reorientation causes a reduction in the volume of voids, like
consolidation settlement. However, unlike consolidation settlement, secondary compression settlement is not
due to changes in 𝜎𝑧′ ; it occurs at a constant 𝜎𝑧′ . This settlement is always time-dependent and can be significant
in highly plastic clays, organic soils, and sanitary landfills, but negligible in sands and gravel.
The settlement at the ground surface, δ, is the sum of these three components:
𝛅 = 𝛅𝐃 + 𝛅𝐂 + 𝛅𝐒
Because soil settlement can have both time-dependent and noontime-dependent components, it is often
categorized in terms of short-term settlement (immediate settlement), which occurs as quickly as the load is applied,
and long-term settlement (delayed settlement), which occurs over some longer period of time. Many engineers
associate consolidation settlement solely with the long-term settlement of clay soils. However, this is not strictly true.
Consolidation is related to volume change due to change in effective stress regardless of the soil type or time required
for volume change.
1.3 DISTORTION SETTLEMENT ( ELASTIC SETTLEMENT )
When heavy loads are applied over a small area, the soil
can deform laterally, as shown. Similar lateral deformations
can also occur near the perimeter of larger loaded areas.
These deformations produce additional settlement at the
ground surface which we call distortion settlement.
As presented in the table, distortion settlement is much generally much smaller than consolidation settlement, and
can be often ignored. However, it is sometimes considered in the design of spread footing foundations. When
distortion settlements need to be considered, they are normally computed using solutions based on elastic theory,
which will be discussed in Foundation Engineering. For problems covered in this module, we will assume that distortion
settlements are negligible.

1.4 CHANGES IN VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS
Most settlement is due to changes in vertical effective stress. The initial vertical effective stress, σ′z , at a point in the
soil is the value of the stress before the event that causes settlement occurs. The final vertical effective stress, σ′z𝑓 , is
the value after the settlement process is complete.
The value of σ′z maybe computed using the techniques in determining effective and total vertical stresses, also known
as geostatic stresses, in Soil Mechanics. Usually the initial condition consists of geostatic stresses only and thus are
evaluated without the pore water pressure.
The method in computing σ′z𝑓 , depends on the kind of event that is causing the stress increase. Most common
events are the following
(a) Stress Change Due to Placement of a Fill. When a fill is placed on the ground, σ′Z in the underlying soil increases
due to the weight of the fill. When the point is beneath the central area of the fill, we compute σ′z𝑓 by simply
adding another layer to the Σ𝛾𝐻. Therefore, 𝛔′𝐳𝒇 = 𝛔′𝐳 + 𝛄𝐅𝐈𝐋𝐋 𝐇𝐅𝐈𝐋𝐋
(b) Stress Change Due to Placement of an External Load. External loads, such as structural foundations, also produce
increases in σ′Z . Change in vertical stress computation is shown in the previous module. In this case, σ′z𝑓 is
𝛔′𝐳𝒇 = 𝛔′𝐳 + 𝚫𝛔𝐳
(c) Stress Change Due to Changes in the Groundwater Table Elevation. Sometimes natural events or construction
activities produce changes in the groundwater table elevation. When the groundwater table changes from one
elevation to some lower elevation, the pore water pressure, 𝑢, in the underlying soils decreases and the vertical
effective stress, 𝜎′𝑍 , increases. In this case, it is usually easiest to compute σ′z𝑓 using the principle of effective
stresses. When performing computations, keep in mind that changes in groundwater table also may be
accompanied by the changes in the unit weight. Soil that is now above the groundwater table will probably have
a lower moisture content, and therefore, a lower unit weight than before. Thus, the zone of soil between the
initial and final groundwater tables may have one unit weight for the 𝜎′𝑍 , computation, and another for the σ′z𝑓
computation.
1.5 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT – PHYSICAL PROCESSES
We use the term consolidation to describe the pressing of soil particles into a tighter packing in response to an
increase in effective stress. We assume that the volume of soil solids remain constant; only the volume of voids
changes. The resulting settlement is known as consolidation settlement. One of the most important source of
settlement in souls, and its analysis is one of the cornerstones of geotechnical engineering.
Consolidation analyses usually focus on saturated soils (S = 100%), which means the voids are completely filled with
water. Both the water and the solids are virtually incompressible, so consolidation can occur only as some of the
water is squeezed out of the voids. We can demonstrate this process by taking saturated kitchen sponge and
squeezing it; the sponge compresses, but only as the water pushes out. This relationship between consolidation and
pore water flow was qualitatively recognized as early as 1809 when the British engineer Thomas Telford placed a 17-
m deep surcharge fill over a soft clay “for purpose of squeezing out the water and consolidating the mud”. The
American engineer William Sooy Smith also recognized that “slow progressive settlements result from the squeezing
out of the water from the earth”.

The first laboratory soil consolidation tests appear to have been performed around 1910 in France by J. Frontard. He
placed samples of clay in a metal container, applied series of loads with a piston, and monitored the resulting
settlement. Although these provided insights, the underlying processes were not yet understood. About the same
time, German engineer Forchheimer developed a crude mathematical model of consolidation.
Karl Terzaghi, who was one of Forchheimer’s former students, made a major breakthrough. He was teaching at a
college in Istanbul, and began studying soil consolidation problem. This work produced the first clear recognition of
the principle of effective stress, which lead the way to understanding of the consolidation process. Terzaghi’s theory
of consolidation is now recognized as one of the major milestones of geotechnical engineering.
Processes in the Field. The initial buildup of excess pore

water pressures in soils is more complex than the piston
and spring analogy because it depends on changes in
both the mean normal stress and the deviator stress,
and on certain empirical coefficients known as
Skempton’s pore pressure parameters A and B.
However, we will simplify the problem by assyming the
excess pore water pressure, , immediately after loading
is equal to .
1.6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST
One dimensional consolidation testing procedure was first

suggested by Karl Terzaghi (1925). This test is performed in a
consolidometer (sometimes reffered as an oedometer). The soil
specimen is placed inside a metal ring with two porous stones,
one at the top of the specimen and another at the bottom. The
specimens are usually 64 mm (≈ 2.5 in.) in diameter and 25 mm.
(≈ 1 in.) thick. The load on the specimen is applied through a lever
arm, and compression is measured by a micrometer dial gauge.
The specimen is kept under water during the test. Each load
usually is kept for 24 hours. After that, the load usually is doubled,
which doubles the pressure on the specimen, and the
compression measurement is continued. At the end of the test,
the dry weight of the test specimen is determined.

The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen

against time for a given load increment is shown. From the plot,
we can observe three distinct stages, which may be described as
follows:
Stage I Initial compression, which is caused mostly by

preloading.
Stage II Primary consolidation, during which excess pore
water pressure gradually is transferred into effective
stress because of the expulsion of pore water.
Stage III Secondary consolidation, which occurs after
complete dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure, when some deformation of the specimen
takes place because of the plastic readjustment of
soil fabric.
METHODS OF PRESENTING CONSOLIDATION TEST RESULTS
Geotechnical testing laboratories use two different methods of presenting consolidation test results: a strain plot and
a void ratio plot. The test results that arrive on a geotechnical engineer’s desk could be presented in either form or
both, so it is important to recognize the difference, and be able to use either method.
Figure shows the results of laboratory consolidation test: (a) data plotted on an arithmetic scale;
(b) data plotted in semilogarithmic space. The initial void ratio, 𝑒0 , is 1.60.

𝛆𝐳 vs. log 𝛔𝐳 (strain versus stress), this is the direct representation of data in the laboratory. A strain plot is the most
straight forward approach, because the purpose of a consolidation test is to measure the stress-strain properties of
the soil.
𝑒Vs = 𝑒0 Vs − ∆𝑒Vs
𝑒 = 𝑒0 − ∆𝑒
∆𝑒Vs ∆𝑒
𝜀𝑧 = =
(1 + 𝑒0 )Vs (1 + 𝑒0 )
𝑒 = 𝑒0 − 𝜀𝑧 (1 + 𝑒0 )
𝐞 vs. log 𝛔𝐳 (void ratio versus stress), this is was the method of Terzaghi used, presumably because it emphasizes the
reduction of void size that occurs using consolidation. To compute the void ratio at various stages of the test, we
need to develop an equation that relates void ratio with strain. The effective stress 𝝈′ and the corresponding void
ratios (e) at the end of consolidation are plotted on semilogarithmic graph paper.
1. Calculate the height of solids, Hs, in the soil specimen (see figure above) using the equation
𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠
𝐻𝑠 = =
𝐴𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝐴𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
2. Calculate the initial height of voids as

𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠
3. Calculate the initial void ratio, e0, of the specimen, using the equation
𝑉𝑣 𝐻𝑣 𝐴 𝐻𝑣
𝑒0 = = =
𝑉𝑠 𝐻𝑠 𝐴 𝐻𝑠
4. For the first incremental loading, σ1 (total load/unit area of specimen), which causes a deformation ∆H1
(obtained from the initial and the final dial readings for the loading), calculate the change in the void
ratio
∆𝐻1
∆𝑒1 =
𝐻𝑠
It is important to note that, at the end of consolidation, total stress σ1 is equal to effective stress σ′1.
5. Calculate the new void ratio after consolidation caused by the pressure increment as
𝑒 = 𝑒0 − ∆𝑒
For the next loading, σ2 (note: σ2 equals the cumulative load per unit area of specimen), which causes
additional deformation ∆H2, the void ratio at the end of consolidation can be calculated as
∆𝐻2
𝑒2 = 𝑒1 −
𝐻𝑠
At this time, σ2 = effective stress, σ′2. Proceeding in a similar manner, one can obtain the void ratios at
the end of the consolidation for all load increments.

ADJUSTMENTS TO LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION DATA

Consolidation tests are very sensitive to sample disturbance.
Very high-quality samples produce distinct consolidation
curves as shown. However, less than ideal sampling and
handling techniques, drying during storage, and other effects
can alter the sample and make the test results more obscure
and difficult to interpret. It is especially difficult to obtain
preconsolidation stress from poor-quality samples because
much more rounded. Thus, it is best to be very careful with
samples intended for consolidation tests.
Casagrande (1936) and Schmertmann (1955) developed

methods of adjusting laboratory consolidation test results in
an attempt to compensate for nominal shape disturbance
effects.
Casagrande Procedure. This procedure determines the

preconsolidation stress, σ′c , from laboratory data. Implement
this method as follows, and as illustrated in figure:
1. Locate the point of minimum radius on the

consolidation curve (Point A)
2. Draw a horizontal line through Point A.
3. Draw a line tangent to the laboratory curve at Point
A.
4. Draw the line that bisects the angle formed by the
lines from Step 2 and 3.
5. Extend the straight portion of the virgin curve upward
until it intersects the line drawn in Step 4. This
identifies Point B. The vertical effective stress at Point
B is the preconsolidation stress, σ′c . Note that e or 𝜀𝑧
corresponding to Point B is not used in any analysis.

Schmertmann Procedure. Sample disturbance also affects the slope of the curves, so this procedure is an attempt to
reconstruct the field consolidation curve as illustrated. This procedure is performed as follows:
1. Determine σ′c using the Casagrande procedure.

2. Compute the initial vertical effective stress, σ′z , at the
sample depth. This is the vertical effective stress prior
to placement of the proposed load.
3. Draw a horizontal line at 𝑒 = 𝑒0 ( or 𝜀𝑧 = 0 ) from the
vertical axis σ′z . This locates Point C.
4. Beginning at Point C, draw a line parallel to the
unloading curve. Continue to the right until reaching
σ′c . This defines Point D. In some cases, σ′c ≈ σ′z , so
this step becomes unnecessary.
5. Extend the virgin curve downward to 𝑒 = 0.42𝑒0 ,
thus locating Point E. If no void ratio data is included
on the consolidation plot, locate Point E at 𝜀𝑧 = 0.42,
which is same as 𝑒 = 0.42𝑒0 when 𝑒0 = 2 and
sufficiently close for other initial void ratios. Locating
Point E more precisely has very little impact on the
results of Schmertmann’s construction.
1.7 SOIL COMPRESSIBILITY
The slopes of the consolidation plot reflect the compressibility of soil. Steep slopes mean a given increase in σ′z will
cause large strain (or a large change in void ratio), so such soils are said to be highly compressible. Conversely, shallow
slopes indicate that the same increase in σ′z will produce less strain, so soil is slightly compressible.
The slope of the virgin curve is defined as the compression index,

Cc . The reconstructed virgin curve is a straight line (on a
semilogarithmic scale), so we can obtain its numerical value for
Cc by selecting any two points, a and b, on this line and we write
𝑒b − 𝑒a
Cc = ′
(log σz )b − (log σ′z )a
Alternatively, if the data are plotted only in εz − σ′z form (i.e., no

void ratio data are given), then the slope of the virgin curve is
Cc (εz )b − (εz )a
=
1 + 𝑒0 (log σ′z )b − (log σ′z )a
Where the parameter Cc /1 + e0 is called the compression ratio.

If the reconstructed virgin curve is sufficiently long, it is convenient to select Points a and b such that (σ′z )b = 10(σ′z )a .
Since it is semilogarithmic, this demonstrates that Cc could be defined as the reduction in void ratio per tenfold
increase (one log-cycle) in effective stress. Like wise, Cc /1 + e0 is the strain per tenfold increase in effective stress.
In theory, the reloading and unloading curves have nearly equal slopes, but the rebound curve is more reliable
because it is less sensitive to sample disturbance effects. This slope, which we call the recompression index, Cr (
sometimes referred as swell index, Cs ) is defined in the same way as Cc . Using Points c and d on the decompression
curve, the equation will be
𝑒c − 𝑒d
Cr = Cs =
(log σz )d − (log σ′z )c
′
If the data are plotted in a strain diagram, then the slope is Cr /1 + e0 , which is the recompression ratio.
Cr (εz )d − (εz )c
=
1 + 𝑒0 (log σ′z )d − (log σ′z )c
COMPRESSION INDEX – Other Methods

Skempton (1944) suggested the following empirical expression for the compression index for undisturbed clays
On the basis of observations on several natural clays, Rendon-Herrero (1983) gave the relationship for the
compression index in the form
Nagaraj and Murty (1985) expressed the compression index as
Park and Koumoto (2004) expressed the compression index by the following relationship
RECOMPRESSION INDEX (SWELL INDEX) – Other Methods
The swell index is appreciably smaller in magnitude than the compression index and generally can be determined
from laboratory tests. In most cases,
The swell index was expressed by Nagaraj and Murty (1985) as

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Following are the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen obtained from the field:
Dry mass of specimen = 128 g,
Height of specimen at the beginning of the test = 2.54 cm,
Specific gravity of soil solids = 2.75, and
Area of the specimen = 30.68 cm2
(a) Make necessary calculations and draw the e vs. log 𝜎′ curve
(b) Using Casagrande’s Method, determine the preconsolidation pressure
(c) Calculate the compression index, Cc , and recompression index, Cr
(d) On the basis of average e vs. log 𝜎′ plot, calculate the void ratio at 𝜎𝑧 ′=10 ton/ft^2
LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION DATA
Final height of
the specimen Initial height of Change in
Effective at the end of specimen void ratio
pressure, 𝜎𝑧′ consolidation 𝐻𝑣 = 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠 𝐻
(𝒕𝒐𝒏/𝒇𝒕𝟐 ) (𝒄𝒎) Remarks (𝒄𝒎) 𝑒 = 𝑣⁄𝐻
𝑠
0 2.540 Loading
0.5 2.488 Loading
1.0 2.465 Loading
2.0 2.431 Loading
4.0 2.389 Loading
8.0 2.324 Loading
16.0 2.225 Loading
32.0 2.115 Loading
16.0 2.136 Unloading
8.0 2.185 Unloading
4.0 2.205 Unloading
CALCULATIONS
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SEMILOGARITHMIC GRAPH , e vs. log 𝝈′ curve

ACTIVITY 6 ANALYSIS OF LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST DATA
INSTRUCTIONS Interpret the consolidation test data from the laboratory. Make necessary calculations to determine
the consolidation parameters (i.e. preconsolidation stress, compression index, recompression
index, initial void ratio, and final void ratio).
In plotting the e vs. log 𝜎′, use green ballpen for the virgin curve; red ballpen for the recompression
curve; use blue ballpen to identify the preconsolidation stress.
Calculate necessary variables, and show the results using the space provided below.
MATERIALS Ruler, pencil, red pen, blue pen, green pen, and French curve.
LAB TEST Tested by : CEMM315 Lab

Sample Number : GB-08-ST-1315
Visual Classification : Gray silty sand
BEFORE TEST
Consolidation Type : Floating Type
Height of Specimen : 2.700 cm
Area of Specimen : 31.172 cm^2
Specific Gravity of Soil Solids : 2.67
Specimen Initial Moisture Content : 19.5%
AFTER TEST
Mass of can : 59.3 g
Mass of can + dry soil : 208.5 g
Mass of dry specimen : 149.2 g
Specimen Final Moisture Content : 14.27%
CALCULATIONS Height of Soil Solids, Hs : ___________________
RESULTS Void Ratio before test : ___________________

Void Ratio after test : ___________________
Preconsolidation stress : ___________________
Recompression Index : ___________________
Compression Index : ___________________

TABULATIONS
GRAPH

ACTIVITY 7 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING ( LIBRARY WORK )
INSTRUCTIONS Carefully answer each question with the help of the available books about Geotechnical
Engineering ( or Foundation Engineering ) in the library.
The submittal must be printed in a cross sectional paper, following the format below.
Font Style Times New Roman
Font Size 11
Paragraph Spacing Single
Font Spacing Normal
Margin T : 0.75 in. L : 1.25 in.
B : 0.75 in. R : 0.50 in.
A copy of the receipt, a proof of using books, journals or references, must be attached to the
submittal.
Provide a cover page; citing the group members, year and section, and references used.
QUESTIONS (1) Who is Karl Terzaghi? What are his significant contributions to Geotechnical Engineering?
Add a short autobiography and relate his works.
(2) What types of natural soils are best suited for testing in a consolidometer? Why?
Which are not well suited? Why?
(3) Explain the difference between normally consolidated soil and overconsolidated soils?
Give examples of geologic conditions that would form each type.
(4) What is meant by the term differential settlement? Give three examples of damages that
can result from differential settlement.

1.8 CONSOLIDATION STATUS IN THE FIELD
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, OVERCONSOLIDATED, AND UNDERCONSOLIDATED SOILS
When performing consolidation analyses in the laboratory, we need to compare the preconsolidation stress, σ′C , with
the initial vertical effective stress, σ′z . The former is determined by laboratory test data described earlier. Both values
must be determined at the same depth, which normally is the depth of the sample on which the consolidation test
was performed. Once these values have been determined, we need to asses which of the following three conditions
exist in the field:
(1) Normally Consolidated (NC). If σ′Z ≈ σ′C , then the vertical effective stress in the field has never been higher than
the current magnitude. In theory, these two must be exactly equal. However, in the reality, both are subject to
error due to sample disturbance and other factors, so the values obtained from site characterization will rarely
be exactly equal, even if the soil is truly normally consolidated. Therefore, in order to avoid misclassifying the soil,
we will consider it to be normally consolidated if σ′Z and σ′C are equal within about ± 10%.
Preconsolidation Stress. The point where the slope of the consolidation curve changes is an important event in
the consolidation process. This stress is called the preconsolidation stress, σ′c . It is the greatest vertical effective
stress the soil has ever experienced. The value of σ′c is sometimes greater than σ′z at the sample location, which
means the soil was once subjected to a higher effective stress.
(2) Overconsolidated (OC). If σ′Z < σ′C , then the vertical effective stress in the field was once higher than its current
magnitude. This condition is known as being preconsolidated. There are many processes that can cause a soil to
become overconsolidated, including:
a. Extensive corrosion or excavation such that the ground surface elevation is now much lower than it was
b. Surcharge loading from a structure, such as a storage tank, which has since been removed
c. Increase in pore water pressure, such as from a rising groundwater table
d. Desiccation (drying) due to evaporation, plant roots, and other processes which produces negative pore
water pressure
e. Chemical changes in soil, such as accumulating of cementing agents
The term overconsolidated can be misleading because it implies there has been excessive consolidation. Although
there are few situations, such as cut slopes, where heavily consolidated soils can be less desirable,
overconsolidation is almost always a good thing.
(3) Underconsolidated. If σ′Z > σ′C , which means the soil is still in the process of consolidating under a previously
applied load.
*Soil compressibility is based on the compression index, CC , for normally consolidated soils; or swell index, CS , for
overconsolidated soils.

OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO
The σ′C values from the laboratory only represent the preconsolidation stress at the sample depth. However, we
sometimes need to compute σ′C in other depths. To do so, we compute the overconsolidation ratio or OCR:
𝛔′𝐂
𝐎𝐂𝐑 =
𝛔′𝐙
OCR varies as a function of depth. For normally consolidated soils, OCR = 1 and does not vary with depth.
OVERCONSOLIDATION MARGIN
The σ′C values from the laboratory only represents the preconsolidation stress at the same depth. However, we
sometimes need to compute σ′C at the other depths (i.e., in a soil strata with the same geologic origin). To do so, we
compute the overconsolidation margin, σ′m , using the σ′Z at the same depth and defined as
𝛔′𝐦 = 𝛔′𝐂 − 𝛔′𝐙
1.9 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT PREDICTIONS
The purpose of performing consolidation tests is to define the stress-strain properties of the soil and thus they allow
us to predict consolidation settlements in the field. We perform this computation by projecting laboratory results (as
contained in the parameters Cc , Cr , e0 , and σ′c ) back to the field conditions. For simplicity, the discussions of
consolidation settlement predictions in this module consider only one-dimensional consolidation. One-dimensional
consolidation means only vertical strains occur in the soil.
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED SOILS ( 𝛔′𝐙 ≈ 𝛔′𝐂 )

If σ′Z ≈ σ′C , the soil is normally consolidated. Thus, the initial and final conditions are as shown in the figure, and the
compressibility is defined by Cc , the slope of the virgin curve. Rewriting equation for strain,
∆𝑒
εz =
(1 + 𝑒0 )
∆Hc Cc [ log(σ′z + ∆σz ) − log σ′z ]
=
H (1 + 𝑒0 )
𝐇𝐂𝐜 𝛔′𝐳 + ∆𝛔𝐳
∆𝐇𝐜 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝛔′𝐳
When using the equation, compute the stresses at the midpoint of each soil layer.

OVERCONSOLIDATED SOILS – CASE 1 ( 𝛔′𝐙 + ∆𝛔𝐙 < 𝛔′𝐂 )

If σ′Z + ∆σZ did not exceed σ′C , the entire consolidation process occurs on the recompression curve as shown. The
analysis is thus identical to that for normally consolidated soils except we use the recompression index, Cr , instead of
the compression index, Cc .
∆𝑒
εz =
(1 + 𝑒0 )
∆Hc Cr [ log(σ′z + ∆σz ) − log σ′z ]
=
H (1 + 𝑒0 )
𝐇𝐂𝐫 𝛔′𝐳 + ∆𝛔𝐳
∆𝐇𝐜 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝛔′𝐳
OVERCONSOLIDATED SOILS – CASE 2 ( 𝛔′𝐙 + ∆𝛔𝐙 > 𝛔′𝐂 )

If σ′Z + ∆σZ exceeds σ′C , the consolidation process begins on the recompression curve and ends on the virgin curve
as shown. Then the analysis must consider both Cr and Cc .
∆𝑒
εz = ∑
(1 + 𝑒0 )
∆Hc Cr [ log(σ′c ) − log σ′z ] Cs [ log(σ′z + ∆σz ) − log σ′z ]
= +
H (1 + 𝑒0 ) (1 + 𝑒0 )
𝐇𝐂𝐫 𝛔′𝐜 𝐇𝐂𝐜 𝛔′𝐳 + ∆𝛔𝐳
∆𝐇𝐜 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ′ + 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝛔𝐳 𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝛔′𝐳
This consolidation is quite common, because many soils that might appear to be normally consolidated from a
geologic analysis actually have a small amount of over consolidation.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A soil profile is shown in figure. If a uniformly
distributed load, ∆σ, is applied at the ground
surface, what is the settlement of the clay
layer caused by primary consolidation if
(a) The clay is normally consolidated
(b) The preconsolidation pressure is equal
to 190 kPa
(c) The preconsolidation pressure is equal
to 160 kPa
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A soil profile is shown in figure. Laboratory consolidation tests were conducted on a specimen collected from the
middle of the clay layer. The field consolidation curve interpolated from the laboratory test results is shown. Calculate
the settlement in the field caused by primary consolidation for a surcharge of 48 kN/m2 applied at the ground surface.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A 3.0 m deep compacted fill is to be placed over the soil profile
shown. A consolidation test on a sample from point A produced the
following results: Cc = 0.40 , C𝑟 = 0.08 , 𝑒0 = 1.10, and 𝜎𝐶 ′ = 72 kPa.
Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement due to the weight of
this fill.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement
due to the weight of the fill shown.
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ACTIVITY 8 ULTIMATE CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT DUE TO WEIGHT OF FILL
INSTRUCTIONS Determine the ultimate consolidation settlement of the given soil strata as shown. Divide the depth
of the Soft clay (CL) layer into two equal segments to more accurately measure the settlement of
the soil. Review your Soil Compaction Principles in Soil Mechanics to solve the problem.
Tabulate your answers by using the given table. Always highlight your final answer, including the
settlement in each layer. Use black ball pen in your solution. Strictly no erasures.
SITUATION A 4.0m thick fill is to be made of soil with a Proctor maximum dry unit weight of 19.4 kN/m3 and
an optimum moisture content of 13.0%. This fill will be compacted at optimum moisture content
to an average relative compaction of 92%. The underlying soils are as shown in Figure.
Consolidation tests were performed at Points A and B, with the following results:
Sample Cc Cr e0 ’c (kPa)

A 0.59 0.19 1.90 75
B 0.37 0.14 1.21 100
The silty sand is normally consolidated. Determine the ultimate consolidation settlement due to
the weight of the fill.

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1.10 SECONDARY COMPRESSION SETTLEMENT
Once the excess pore water pressures have dissipated, consolidation settlement ceases. However some soils continue
to settle anyway. This additional settlement is due to secondary compression and occurs under a constant effective
stress. We do not fully understand the physical basis for secondary compression, but it appears to be due to particle
rearrangement, creep, and the decomposition of organics. Highly plastic clays, organic soils, and sanitary landfills are
most likely to have this secondary compression. Secondary compression is negligible in sands and gravels.
The secondary compression index, Cα , defines the rate of secondary compression. It can be defined either in terms of
either void ratio or strain.
∆𝑒
Cα =
log 𝑡2 − log 𝑡1
Rewriting equation for strain,

∆𝑒
εz =
(1 + 𝑒𝑝 )
∆Hs Cα [ log 𝑡2 − log 𝑡1 ]
=
H (1 + 𝑒𝑝 )
𝐇𝐂𝛂 𝐭𝟐
∆𝐇𝐬 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒑 𝐭𝟏

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
For a normally consolidated clay layer in the field, the following values are given:
Thickness of clay layer = 8.5 ft
Void ratio (𝑒0 ) = 0.8
Compression index (Cc ) = 0.28
Average effective pressure on the clay layer (𝜎𝑧′ ) = 2650 lb/ft2
∆𝜎𝑧′ = 970 lb/ft2
Secondary compression index (Cα ) = 0.02
What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of primary consolidation
settlement? (Note: Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years.)
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1.11 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
The total settlement caused by primary consolidation resulting from an increase in the stress on a soil layer can be
calculated by the use of one of the three equations. However, they do not provide any information regarding the
rate of primary consolidation. Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory to consider the rate of one-dimensional
consolidation for saturated clay soils. The mathematical derivations are based on the following eight assumptions
(also see Taylor, 1948):
1. The soil is homogenous, (compression ratio and recompression ratio, and 𝑘 is constant).
2. The soil is saturated (𝑆 = 100%).
3. The settlement is due entirely to changes in the void ratio, and these changes occur only as some of the pore
water is squeezed out of the voids.
4. Darcy’s law is valid.
5. The applied load causes an instantaneous increase in vertical total stress. Afterward, the vertical total stress at
all points remains constant with time.
6. Immediately after loading, the excess pore water pressure, is constant with depth and equal to increase in
vertical stress. This is generally true when the load is due to an extensive fill, but not when it is from a smaller
loaded area, such as from a foundation.
7. The coefficient of consolidation, 𝑐𝑣 , as defined below, is constant throughout the soil, and remains constant
with time.
8. The consolidation process is one-dimensional, as discussed below.
One Dimensional Consolidation. Terzaghi’s theory assumes that the excess pore water flows only vertically, either up
or down, and consolidation occurs only in the vertical direction. In other words, there is no horizontal drainage and
no horizontal strain. This condition is called one-dimensional consolidation, as shown. This assumption is most valid
when the width of the loaded area (such as fill) is at least several times greater than the depth to the bottom of the
consolidating strata.

One of the important parameters in one-dimensional consolidation analyses is the maximum drainage distance, Hdr .
This is the longest distance any molecule of excess pore water must travel to move out of the consolidating soil.
There are two possibilities, as shown.
(a) If the strata above and below are much more permeable than the consolidating soil, then the excess pore
water will drain both upward and downward. This condition is known as double drainage and Hdr is equal
to the half of the thickness of the consolidating strata.
(b) If the stratum below is less permeable, such as bedrock, then all of the excess pore water must travel upward,
a condition known as single drainage. In this case, Hdr is equal to the thickness of the consolidating strata.
Derivation of the One Dimensional Consolidation Equation
Using Darcy’s Law

d𝑉
𝑄= = 𝑘𝑖A ⇒ d𝑉 = 𝑘𝑖A d𝑡
d𝑡
d𝑉 = d𝑉in − d𝑉out
1 d𝑢𝑒 d2 𝑢𝑒
d𝑉in = 𝑘 ( + d𝑧) d𝑥d𝑦 d𝑡
𝛾𝑤 d𝑧 d𝑧 2
1 d𝑢𝑒
d𝑉out = 𝑘 ( ) d𝑥d𝑦 d𝑡
𝛾𝑤 d𝑧
2
𝑘 d 𝑢𝑒
d𝑉 = ( d𝑧) d𝑥d𝑦d𝑧 d𝑡
𝛾𝑤 d𝑧 2
Changes in effective stress are due solely to changes in excess pore water pressure, so
dσ′z = −d𝑢𝑒
d𝑒 Cc
Cc = − ⇒ d𝑒 = − dσ′z
d log σz′ 2.30 σ′z
𝐂𝐜
d𝑒 = d𝑢
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎 𝛔𝐳′ 𝑒
d𝑒 = 𝑎𝑣 d𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑣 = coefficient of compressibility

The vertical strain, 𝜀𝑧 , gives the formula

d𝑉 = −d𝜀𝑧 A d𝑧
d𝑒
d𝑉 = − d𝑥d𝑦 d𝑧
1+𝑒0
𝒂𝒗
d𝑉 = − d𝑥d𝑦 d𝑧 d𝑢𝑒
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎
d𝑉 = −𝑚𝑣 d𝑥d𝑦 d𝑧 d𝑢𝑒 𝑚𝑣 = coefficient of volume compressibility
Combining the equations of d𝑉. The excess pore water pressure, 𝑢𝑒 , now varies with both depth 𝑧 and time 𝑡,
so we have a partial differential equation:
∂𝑢𝑒 𝑘 ∂ 2 𝑢𝑒
−𝑚𝑣 =−
∂t 𝛾𝑤 ∂z 2
2
∂𝑢𝑒 ∂ 𝑢𝑒
= 𝑐𝑣
∂t ∂z 2
An analytical solution based on these boundary conditions produces the following infinite series formula for 𝑢𝑒
at any point in the compressible strata at any time after the application of the load. The solution yields
∞
𝑢𝑒 4 (2𝑁 + 1)𝜋 𝑧dr (2𝑁+1)2 𝜋2
−( 𝑇𝑣 )
= ∑{ sin [ ( )] ∙ 𝑒 4 }
∆𝜎𝑧 (2𝑁 + 1)𝜋 2 Hdr
𝑁=0
Where
𝒄𝒗 𝒕
𝑻𝒗 =
(𝐇𝐝𝐫 )𝟐
Because consolidation progresses by the dissipation of excess pore water pressure, the degree of consolidation
at a distance 𝑧 at any time 𝑡 is
𝑢0 − 𝑢𝑧 𝑢𝑧
𝑈𝑧 = = 1−
𝑢0 𝑢0
Where 𝑢𝑧 = excess pore water pressure at time 𝑡.
𝛅𝐜
𝑼𝒛 =
𝛅𝐜,𝐮𝐥𝐭
The values of the time factor and their corresponding average degrees of consolidation may also be
approximated by the following simple relationship
𝝅 𝑼𝒛 % 𝟐
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝑼𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟔𝟎% , 𝑻𝒗 = ( )
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝑼𝒛 > 𝟔𝟎% , 𝑻𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑼𝒛 %)

Variation of the values of 𝑈𝑧 % with 𝑇𝑣
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25-mm-thick clay layer (drained at both top and bottom) in the
laboratory is 2 min. 20 sec. In the field, there is a rock layer at the bottom of the clay.
(a) How long (in days) will it take for a 3-m-thick clay layer of the same clay in the field under the same pressure
increment to reach 50% consolidation?
(b) How long (in days) will it take in the field for 30% primary consolidation to occur?
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A 3-m-thick layer (double drainage) of saturated clay under a surcharge loading underwent 90% primary
consolidation in 75 days. Find the coefficient of consolidation of clay for the pressure range.
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
For a normally consolidated laboratory clay specimen drained on both sides, the following are given: •
σz ′ = 3000 lb/ft2 ; 𝑒0 = 1.1
σz𝑓 ′ = 6000 lb/ft2 ; 𝑒 = 0.9
Thickness of clay specimen = 1 in.
Time for 50% consolidation = 2 min.
a. Determine the hydraulic conductivity (ft/min) of the clay for the loading range.
b. How long (in days) will it take for a 6-ft clay layer in the field (drained on one side) to reach 60% consolidation?
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ACTIVITY 9 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION IN LABORATORY

CONSOLIDATION TEST USING LOGARITHM-OF-TIME METHOD
INSTRUCTIONS Determine the coefficient of consolidation form a laboratory consolidation test. In interpreting the
data, use the “Logarithm-of-Time Method” to determine the coefficient of consolidation; and
compare it with the mathematical value (using the formula).
Generalize your conclusion. Highlight your final statement
The Logarithm-of-Time Method is elaborated in the discussion. Use the semilogarithmic graph
provided. Use pencil for plotting the curve and colored pen in identifying the points.
DISCUSSION Log-Time Method. When plotting the settlement from a laboratory test as a function of the log
of time, we will generate a curve similar to that shown. In the log-time method, we first find the
deformation at 0% consolidation, 𝛿0 , and 100% consolidation, 𝛿100. The procedure to find 𝛿50 is
as follows:
(1) For a given load increment, plot the dial gage readings as a function of log-time and connect
with a smooth curve.
(2) To extend the point of 100% primary consolidation, extend the linear tail of the curve back
towards the y-axis (line 1 in Figure). Then draw a line tangent to the point of inflection in the
central portion of the curve (line 2 in Figure). The point where two lines intersect is taken to
be the point at which primary consolidation ends, or the point where the degree of
consolidation is 100%. Determine 𝛿100 from the point where these lines intersect.
*We cannot extend the plot of deformation vs. log-time back to a time of zero since
zero time does not exist in the semilog plot.
(3) Select a time 𝑡A in the early portion of the curve as shown. Then compute time 𝑡B such that
𝑡B = 4𝑡A.
(4) Compute ∆𝛿, the difference between the dial gage readings at 𝑡A and 𝑡B .
(5) Compute the deformation at time zero, 𝛿0 , as 𝛿0 = 𝛿A − ∆𝛿 as shown.
(6) Compute 𝛿50 as 𝛿50 = (𝛿100 − 𝛿0 )/2 and determine 𝑡50 from 𝛿50 as shown.
(7) Compute the thickness of sample at 𝑡50 using the original thickness and 𝛿50. The maximum
drainage distance, Hdr , will be one-half of the thickness since the sample is doubly drained.
(8) Insert 𝑡50 and Hdr into the equation and compute 𝑐𝑣 at 50% consolidation:
2
𝑇50 Hdr
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑡50

DATA The data shown in the table were obtained from a laboratory consolidation test on a normally
consolidated undisturbed MH soil with a liquid limit of 65. The sample was 62mm in diameter,
25mm tall and was tested under a double drainage condition. Compute 𝑐𝑣 using logarithm-of-
time method. Then, compare your results with a typical value for 𝑐𝑣 for this soil and determine if
your value seems reasonable.
Time Since Loading

Dial Reading (mm)
(HH:MM:SS)
00:01:01 7.21
00:03:16 7.74
00:08:35 8.40
00:16:39 9.01
00:30:15 9.60
00:59:17 10.11
01:54:29 10.35
04:02:30 10.45
08:20:00 10.52
COMPUTATION …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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SEMILOGARITHMIC GRAPH
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1.12 CALCULATION OF SETTLEMENT UNDER A FOOTING
Module 1 showed that the increase in the vertical stress in soil caused by a load applied over a limited area decreases
with depth 𝑧 measured from the ground surface downward. Hence to estimate the one-dimensional settlement of a
foundation, we can use the equations of consolidation settlement. However, the increase of effective stress, ∆σz , in
these equations should be the average increase in the pressure below the center of the foundation.
Assuming that the pressure increase varies parabolically, using Simpson’s rule, we can estimate the value of ∆σave as
Where the stresses represent the increase in the effective pressure at the top, middle, and bottom of the layer,
respectively. This is known as the weighted average method.
1.13 *CRUSTS
Soft fine-grained soil deposits, such as those often found in

wetlands, frequently have a thin crust near the ground surface
as shown. These crusts are typically less than 2m (7 ft.) thick,
and are formed when the upper soils temporarily dry out. This
drying process is called desiccation and causes these soils to
become overconsolidated. Thus, profiles that contains crusts
have less settlement than identical profiles without crusts.
The presence of crusts have a significant impact on settlement

computations, even if they are much thinner than the
underlying compressible soils. In addition, variations in the
crust thickness across a site can be significant source of
differential settlement.
1.14 *SETTLEMENT OF UNSATURATED SOILS

Thus far we have treated unsaturated soils using techniques developed for saturated soils, except we have set 𝑢 = 0.
However, some unsaturated soils are prone to other kinds of settlement problems, especially if they become wetted
sometime after construction.
One of these problems occurs in certain kinds of clay that are known as expansive soils. These clays expand when
they become wetted, and contract when dried. Another kind of problematic soil is called collapsible soils, which
compresses when it is wetted.
Although the soft saturated soils generally have the worst problems with settlement, expansive and collapsible soils
can be problematic, especially in arid and semiarid climates.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the settlement of the 10-ft-thick clay layer that will
result from the load carried by a 5-ft-square footing. The
clay is normally consolidated. Use the weighted average
method to calculate the average increase of effective
pressure in the clay layer; utilize Boussinesq’s Approach.
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ACTIVITY 10 CONSOLIDATION AND SETTLEMENT ( PROBLEM SETS )
INSTRUCTIONS Determine what is required in each situation using Mohr circle analysis. Use a compass to create
a perfect circle, and a protractor to measure angles.
Always highlight your final answers. Use black ball pen in your solution.
No erasures. Strictly follow the template.
Draw the figure of each item, and rewrite the problem.
MATERIALS Cross sectional paper, ruler, pencils, colored pens, black pen, and highlighter.
SITUATIONS Problem 1. A circular tank of 15m in diameter is constructed on top of a saturated soil with a
saturated unit weight of 17.83 kN/m3. The total weight of the tank when filled is 2780 tons. The
groundwater table is at the ground surface. Compute the final vertical stress at a point 7.62m
below the center of the tank immediately after the tank is placed and filled, before any
consolidation has occurred. Draw the figure.
Problem 2. A consolidation test has been performed on a sample obtained from a saturated
clay at a point 6.50m below the ground surface. The groundwater table is at the ground surface
and the unit weight of the clay is 18.5 kN/m3. The measured preconsolidation stress was 260
kPa. (a) Determine if the soil is normally consolidated (use ±10% offset) or overconsolidated, (b)
Compute the overconsolidation margin and the overconsolidation ratio, and (c) compute the
preconsolidation stress at depth of 12m in the same soil. Draw the figure.
Problem 3. The owner of the land shown in the profile in SAMPLE PROBLEM 4 has decided not
to build the proposed fill. Instead, the land will be used for farming. To provide irrigation water,
a series of shallow wells will be drilled into the sand, and these wells will cause the groundwater
table to drop to the bottom of the sand layer. Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement
due to this drop in groundwater. Do you think such a settlement will adversely affect the farming?
Draw the figure.
Problem 4. At a planned construction site, a 2m thick buried clay layer lies beneath a surficial
stratum of free draining granular soil. Free draining granular soil also underlies the clay layer.
Double drainage from the clay layer can therefore occur when construction loads cause
consolidation. The coefficient of consolidation is 0.001 m3/day. Settlement calculations indicate
that the clay layer will eventually compress 4cm, from consolidation settlement, due to the effect
of building loads. (a) How long a time period is required for 90 percent of the estimated
settlement will occur?; (b) How much settlement occurs in the first 12 months?; and (c) What time
period is required for a settlement of 2cm? Draw the figure.

END CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1. The settlement of foundations is typically the result of three separate occurrences that take place in the soil zones
providing support. List these factors and give brief description for each.
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2. Explain the difference between soil compression and consolidation.

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3. A building is designed with uniform pressures on all footing, yet there is damaging differential settlement. Give two
possible reasons and suggest an investigation into the cause.
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4. What is the physical meaning of the coefficient of consolidation, 𝑐𝑣 ?

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5. Explain why Hdr sometimes is equal to the thickness of a consolidating layer and sometimes one-half of the layer
thickness? What is the significance of this?
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MODULE 2 GEOTECHENGG mk2

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Module 2 – Compressibility and Settlement Holy Angel University

School of Engineering and Architecture

Readings B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Foundation Engineering (7th Edition)

Credits to Engr. Mark Kenneth M. Tuazon for the original content

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 1 of 39

Karl Terzaghi, 1939

1.2 PHYSICAL PROCESSES OF SETTLEMENT

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 2 of 39

1.3 DISTORTION SETTLEMENT ( ELASTIC SETTLEMENT )

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 3 of 39

1.4 CHANGES IN VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS

1.5 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT – PHYSICAL PROCESSES

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 4 of 39

Processes in the Field. The initial buildup of excess pore

1.6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST

One dimensional consolidation testing procedure was first

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 5 of 39

The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen

Stage I Initial compression, which is caused mostly by

METHODS OF PRESENTING CONSOLIDATION TEST RESULTS

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 6 of 39

2. Calculate the initial height of voids as

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 7 of 39

ADJUSTMENTS TO LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION DATA

Casagrande (1936) and Schmertmann (1955) developed

Casagrande Procedure. This procedure determines the

1. Locate the point of minimum radius on the

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 8 of 39

1. Determine σ′c using the Casagrande procedure.

1.7 SOIL COMPRESSIBILITY

The slope of the virgin curve is defined as the compression index,

Alternatively, if the data are plotted only in εz − σ′z form (i.e., no

Where the parameter Cc /1 + e0 is called the compression ratio.

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 9 of 39

COMPRESSION INDEX – Other Methods

Nagaraj and Murty (1985) expressed the compression index as

RECOMPRESSION INDEX (SWELL INDEX) – Other Methods

The swell index was expressed by Nagaraj and Murty (1985) as

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 10 of 39

LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION DATA

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 11 of 39

SEMILOGARITHMIC GRAPH , e vs. log 𝝈′ curve

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 12 of 39

ACTIVITY 6 ANALYSIS OF LABORATORY CONSOLIDATION TEST DATA

LAB TEST Tested by : CEMM315 Lab

CALCULATIONS Height of Soil Solids, Hs : ___________________

RESULTS Void Ratio before test : ___________________

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 13 of 39

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 14 of 39

ACTIVITY 7 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING ( LIBRARY WORK )

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 15 of 39

1.8 CONSOLIDATION STATUS IN THE FIELD

NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED, OVERCONSOLIDATED, AND UNDERCONSOLIDATED SOILS

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 16 of 39

1.9 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT PREDICTIONS

NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED SOILS ( 𝛔′𝐙 ≈ 𝛔′𝐂 )

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 17 of 39

OVERCONSOLIDATED SOILS – CASE 1 ( 𝛔′𝐙 + ∆𝛔𝐙 < 𝛔′𝐂 )

OVERCONSOLIDATED SOILS – CASE 2 ( 𝛔′𝐙 + ∆𝛔𝐙 > 𝛔′𝐂 )

Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 18 of 39

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Instructor : Engr. Neal Lorenzo P. Castillo Page 20 of 39

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