ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With deep sense of gratitude, I first and foremost express my profound thanks to Shri Saravanan
M, Manager(Q-TH), Adour Assembly for giving me this opportunity to do my summer training
in Quality department, Engine Division of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Bangalore during the
summer session 2013. Being renowned company of India & abroad, it gave me the opportunity
to learn the work carried out here, got a glimpse of new environment & hard work of industrial
unit.

I was posted under Mr. Thomas’s(Trainee, Adour Division)guidance. He was very helpful
during my training.

I also wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to the staff of HAL without whose cooperation, this
training would not have been successful.

SHIVAM

IIIrd Year, Manipal Institute of Technology

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 PREFACE

Training has been misinterpreted by most of us as a platform for project performing. Industrial
training in true sense has been included in curriculum to make the student well versed with the
technical procedure of various industries, the basic criteria for management of various resources
in a company or industry.

The educational institution sole aim by industrial training is to improve the technical knowledge
and to have a hand on experienced to make them realistic in thinking, to understand the
procedure for manufacturing, keeping in mind every minute details which will benefit the
customer as no learning is proper without implementation.

Doctors, Lawyers, hotel management student’s surely hold a upper hand. Its because right from
the second year of their graduation they are made to face the world and their problems with a
tender mind. In due course of time slowly but steadily, they develop a competitive attitude and
have a definite plan and aim as they complete their graduation, unlike the engineers like us who
are completely isolated from industry. Therefore there should be industry institutions made
compulsory for every engineering institutes.

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 CONTENTS

Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1. Introduction 4

2. Classification of Engines 5-7

3. Adour Mk. 811 8-11

4. Compression Blade Testing 12

5. Assembly of Adour Mk. 811 13

6. Turbine Blade Cooling 14-15

7. Testing of Adour Mk. 811 16-18

8. Defect Investigaton 19-20

9. Dart Mk.533-2 Engine 21-24

10. Balancing of Engine 25-26

11. Shakti Engine 27-29

12. Adour Mk. 871 30

13. Hardness Test 31-32

14. Non Destructive Testing 33-38

15. Conclusion 39

16. Bibliography 40

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 1. INTRODUCTION
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited has blossomed into a major player in the global aviation arena,
and today is among the elite Navratna companies. The history of Indian aircraft industry can be
traced to the foundation of Hindustan Aircraft Limited at Bangalore in December 1940 in
association with the erstwhile princely state of Mysore and late Shri Seth Walchand Hirachand,
an industrialist of extra-ordinary vision. Govt. of India became one of its shareholders in March
1941 and took over the management in 1942. Hindustan Aircraft Limited was merged with
Aeronautics India Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Department Kanpur to form HAL on 1-
october-1964. Today HAL has got 18 production divisions & 9 research & design centers spread
out in 7 different locations in India. Its product track record consists of 12 types of aircraft from
in house R & D and 13 types by license production. HAL has so far produced about 3352 aircraft
(which include 11 type of indigenous design), 3583 engines & overhauled over 8141aircraft &
27267 engines. HAL has engaged & succeeded in number of R & D programs for both the
military and civil aviation sectors. Substantial progress has been made in the current project like
Dhruv –Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH), Tejas-Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), Intermediate
Jet Trainer (IJT) & various military and civil upgrades. The deliveries of Dhruv were affected to
Indian Army, Navy, Air force & Cost Guards in March 2002, in its first year of production which
is a unique achievement.

The Engine Division of HAL-Bangalore focuses on the assembly, overhaul, testing of the
engines and production of some components. The Engines that I studied during my training
period were Adour Mk. 811 ( used in Jaguar Aircraft), Adour Mk. 871 (used in trainer aircraft),
Dart Engine, and Shakti Engine (used in Dhruv Helicopter). The manufacturing of blades,
different hardness tests, Assembly and Testing of Engines were studied during this process.

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 2. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINES

Historically, engines have evolved from simple conceptions to very complex designs. Yet,
several different types of engines continue to be used. For a given application, one particular
type may be significantly better than another. The Engines used in an Aircraft are basically
classified as:-

1. RAMJET- The "simplest" jet engine is the ramjet. This engine is only used in very high
speed applications and is not capable of self-propelled takeoff. The ramjet is simple
because it has no moving parts. Basically, the engine moves relative to the air with a
velocity U. Air enters the diffuser, where the air pressure is significantly increased owing
to the high air speed. Air enters the combustor next and mixes with the fuel and burns,
thus increasing the temperature. Finally, the hot and expanded gases are accelerated and
leave the engine through the nozzle, producing thrust.

2. TURBOJET- The turbojet represents the next level of engine complexity. The turbojet
also has a diffuser, which decreases the fluid velocity and increases the incoming air
pressure. Air enters the compressor next, where the fluid is worked on and the density is
increased, and this process is accompanied by an elevation in pressure and a moderate
increase in temperature. The air then enters the combustor, where the injected fuel burns
with the air. The temperature and specific volume ofthe gas increase significantly. The
turbine is used to extract some of the energy from the air, and this energy is used to drive
the compressor; the turbine and compressor are on the same shaft. Finally, the hot and
expanded air, which is still at moderate pressure, flows through the nozzle and is
accelerated to a high velocity to produce thrust.

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 TWIN-SPOOL TURBOJET

3. TURBOFAN- The turbofan is at one level of complexity above a turbojet engine. It is a

heavier power plant but has better fuel economy than a turbojet. Two fundamental types
of turbofans are used. Each will be described separately. Turbofans are always multispool
engines. In the front of the engine, the air is first diffused. The air enters the fan, which
compresses the air and increases the pressure somewhat. The air is then split at the
"splitter," and a portion of it enters the low-pressure compressor and continues down the
"core" of the engine. Eventually this "core" air exhausts through the primary exhaust
nozzle and produces thrust. The second stream of air is called the "bypass" air. In this
engine type, the "bypass" air is accelerated in the fan nozzle, producing a second or
additional thrust. The fan and usually the first few stages of the low-pressure compressor
are driven by the low-pressure turbine. The high-pressure compressor extracts its energy
from the high-pressure turbine.
In a few cases, three shafts are used.

4. TURBOPROP- Another engine type is the turboprop. For this type, the core of the
engine is similar to a turbojet -namely, a diffuser, compressor, and turbine are used. The

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 core airflow is accelerated through the exhaust nozzle, which produces one component of
thrust. A second component of thrust, and usually the largest, is obtained from the
propeller. The power for the propeller is extracted from the turbo shaft in the core -that is
a part of the turbine work drives the propeller. A gearbox reduces the speed so that the
propeller spins at a lower speed than the compressor.

5. TURBOSHAFT- The last aircraft engine type is the turboshaft. It is basically the same
as the turboprop except that thrust is not derived from the exhaust. The gas from the core
exhausts at a low velocity,
and consequently additional thrust is not obtained. These engines are used largely for
helicopter applications, although it is noteworthy that turboshaft engines are used to drive
tanks and other ground vehicles with a transmission attached to the shaft in lieu of the
rotating blades.

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 3. ADOUR Mk. 811 ENGINE

Adour Engine is a bypass Jet Engine of modular construction. The Adour has two-stage low
pressure and five-stage high pressure axial flow Compressors which are driven by separate,
single stage high pressure and low pressure Turbines connected through co-axial shafts, with low
pressure shaft passing through high pressure shaft.

Main Characteristics:

Intake- 0.564

Length (m) - 2.90

Weight (Kg) – 794

Thrust – 2500 N (dry)

Wet Thrust- 3700 N ( including the afterburner System)

SFC- 0.80

Bypass Ratio – 0.74:1

HP speed-104 ± 0.75

LP speed- 104 %

TGC - 640°C

TEC – 1212°C

Oil Consumption – 0.57/hour

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This engine has been divided into 12 modules.

These are-

1. LP COMPRESSOR- The fluid first enters the fan and then the low-pressure (LP)
compressor, which is usually on the same shaft as the fan. The Low Pressure compressor
consists of one stage titanium rotor blades(27 blades) then one stage aluminium stator
blades then one stage aluminium rotor blades(32 blades). Here the compressor ratio is
1:25

2. LP STATIC COMPRESSOR- This Module only has stator blades which are made of
Aluminium. The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely
reverses the direction of the fluid. Because of this arrangement, the stator cannot spin
with the fluid -- it can spin only in the opposite direction, forcing the fluid to change
direction as it hits the stator blades.

3. INTERNAL GEAR BOX- The design of the internal gearbox is complicated by the heat
and small space available in which to connect the driveshaft. Module 3 is where bypass
of air starts and the twin spool concept also starts here .It is a low bypass type of engine

4. HP COMPRESSOR- The High pressure compressor has 5 stage rotor and 4 stage
stator. The rotor blades are titanium while the stator blades are made up of aluminium.
Here the compressor ratio is 1:45. The no. of blades in the Rotors are:

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 1st stage - 41 blades

2nd stage – 45 blades

3rd stage - 49 blades

4th stage – 47 blades

5th stages – 49 blades

5. HP NOZZZLE GUIDE VANES – Nozzle Guide Vanes are placed just after the
Combustion Chamber. It is made of Steel to withstand high temperatures. They are the
stator blades of turbine. They are convex and shaped like airfoils. They direct the airflow
onto the turbine blades while at the same time converting pressure energy into kinetic
energy. Gases coming from the combustion chamber pass through the nozzle guide
vanes, where because of their convergent shape they accelerate. On passing through the
NVGs, gases are given a “spin” or a “swirl” in the direction of the rotation of the turbine
rotor blades. The latter absorb this energy, causing the turbine to rotate at a high speed.

6. HP TURBINE- It consists only of one stage. It has 78 nemonic rotor blades.

7. LP NOZZLE GUIDE VANES- After passing through the turbine, the pressure energy
has already been converted into Kinetic Energy. So Low Pressure NGV’s are used to
guide and accelerate the remaining amount of flow. LP NGV has 24 blades.

8. LP TURBINE- It also has only one stage. It consists of 94 rotor blades. Here again,
since the flow has been converted into low pressure by NGV, LP turbine is used.

9. EXHAUST CONE- Exhaust Cone are present after the Turbine Stage to guide the air
from the nozzle and accelerate it to gain high Thrust. The exhaust cone acts as an
aerodynamic cover for the tubine hub/shaft and is part of the convergent duct geometry at
the very aft of the exhaust that converts the high pressure gas coming off the last turbine
stage into high velocity gas as it exits the engine (creating more thrust).

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 10. HS GEARBOX- Module 10 consists of gear box and many small accessories like LP
pump, HP pump, AC generator, air starter. The accessory drive is usually arranged as a
curved casing, so that the various accessories are mounted close to the engine. The casing
is a pair of light alloy castings. Separate machined mounting pads are provided for each
accessory. The drive within the casing is provided by a train of spur gears. Accessories
are arranged on both sides of the driveshaft entry, in reducing order of their speed.

11. FUEL TANK AND FILLET- Module 11 consists of oil tank (21 pins cap), fuel control
unit, re-heat fuel control unit. Oil control unit has 3 filters oil filter, LP fuel filter, RH fuel
filter. Oil System basically has three functions-
a) Reduce Vibration
b) Cooling of the Engine Parts
c) Lubrication of the parts such as bearings.

The capacity of this engine’s Oil Tank is 21 pints ( 1 pint=0.57 litres). The grade of Oil used here
is OX27. The rate of Consumption is 1 pints/hour. Although the maximum amount of oil
consumed is 8 pints after which it gives warning to the Pilot.

Module 10 and 11 together comprises all the accessories and gear box which can be assembled
separately and then assembled with the engine.

12. JET PIPE (AFTERBURNER)- This module has catalytic ignitors which are fitted to
the afterburner. The afterburner system has a separate combustion System which is done
by ignitors fitted in it. The Thrust which we obtain after activating the afterburner is
called Wet Thrust. In this engine, the wet Thrust is 37.5 KN.

Note: The Combustion Chamber is considered as a NMP (Non Modular Part), So it is not listed
under modules.

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 4. COMPRESSOR BLADE TESTING
It is a inspection method used for the testing of the Compressor Blades. Scale Off is major
enemy to the blades. Scale Off is basically the erosion of the thickness of the Compressor
Blades. One Method used for the testing the life of the Blades is Life Marking Codes. These
codes are written over the blade and they denote the life of the blade. The codes are as
follows:

A 1-20 hours O 261-280 hours

B 21-40 hours P 281-300 hours

C 41-60 hours Q 301-320 hours

D 61-80 hours R 321-340 hours

E 81-100 hours S 341-360 hours

F 101-120 hours T 361-380 hours

G 121-140 hours U 381-400 hours

H 141-160 hours V 401-420 hours

J 161-180 hours W 421-440 hours

K 181-200 hours X 441-460 hours

L 201-220 hours Y 461-480 hours

M 221-240 hours Z 481-500 hours

N 241-260 hours

These Markings are put over the blades to tell about their lifetime. For eg-

For 400 hours life marking will be U,

For 600 hours life marking will be ZE

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 5. ASSEMBLY OF ADOUR MK. 811 ENGINE

The assembly of an Adour Engine starts with Module 3 i.e the Internal Gear Box. After Module
3 has been put in place, it is followed by Module 4 and other following modules. The reason for
not installing Module 1 at first is that if during assembling, some bolts fall inside, it may be very
difficult to find them inside the fans and compressor blades. So module 1 is assembled at last.

The HP Compressor Shaft is checked for locking of the bolts. Silicon is used as an adhesive for
better fixing of bolts. Spacers are used as a covering over the bolts and for better fixing. The
front bypass duct is inserted after Module 3, 4 and 5. After installing the other following
modules, the rear bypass duct is installed. HP NGV and HP turbine is checked for concentricity.
It makes sure that the shaft has a regular circumference and does not have any irregularities.
Balancing is done on the rotating Parts to make the weight lie in the centre of the shaft.

The HS Gearbox is installed with all its gears and assembly and is checked for flawless
movement of all the gears.

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 HS Gearbox

6. TURBINE BLADE COOLING

Mainly aircraft turbine blade cooling is classified into two categories. They are:

1. Air cooling

2. Liquid cooling

Internal Air Cooling- The main merit which we obtain with internal air cooling is high
temperature withstand capacity even though it reduces the strength. It works by passing cooling
air through passages internal to the blade. Heat is transferred by conduction through the blade,
and then by convection into the air flowing inside of the blade.

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 General Internal Airflow

Sectional Display of Turbine Blade

Liquid Cooling- Liquid cooling seems to be more attractive because of high specific heat
capacity and chances of evaporative cooling but there can be problem of leakage ,corrosion,
choking,etc. which works against this method.

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A gas turbine blade is shown having channels subjacent the surface for a coolant to flow there
through from a radially inner inlet to a discharge port adjacent the blade tip. The channels
include intermediate enlarged chambers wherein a portion of the coolant is permitted to vaporize,
so that the smaller diameter coolant distributing channels remain substantially liquid full. The
vapor from the chambers is exhausted at a position radially inwardly of the blade tip and
preferably below the blade platform.

7. TESTING OF ADOUR MK. 811 ENGINE

Characteristic Engine Parameter

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Base Engine Weight: 794 kg

Base Engine Length: 2.90 m

Base Engine Diameter: 22.2 inches

Thrust(dry): 25 KN

Thrust(wet): 37.5 KN

Support Hardware:

Engine Stand/ Structure:

The engine stand consisted of a lower riser stand, mid riser stand, thrust stand, engine
cradle,containment shield, and an Inlet Control Device (ICD) mobile stand.

The Parameters recorded during the test were:

1. Pressure:

a.) Airmeter Static and Total Pressure

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 b.) L.P Compressor Delivery Pressure

c.) H.P Compressor Delivery Pressure

d.) Jet Pipe Static Pressure

e.) Fuel Inlet Pressure

f.) Fuel Burner Pressure

g.) Fuel Vapour Gutter Pressure

h.) Main Oil Pressure

2. Temperature:

a.) Air Intake Temperature

b.) L.P Compressor Delivery Temperature

c.) H.P Compressor Delivery Temperature

d.) Turbine Gas Temperature

e.) Engine Oil Temperature and Fuel Temperature

3. Others:

a.) HP Shaft Speed

b.) LP Shaft Speed

c.) Thrust

d.) Fuel Flow Rate

e.) Vibration

The Thrust is measured using Strain Gauge. Two load cells are connected to the engine and there
is little movement of the engine due to Newton’s Third Law (due to exhaust Velocity). This
deflection corresponds to the Thrust produced.

The Tests Conducted to the Engine during this period were:

1.) L.P Compressor Working Line Setting

2.) Performance Rating R/H unit

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 3.) L.P Compressor Working Line to R/H lit.

4.) Part Throttle Reheat (PTR) Rating

5.) Boost Ratio Setting and R/H Performance

6.) Ballast Resistor Check

7.) Handling Check and Pass off Setting

Note: RDT is called the RunDown Time. It gives us the total no. of hours taken to take down
the test. This time is generally 6 hours including the mounting and dismounting

An Engine being tested. A source is used to provide airflow to the engine

8. DEFECT INVESTIGATION (DI)

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Defect Investigation invlolves checking the engine for any errors that may have caused its
malfunctioning. Generally, It is started with checking the Turbine Blades for any deformation
because the most common cause of failure is TGT shootup.

Broken Parts of the Blades

In Adour Mk. 811, MCD (Magnetic Chip Detectors) were first checked. There are three MCD’s
available in an Oil Pump system. So if there is any damage to the blades, the magnets attract the
particles of the blade ensuring the damage of blades. After this, an Borescopy Test was done on
the Engine. Borescopes are used for inspection work where the area to be inspected is
inaccessible by other means. . Borescopes are mostly used in non destructive testing techniques
for recognizing defects or imperfections. Borescopes are used to perform a type of visual
inspection.

Videoscopy Test

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When visually inspecting critical engine components these tools assist in providing a closer look
at the engine environment which would not be accessible without a full engine tear down.

Corrosion occurs on almost all metals, borescopes and videoscopes allow you to look in the areas
that would usually be inaccessible. Magnifying glasses, comparators and mirrors allow you to
inspect areas which are easily accessible.

To check the HP Turbine Blades, we rotated the blades of the Turbine using the GearBox. Now,
Using the Videoscopes, we saw each blades and found out that one of the turbine Blades was
eroded.

Erosion in Turbine Blades

9. DART Mk. 533-2 ENGINE

The Dart series of Engines were manufactured since 1966 under licence from Rolls Royce, UK.
At present, these Engines are being repaired and overhauled. Two Dart Engines power HS-748
aircraft.

This engine has two-stage Centrifugal Compressors, three- stage Turbine and utilises water
methanol injection to increase the shaft Horse Power.

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It’s Main Characteristics are:

RPM 15000

TGT 780-800°C

SFC 0.348 kg/shp-hr

Weight 628.6 Kg

Length 2.498 m

Maximum Diameter 0.960 m

Power (shp) 1835 (dry)

1990 (wet)

Unlike The Adour Engines, Dart Engines are TurboProp Engines and they do not have a bypass.
These Engines are not divided into Modules. These have a Propeller, 2 stage Compressor, 3 stage
Axial Turbine. Again, It has a Centrifugal type of Compressor unlike Adour which has an Axial
Compressor. The life Cycle of this Engine is 3800 hrs.

The Components of Dart Mk. 533 engine are:

1. Propeller- The Propeller used here is of 4 blades of variable pitch. A Variable pitch propeller
is a type of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to change their pitch.
If the pitch can be set to negative values, the reversible propeller can also create reverse thrust
for braking or going backwards without the need of changing the direction of shaft revolutions.

2. Compressor- The Compressor used here is of Centrifugal Type. The idealized compressive
dynamic turbo-machine achieves a pressure rise by adding kinetic energy/velocity to a
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continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to an
increase in potential energy/static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser. The pressure
rise in impeller is in most cases almost equal to the rise in the diffuser section. This engine has a
2 stage Compressor system.

3. Combustor- In this type of Engine, Can type of Combustion Chamber is used. This has 7 cans
where 3rd and 7th Can have ignitors while all cans have burners. The numbering is done
anticlockwise from top. Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers.
Each "can" has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing. The primary air from the
compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed with fuel, and then
ignited. The secondary air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner
(inside of which is where the combustion is taking place). The secondary air is then fed, usually
through slits in the liner, into the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film cooling. During
the start cycle, two spark igniters light the fuel-air mixture. The combustion liners are
interconnected near their forward ends. Thus, after ignition takes place, the flame will propagate
to the remaining liners. An outer combustion casing provides the supporting structure between
the diffuser and the turbine section.

4. Turbine- This engine has a 3-stage axial Turbine System. The first is High Pressure
(HP)Turbine followed by Intermediate Pressure (IP) and Low Pressure (LP). A turbine is a rotary
mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. A
turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft
or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart
rotational energy to the rotor. The turbine assembly includes six major items:

1. Turbine inlet casing

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2. Turbine rear bearing support

3. Turbine rotor

4. Rear turbine scavenge oil pump

5. Turbine vane casing

6. Turbine vane assemblies

5. Accessory drive housing- The accessory drive housing assembly is mounted on the bottom of
the compressor air inlet housing. It includes the necessary gear trains for driving all power
section driven accessories at their proper RPM in relation to engine RPM. Power for driving the
gear trains is taken from the compressor extension shaft by a vertical shaft gear. The following
are typical accessories:

1. Speed-sensitive control

2. Speed-sensitive valve

3. Oil pump

4. Fuel control

5. Fuel pump

6. External scavenge oil pump

A number of non-driven accessories and components are typically furnished with the engine.
These may be broadly classified into fuel, air bleed, ignition, oil, and torquemeter systems.

Fuel System:

1. High-pressure fuel filter

2. Low-pressure fuel filter

3. Enrichment valve

4. Fuel manifold pressure switch

5. Coordinator

6. Relay box (aircraft mounted)

7. Temperature datum control (aircraft mounted)

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8. Temperature datum valve

9. Fuel nozzles (6)

10. Manifold drain valve

11. Burner drain valves (2)

Air Bleed System:

1. Anti-icing solenoid valve

2. Anti-icing air valves

3. Compressor bleed air valves

Accessories Location

10. BALANCING OF BLADES

Unbalance: It is caused by asymmetric mass distribution in a rotating body relative to its axis of
rotation i.e unbalance occurs whenever the inertia axis of a rotor does not coincide with its axis
of rotation.

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 Unbalance= unbalance mass * radius (U=u*r)

Balancing: It means improving the mass distribution in a rotating body in such a way that the
rotor rotates on its bearings with only a minimum of rotation forces are applied to the bearings.
Therefore, there is no need to completely eliminate the unbalance. Depending on the type and
application of the rotor, and also for reasons of economic efficiency, a higher or lower residual
unbalance is permitted.

Position and no. of Correction Blades

1. Single Plane Correction: In case of disc shaped rotor, balance in one plane is sufficient
provided that the distance between bearings is sufficiently large and the disc is positioned
perpendicular to the axis of rotation with a sufficient degree of accuracy.

2. Two Plane Correction: In the case of cylindrical, rigid body mass correction has to be
performed in the planes. The position of the two correction planes on the rotor can be selected at
random. Depending on the distance of the correction planes from the centre of the gravity
unbalance the unbalance masses to be corrected may vary for a given rotor.

Balancing is done only on the rotating parts. So it is done on turbine and Compresor rotor blades
only. The main aim of Balancing is to balance the disc so that the centre of mass comes to the
centre of the disc. If it is deviation from the centre, it causes vibration and can cause engine
damage and failure. So, the extra mass is sensed by the sensor which has a material which
calculates the mass due to its vibration. So, to balance the disc, the extra mass has to be nullified.
This can be done by either removing mass from that place or adding same amount of mass
opposite to that place. Or we can arrange the Blades such that the mass is balanced and C.G

26 | P a g e
remains at the centre. In the case of Adour Mk. 811 and Adour Mk. 871 engine, Balancing is
done by removing or adding some mass to the shaft. But in the case of Shakti Engine, Balancing
is done by arranging the rotor blades in order of their increasing mass and then putting them in a
disc such that heavier mass comes on one side, and lower weight blade is on other side. The rest
other blades are arranged according to the mass. After arranging the blades, the setup is put on a
mandrel and then rotated at some R.P.M. It has a sensor which senses the extra mass and gives
the angle and its distance from the centre. So, using that, we can arrange them again such that it
comes under the fatigue limit.

The Black Dot shows here the extra mass. We have to balance it in such a way that it comes
on/near the centre to avoid vibration.

11. SHAKTI ENGINE

The Shakti Engine is a free turbine Turboshaft engine and have a radial air intake and a two-stage
centrifugal compressor driven by a single stage axial gas generator turbine. These engines are
used in Dhruv Helicopter.

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It’s Properties are:

Mass: 205 Kg ( 451 lbs)

Length: 1279 mm

Breadth: 571 mm

Height: 707 mm

SFC: 0.323 Kg/KWh

Concept: Modular

Air-Fuel Ratio: 1:45

Oil Consumption: 0.3 litres/hr

Maxm. Takeoff Thrust: 1032 KW

Gas Generator Speed (100%): 39958 rpm

Power Turbine Speed (100%) : 20889 rpm

The Shakti Engine is divided into Modular Concept like Adour. It has three modules:

1. Reduction Gear Box- It consists of Reduction Gear Box with helical gear, accessory device
and output shaft. It features a dual channel FADEC. It stands for Full Authority Digital Engine
Control. FADEC is a system consisting of digital computer, called an electronic engine
controller (EEC) or engine control unit (ECU), and its related accessories that control all aspects
of aircraft engine performance. It reduces the Complexity of the piping system and reduces the

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weight considerably. It has a control system software which matches its single engine application
on the helicopter. It also comes along with an additional back up channel to provide extra safety
margin for single engine operation

2. Gas Generator- This module consists of two stage Centrifugal Compressor, annular reverse
flow combustion Chamber and a single stage axial turbine. A reverse flow combustion chamber
includes an annular chamber enclosed between flame tube wall sections to which cooling air is
so supplied from an outer annular channel acted upon with secondary air opposite the main flow
direction in the flame tube in such a manner that the cooling air that it is blown out in the
opposite flow direction film-like against an adjoining flame tube wall. So this helps in decreasing
the lenth of the engine.

3. Power Turbine- The module 3 consists of two stage axial turbine. A set of static guide vanes
or nozzle vanes accelerates and adds swirl to the fluid and directs it to the next row of turbine
blades mounted on a turbine rotor.

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The air enters the engine through the inlet which is covered with grids to avoid FOD. After that,
the air enters Module 2, compression and combustion takes place and then finally it moves to
Module 3 through which it leaves as an exhaust. The exhaust accounts for pretty low thrust, since
most of it is used to drive the shaft through Module 1. It does not contain any cambox. The FCU
is the brain of the Engine and FP is the heart of the engine. The Compressor Shaft and Turbine
shaft rotates in the opposite directions to avoid vibration in the Engine. The use of FADEC
reduces the complexity and the weight of the engine thus making it advanced and simple at the
same time.

12. ADOUR MK. 871 ENGINE

The Adour Mk. 871 engine is similar to the Adour Mk. 811 engine except that it misses an
afterburner. So, this engine has 11 modules. This has a Jet Pipe 2m long to guide the airflow and
increase the Thrust. This engine is used in trainer Aircraft ‘ Hawk 132’.

The 11 modules are:

1. LP Compressor

2. LP Static Compressor

3. Intermediate Gear Box

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4. HP Compressor

5. HP NGV

6. HP Turbine

7. LP NGV

8. LP Turbine

9. Exhaust Cone

10. HS Gearbox

11. Fuel Tank and fillet

Unlike Adour Mk. 811, the materials used in this engine is mostly titanium. The LP turbine is
made up of Nickeloy (Nickel + Cobalt) alloy. The HP Compressor has a Sermetel Coating to
avoid Corrosion.

13. HARDNESS TEST

The machines used for hardness test in this division were:

1. Vickers Hardness Testing- The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests
since the required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter can be
used for all materials irrespective of hardness. The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has
one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given by the test is known as

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the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH).

Vickers Hardness Testing Machine

2. Micro Hardness Testing- The microhardness testing has been widely employed for the
hardness testing of materials with low applied loads. In micro hardness testing, a diamond
indenter of specific geometry is impressed into the surface of the test specimen using a known
applied force (commonly called a "load" or "test load") of 1 to 1000 gf. Micro hardness tests
typically have forces of 2 N and produce indentations of about 50 μm. Due to their specificity,
microhardness testing can be used to observe changes in hardness on the microscopic scale.

Micro Hardness Testing Machine

3. Brinell Hardness Testing- The Brinell test is frequently used to determine the hardness of
forgings and castings that have a grain structure too course for Rockwell or Vickers testing.
Therefore, Brinell tests are frequently done on large parts. By varying the test force and ball size,

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nearly all metals can be tested using a Brinell test. Brinell values are considered test force
independent as long as the ball size/test force relationship is the same.

Brinell Test Formula

4. Rockwell Hardness Testing- The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the
depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a
preload.There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters.
When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.This important
relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with
lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.

RockWell Hardness Tester

14. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

In aircraft maintenance programme , it is important to inspect the mechanical damage and assess
the extent of the repair work. But in schedule maintenance it is a difficult to finding the defects

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rapidly, as the maintenance of aircraft must be accomplished within scheduled time and same to
be released in time for commercial operation. During aircraft maintenance 'NON
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING' (NDT) is the most economical way of performing inspection and
the only way of discovering defects. In simple we can say, NDT can detect cracks or any other
irregularities in the engine components which are obviously not visible to the naked eye.

The Engine Parts are made of Aluminium Alloy, Titanium, Magnesium, Steel. So these parts are
checked using various NDT methods.

At HAL Engine Division, the methods of NDT used are:

1. Liquid-Penetrant Test- Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest of modern nondestructive
testing methods & widely used in aircraft maintenance. Liquid penetrant testing can be defined
as a physical & chemical nondestructive procedure designed to detect & expose surface
connected discontinuities in 'nonporous' engineering materials.

The fundamental purpose of penetrant testing is to increase the visible contrast between a
discontinuity & its background. This is achieved by treating the area with Trichloroethylene, and
then encouraging the liquid to emerge from the developer, to reveal the flaw pattern under
ultraviolet light. The process involved during this process is:

1. Pre Cleaning:

2. Penetrant Application

3. Removal of Excess Penetrant ( Air and Water Pressure <= 25 psi)

4. Drying ( Hot Air Circulating Oven. Max Temp.=70°C)

5. Developing (Dry Powder)

6. Inspection

7. Part Cleaning

The Dye-Penetrant Test is generally used in parts such as NGV, shaft bearings, Turbine blades.

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The Test object is viewed under UV light. Through a process of fluorescence, we can see the
greenish yellow marks on cracks because the penetrant only allows GY range of VIBGYOR
since it strains the eyes least.

The Bolts are being tested for penetrant

Test. The greenish yellow spot shows
the cracks.

Turbine Blades being checked for Penetrant Test

2. Magnetic Particle Inspection: Magnetic particle testing is a sensetive method of

nondestructive testing for surface breaking and some sub-surface discontinuation in 'ferro-
magnetic' materials. The testing method is based on the principle that magnetic flux in a
magnetised object is locally distorted by the presence of discontinuity. This distortion causes
some of the magnetic field to exit & re-enter the test object at the discontinuity. This
phenomenon is called magnetic flux leakage. Flux leakage is capable of attracting finely divided
particles of magnetic materials that in turn form an 'indication' of the discontinuity.

The process involved are:

1. Parawash (Aviation Kerosene)

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2. Pre- Cleaning

3. Demagnetize (Tolerance ±3 gauss)

4. Cellular Magnetization (Simultaneusly applying Magnetic Ink)

5. Inspect

6. Demagnetize (Tolerance ±3 gauss)

7. Longitudinal Magnetization

8. Inspect

9. Demagnetize ( Tolerance ±3 gauss)

10. Parawash

11. Temporary Protection (Dewatering Oil)

Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Inspections MPI of ferrous material testing integrity verification.
Indications found with Magnetic Particle include in service fatigue cracks, corrosion, grinding
cracks on rotating parts and machined components, material overloaded fractures. Special
precaution must be taken with magnetic particle on aircraft to ensure the part is demagnetized,
post magnetic particle inspection and pre return to service.

Fluorescent magnetic particle testing is used on weldments, forged parts castings, turbine blades,
aircraft engines, wheel bolts and door latches. In the process of magnetizing the material, liquid
of iron oxide is poured continuously on it to act as a penetrant. The current is then set according
to the diameter of the shaft used such that magnetic intensity of 80 gauss is manintained. A

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current of intensity like 640 A, 3280 A is used. After that iron powder is spilled on the
magnetized material and it is viewed under UV light to see any discontinuity in magnetic flux.

Liquid Iron Oxide is being poured on the material as it is being magnetized.

3. Eddy Current Testing: Eddy current” is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method that uses
electricity and magnetism or electromagnetic induction to create a magnetic field in the article
under inspection.

Eddy current testing is widely used in the aerospace industry and in other manufacturing and
service environments that require inspection of thin metal for potential safety-related or quality-
related problems. In addition to crack detection in metal sheets and tubing, eddy current can be
used for certain metal thickness measurements such as identifying corrosion under aircraft skin,
to measure conductivity and monitor the effects of heat treatment, and to determine the thickness
of nonconductive coatings over conductive substrates. Both field portable and fixed system
instruments are available to meet a wide variety of test needs.

Eddy current NDT can examine large areas very quickly, and it does not require use of coupling
liquids. In addition to finding cracks, eddy current can also be used to check metal hardness and
conductivity in applications where those properties are of interest, and to measure thin layers of
nonconductive coatings like paint on metal parts. At the same time, eddy current testing is
limited to materials that conduct electricity and thus cannot be used on plastics. In some cases,
eddy current and ultrasonic testing are used together as complementary techniques, with eddy
current having an advantage for quick surface testing and ultrasonics having better depth
penetration.

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Eddy Current Inspection on Turbine Blades

Eddy current density is highest near the surface of the part, so that is the region of highest test
resolution. The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which the eddy current
density is 37% of its surface value, which in turn can be calculated from the test frequency and
the magnetic permeability and conductivity of the test material. Thus, variations in the
conductivity of the test material, its magnetic permeability, the frequency of the AC pulses
driving the coil, and coil geometry will all have an effect on test sensitivity, resolution, and
penetration.

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Eddy Current Test on Compressor Blades

15. CONCLUSION

The joy of flying has fascinated the human race for centuries. Defense avionics major
&Navratana PSU Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is in the business of building a whole
range of aircraft helicopters and jet trainers. Besides, the company manufactures aircraft
‘components, overhauls fighter planes and trains future pilots. It’s success in the design and

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development of light combat aircraft Tejas and advanced light helicopter Dhruv has won
admiration. HAL is the backbone of India’s air defense and continues to occupy the strategic
importance reflecting a new pace of growth. Today the faster growing sector is the aviation
sector & is likely to be a boon for the entire job market. It deals with the manufacture, design &
development of aircrafts.

The project is based on the engines used in various aircrafts and helicopters used by Indian
Army, Airforce, Navy or any private use. The engines that were studied during this process were
Adour Mk. 811, Adour Mk. 871, Dart Mk. 533-2 and Shakti Engines. Also, this training helped
in getting an insight of various NDT’s, hardness test and other manufacturing process.

Overall, this training was a good learning opportunity and to understand the different processes
that we have learnt theoretically. This gave a practical insight to how the engine works, how is it
assembled and its testing procedure.

16. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The references taken while making this report were:

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1. Fundamentals of Jet Propulsions with Applications Cambridge Aerospace Series

2. Adour Lab Manual

3. Principle of Turbomachinery in Airbreathing Engines Cambridge Series

4. www.wikipedia.com

5. http://utcaerospacesystems.com

6. http://hal-india.com

7. http://ndtaviation.com

8. www.datwiki.net

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