Fuild Mechanics Unit 5

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1
UNIT
BOUNDARY LAYER
Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg
Assistant Professor
~-~IL
CHAPTER
• 13.1 INTRODUCTION
When a real fluid flows past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles adhere to the boundary
and condition of no slip occurs. This means that the velocity of fluid close to the boundary will be same
as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationary, the velocity of fluid at the boundary will be zero.
Farther away from the boundary, the velocity will be higher and as a result of this variation of velocity,
the velocity gradient du will exist. The velocity of fluid increases from zero velocity on the stationary
dy
boundary to free-stream velocity ( U) of the fluid in the direction normal to the boundary. This variation
of velocity from zero to free-stream velocity in the direction normal to the boundary takes place in a
narrow region in the vicinity of solid boundary. This narrow region of the fluid is called boundary
layer. The theory dealing with boundary layer flows is called boundary layer theory.
According to boundary layer theory, the flow of fluid in the neighbourhood of the solid boundary
may be divided into two regions as shown in Fig. 13.1.
,u
--
_u __ /
BOUNDARY
LAYER
---
---
- Fig. 13.1 Flow over solid body.
SOLID BODY
1. A very thin layer of the fluid, called the boundary layer, in the immediate neighbourhood of the
solid boundary, where the variation of velocity from zero at the solid boundary to free-stream velocity
in the direction normal to the boundary takes place. In this region, the velocity gradient du exists and
dy
hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction of motion. The value of shear stress is
given by
611
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I 612 Fluid Mechanics
du
µ-.
't=
dy
2. The remaining fluid, which is outside the boundary layer. The velocity outside the boundary layer
is constant and equal to free-stream velocity. As there is no variation of velocity in this region, the
du
velocity gradient - becomes zero. As a result of this the shear stress is zero.
dy
• 13.2 DEFINITIONS
13.2.1 Laminar Boundary Layer. For defining the boundary layer (i.e., laminar boundary
layer or turbulent boundary layer) consider the flow of a fluid, having free-stream velocity (U), over
a smooth thin plate which is flat and placed parallel to the direction for free stream of fluid as shown
in Fig. 13.2. Let us consider the flow with zero pressure gradient on one side of the plate, which is
stationary.
TURBULENT BOUNDARY
-- LAMINAR BOUNDARY
LAYER
LAYER
--
-u
-- LEAD ING
EDGE LAMINAR TURBULE NT
ZONE ZONE
TRANSITION
ZONE
Fig. 13.2 Flow over a plate.
The velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate should be equal to the velocity of the plate. But plate
is stationary and hence velocity of fluid on the surface of the plate is zero. But at a distance away from
the plate, the fluid is having certain velocity. Thus a velocity gradient is set up in the fluid near the
surface of the plate. This velocity gradient develops shear resistance, which retards the fluid. Thus the
fluid with a uniform free stream velocity (U) is retarded in the vicinity of the solid surface of the plate
and the boundary layer region begins at the sharp leading edge. At subsequent points downstream the
leading edge, the boundary layer region increases because the retarded fluid is further retarded. This is
also referred as the growth of boundary layer. Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where
the thickness is small, the flow in the boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent. This
layer of the fluid is said to be laminar boundary layer. This is shown by AE in Fig. 13.2. The length of
the plate from the leading edge, upto which laminar boundary layer exists, is called laminar zone. This
is shown by distance AB. The distance of B from leading edge is obtained from Reynold number equal
to 5 x 105 for a plate. Because upto this Reynold number the boundary layer is laminar. The Reynold
number is given by (Re)x = U Xx
V
where x = Distance from leading edge,
U = Free-stream velocity of fluid,
v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid,
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Boundary Layer Flow 613 I
Hence for laminar boundary layer, we have 5 x 10 5 = U xx ... (13.1)

V
If the values of U and v are known, x or the distance from the leading edge upto which laminar
boundary layer exists can be calculated.
13.2.2 Turbulent Boundary Layer. If the length of the plate is more than the distance x,
calculated from equation (13.1), the thickness of boundary layer will go on increasing in the down-
stream direction. Then the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and motion of fluid within it, is
disturbed and irregular which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer. This short
length over which the boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called transition zone.
This is shown by distance BC in Fig. 13.2. Further downstream the transition zone, the boundary layer
is turbulent and continues to grow in thickness. This layer of boundary is called turbulent boundary
layer, which is shown by the portion FG in Fig. 13.2.
13.2.3 Laminar Sub-layer. This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to
the solid surface of the plate as shown in Fig. 13.2. In this zone, the velocity variation is influenced
only by viscous effects. Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the laminar
sub-layer zone, but in view of the very small thickness we can reasonably assume that velocity
variation is linear and so the velocity gradient can be considered constant. Therefore, the shear stress in
the laminar sub-layer would be constant and equal to the boundary shear stress 't0 • Thus the shear stress
in the sub-layer is
'to=µ ( -du) u
= µ-
.
{·: For lmear . .
vanat1on, -du = -u }
dy y ;O y dy y
I 3.2.4 Boundary Layer Thickness (o). It is defined as the distance from the boundary of the
solid body measured in the y-direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately
o.
equal to 0.99 times the free stream velocity (U) of the fluid. It is denoted by the symbol For laminar
and turbulent zone it is denoted as :
1. Oiam = Thickness of laminar boundary layer,
2. Orur = Thickness of turbulent boundary layer, and
3. o' = Thickness of laminar sub-layer.
13.2.5 Displacement Thickness (o*). It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in
flow rate on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by o*. It is also defined as :
"The distance perpendicular to the boundary, by which the free-stream is displaced due to the
formation of boundary layer".
Expression for o*.
BOUNDARY
LAYER
___ u
VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTI ON
PLATE
CD
Fig. 13.3 Displacement thickness.
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Consider the flow of a fluid having free-stream velocity equal to U over a thin smooth plate as
shown in Fig. 13.3. At a distance x from the leading edge consider a section 1-1. The velocity of fluid
at Bis zero and at C, which lies on the boundary layer, is U. Thus velocity varies from zero at B to U
at C, where BC is equal to the thickness of boundary layer i.e.,
Distance BC = o
At the section 1-1, consider an elemental strip.
Let y = distance of elemental strip from the plate,
dy = thickness of the elemental strip,
u = velocity of fluid at the elemental strip,
b = width of plate.
Then area of elemental strip, dA = b x dy
Mass of fluid per second flowing through elemental strip
= p x Velocity x Area of elemental strip
= pu X dA = pu X b X dy ... (i)
If there had been no plate, then the fluid would have been flowing with a constant velocity equal to
free-stream velocity ( U) at the section 1-1. Then mass of fluid per second flowing through elemental
strip would have been
= p X Velocity X Area= p XU X b X dy ... (ii)
As U is more than u, hence due to the presence of the plate and consequently due to the formation of
the boundary layer, there will be a reduction in mass flowing per second through the elemental strip.
This reduction in mass/sec flowing through elemental strip
= mass/sec given by equation (ii) - mass/sec given by equation (i)
= pUbdy - pubdy = pb(U - u)dy
Total reduction in mass of fluid/s flowing through BC due to plate
= J: pb(U - u)dy = pb J:<u - u)dy ... (iii)

{if fluid is incompressible}
Let the plate is displaced by a distance o* and velocity of flow for the distance o* is equal to the
free-stream velocity (i.e., U). Loss of the mass of the fluid/sec flowing through the distance o*
= p x Velocity x Area
= p X U X o* X b { ·: Area= o* X b} ... (iv)
Equating equation (iii) and (iv), we get
pb I: (U - u)dy = p X u X o*b
Cancelling pb from both sides, we have
J:(U-u)dy=Uxo*
or o* =-U1 lo (U - u)dy = lo (U - u)dy {

·: U is constant and can }
O O U be taken inside the integral
... (13.2)
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13.2.6 Momentum Thickness (8). Momentum thickness is defined as the distance,
measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer
formation. It is denoted by 0.
Consider the flow over a plate as shown in Fig. 13.3. Consider the section 1-1 at a distance x from
leading edge. Take an elemental strip at a distance y from the plate having thickness (dy). The mass of
fluid flowing per second through this elemental strip is given by equation (i) and is equal to pubdy.
Momentum of this fluid= Mass x Velocity= (pubdy)u
Momentum of this fluid in the absence of boundary layer= (pubdy)U
Loss of momentum through elemental strip= (pubdy)U - (pubdy) x u = pbu(U - u)dy
Total loss of momentum/sec through BC= J: pbu(U - u)dy ... (13.3)

Let 0 = distance by which plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with a constant velocity U
Loss of momentum/sec of fluid flowing through distance 0 with a velocity U
= Mass of fluid through 0 x velocity
= (p x area x velocity) x velocity
= [p X 0 X b X U] X U { ·: Area = 0 x b}
= p0bU2 ... (13.4)
Equating equations (13.4) and (13.3), we have
p0bU2 = J: pbu(U - u)dy = pb J: u(U - u)dy {If fluid is assumed incompressible}
Jor
2 6
or 0U = u(U - u)dy {cancelling pb from both sides}
or 0=2
U
1
16
O
u(U - u)dy = 1
6 u(U - u)dy
O U
2
0= I: ; [ 1- ; ] dy. ... (13.5)
13.2. 7 Energy Thickness (o**). It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the
boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction
in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is denoted by o**.
Consider the flow over the plate as shown in Fig. 13.3 having section 1-1 at a distance x from
leading edge. The mass of fluid flowing per second through the elemental strip of thickness 'dy' at a
distance y from the plate as given by equation (i) = pubdy
Kinetic energy of this fluid = .!_ m x velocity 2 = .!_ (pubdy) u2

2 2
Kinetic energy of this fluid in the absence of boundary layer
= .!_ (pubdy)U 2
2
Loss of K.E. through elemental strip
= .!_ (pubdy)U2 - .!_ (pubdy) u2 = .!_ pub [U2 - u2 ] dy

2 2 2
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Total loss of K.E. of fluid passing through BC
= rs_!_ pub [U 2 - u 2 ] dy = _!_pb rs u (U2 - u2 ) dy

Jo 2 2 Jo
{If fluid is considered incompressible}
Let o** = distance by which the plate is displaced to compensate for the reduction in K.E.
Loss of K.E. through o** of fluid flowing with velocity U
= _!_ (mass) x velocity 2 = _!_ (p x area x velocity) x velocity 2

2 2
1
= - (p X b X o** X U)U2 {·: Area= bx o**}
2
= _!_ pbo**U3
2
Equating the two losses of K.E., we get
-1 pbo**U3 = -pb
1 16 u (U 2 - u 2 ) dy
2 2 0
or o** = - 13 16 u (U 2- u 2 ) dy
U 0
o** = 1-u 1 -uu-

o
6 u [
2
2
] dy. . .. (13.6)
Problem 13.1 Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and energy thickness for
the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by.!!:...= 2'.., where u is the velocity at a distance y
U o
from the plate and u = U at y = o, where o = boundary layer thickness. Also calculate the value of o*/0.
Solution. Given :
u y
Velocity distribution =
U o
(i) Displacement thickness o* is given by equation (13.2),
= [ y - ~; J: {o
is constant across a section}
0 0 0 2
= o- -=O--=-.
20 2 2
Ans.
(ii) Momentum thickness, 0 is given by equation (13.5),
8=16;(1-;}y
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Substituting the value of .!!:.... = 2'..,

U 6
e= fo
6
f( f)
l- dy = fa° (f- ~: }y
l y3 ] 6 62 6 6 36 - 26 o
3
= [26 - 36 2 0
=26 - 366 =2-3=2 6 = 6° Ans.
(iii) Energy thickness 6** is given by equation (13.6), as
6** = 1a6-uu [ 1 -uu-ldy= l6a -6 1 -6y2-ldy

2
2
y[
2 {-: ; =f}
[Y
= Ia 3 - ~
6 l] =[l dy 26 - 46
y43 ]
6
0
0
= 26 -
2 04
463
3 3 23 -3 6
= ---=--=-.Ans.
2 4 4 4
(iv)
8
6*
= (f 2x6
(~) 6 6
= 3. Ans.
Problem 13.2 Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and energy thickness for
the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by ; =2 ( f)-(fr-

Solution. Given :
Velocity distribution
(z) Displacement thickness 6* is given by equation (13.2),
6* = fo6 ( 1 - ; ) dy
Substituting the value of ; = 2(f)-(fY, we have
6* = fo {1-[2(f)-(tr]}
6
dy
= 1: { (t)+(tr}dy=[y- ~{+ ::
1- 2 2 I
62 63 6 6
=6 - - +- =6 - 6+ - = -. Ans.
6 36 2 3 3
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(ii) Momentum thickness 0, is given by equation (13.5),
= ro [2y _ 4/ + 2y3 _ L + 2y3 _ LJdy

Jo o o2 o3 o2 o3 o4
_ r0 [2y _ sy2 + 4/ _ y4 Jd -[2l _ sy3 + 4y 4 _ y5 Jo
- Jo O o 2 o
3 o 4 y - 2o 3o 2 4o 3 5o 4 0
= [o 2 _ 5o 3 + .r_ _~]= 0 _ So + 0 _ ~
0 3o 2 o3 504 3 5
150 - 250 + 150 - 30 300 - 280 20
=- ------=--- = Ans.
15 15 15
(iii) Energy thickness o** is given by equation (13.6),
** ou
[ u 2y y2) ( [2y y2J2)
2Jdy= Iao (6-B2
o = fa U 1-[!2 1- 6-B2 dy
= r0 (2y _
Jo o
L)
o
(1-[4lo +L-
2 o
4/ J)dy
o 2 4 3
= ro [2y _L_ 8/ + 12y 4

_ 6y5 +LJdy
Jo o o2 o3 o4 o5 06
2y y3 8y4 12y 6y6 y1
2
= [- - - - - + - - - - + -
5 Jo
20 3o 2 4o 3 50 4 60 5 70 6 0
02 03 20 4 1205 06 07 0 12 0
=-----+----+-=0---20+-o-o+-
o 30 2 03 50 4 0 70
5 6 3 5 7
=- 20 _ ~+ g 0 +~= -2100-350+ 2s20+ 1so
3 5 7 105
-2450 + 2670 220
=- ---- = Ans.
105 105
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• 13.3 DRAG FORCE ON A FLAT PLATE DUE TO BOUNDARY LAYER
Consider the flow of a fluid having free-stream velocity equal to U, over a thin plate as shown in
Fig. 13.4. The drag force on the plate can be determined if the velocity profile near the plate is
known. Consider a small length Ax of the plate at a distance of x from the leading edge as shown in
Fig. 13.4 (a). The enlarged view of the small length of the plate is shown in Fig. 13.4 (b).
OUTER EDGE OF
BOUNDARY LAYER
BOUNDARY LAYER
--
-u D
-- 1-- X --l
A B
f--t,x
dy
y
i
I~IJiolo!o--..-llJlllli
f-- t,x - - j
B
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.4 Drag force on a plate due to boundary layer.
The shear stress t 0 is given by t 0 = µ ( ;u) ,

y y=O
where ( ;u)y y=O
is the velocity distribution near the
plate at y = 0.
Then drag force or shear force on a small distance Ax is given by
!1FD = shear stress x area
= t 0 x Ax x b ... (13.7) {Taking width of plate= b}
where !1FD = drag force on distance Ax
The drag force MD must also be equal to the rate of change of momentum over the distance Ax.
Consider the flow over the small distance Ax. Let ABCD is the control volume of the fluid over the
distance Ax as shown in Fig. 13.4 (b). The edge DC represents the outer edge of the boundary layer.
Let u = velocity at any point within the boundary layer
b = width of plate
Then mass rate of flow entering through the side AD
p x velocity x area of strip of thickness dy
pxuxbxdy { ·: Area of strip= bx dy}
pubdy
Mass rate of flow leaving the side BC
a
= mass through AD+- (mass through AD) x Ax
ax
= J: pubdy :x [fo (pubdy)] x Ax
0
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From continuity equation for a steady incompressible fluid flow, we have
Mass rate of flow entering AD + mass rate of flow entering DC
= mass rate of flow leaving BC
Mass rate of flow entering DC = mass rate of flow through BC - mass rate of flow through AD
= fa° pubdy + ! [fa° pubdy] x Ax - Ioli pubdy
= ! [Ia° pubdy] x Ax
The fluid is entering through side DC with a uniform velocity U.
Now let us calculate momentum flux through control volume.
Momentum flux entering through AD
= Ioli momentum flux through strip of thickness dy
= Ioli mass through strip x velocity= Ioli (pubdy) x u = Ioli pu 2bdy
Momentum flux leaving the side BC = Ioli pu2bdy + ! [f 01i pu 2 bdy] x Ax
Momentum flux entering the side DC = mass rate through DC x velocity
= ! [Ia° pubdy] X Ax X U ( ·: Velocity= U}
=![Ia° puUbdy] xAx

As U is constant and so it can be taken inside the differential and integral.
Rate of change of momentum of the control volume
= Momentum flux through BC - Momentum flux through AD
- momentum flux through DC
= Ioli pu 2 bdy + ! [Ioli pu 2 bdy] x Ax - Ioli pu 2 bdy- ! [Ioli puUbdy] x Ax
=! [f\u bdy] x Ax-! [Ia° puUbdy] x

0
2
Ax
=! [Ia° pu bdy- Ia° puUbdy] x Ax

2
= ! [Ioli (pu 2 b - puUb )dy] x Ax
= ! Ioli
[pb (u 2 -uU)dy] xAx
{For incompressible fluid pis constant}
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... (13.8)
Now the rate of change of momentum on the control volume ABCD must be equal to the total force
on the control volume in the same direction according to the momentum principle. But for a flat plate
!~ = 0, which means there is no external pressure force on the control volume. Also the force on the
side DC is negligible as the velocity is constant and velocity gradient is zero approximately. The only
external force acting on the control volume is the shear force acting on the side AB in the direction
from B to A as shown in Fig. 13.4 (b). The value of this force is given by equation (13.7) as
!iFD = t 0 x Ax x b
Total external force in the direction of rate of change of momentum
= - t 0 X Ax X b ... (13.9)
According to momentum principle, the two values given by equations (13.9) and (13.8) should be
the same.
- 'to X Ax X b = pb ! [f 0° ( U 2 - U U )dy] X Ax
Cancelling Ax x b, to both sides, we have
- t0 = p ! [J° 0 (u 2 - uU)dy]
or t0 =- p ! [fa° ( u2 - u U )dy] = p ! [fa° ( u U - u 2 )dy]
= p - a [1° U 2 ( -u
ax O U U2
l
- -u 2 ) dy =pU 2 - a
ax
[!O
0
U
u] ]
-u [ 1- - dy
U
or ~
pU
=
ax2
~[rJo 0
.!!:...[1-.!!:...]dy]
U U
... (13.10)
In equation ( 13.10), the expression fa° ; [1- ; ] dy is equal to momentum thickness 0. Hence
equation (13.10) is also written as

'to ae ... (13.11)
pU 2 = ax
Equation (13.11) is known as Von Karman momentum integral equation for boundary layer
flows.
This is applied to :
1. Laminar boundary layers,
2. Transition boundary layers, and
3. Turbulent boundary layer flows.
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For a given velocity profile in laminar zone, transition zone or turbulent zone of a boundary layer,
the shear stress t 0 is obtained from equation (13.10) or (13.11). Then drag force on a small distance Ax
of the plate is obtained from equation (13.7) as
!iFD = t 0 x Ax x b
Then total drag on the plate of length L on one side is
Fv= f 11Fv= (-r 0 xbxdx {changeAx=dx}. . .. (13.12)
13.3.1 Local Co-efficient of Drag [C0 *]. It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress t 0 to the
quantity .!_ p U2 • It is denoted by CD*

2
Hence CD * -- ___:Q_
1 . ... (13.13)
-pU2
2
13.3.2 Average Co-efficient of Drag [C 0 ]. It is defined as the ratio of the total drag force to
the quantity .!_ pAU2 • It is also called co-efficient of drag and is denoted by Cv.
2
Hence -
Cv- FD ... (13.14)
.!..pAU2
2
where A= Area of the surface (or plate)
U = Free-stream velocity
p = Mass density of fluid.
13.3.3 Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles. The followings are the boundary
conditions which must be satisfied by any velocity profile, whether it is in laminar boundary layer
zone, or in turbulent boundary layer zone :
1. At y = 0, u = 0 and du has some finite value

dy
2. At y = 6, u = U
du
3. Aty = 6, - = 0.
dy
Problem 13.3 For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer flows given as
; = 2(y/6) - (y/6)2
find an expression for boundary layer thickness (6), shear stress (t 0 ) and co-efficient of drag (Cv) in
terms of Reynold number.
Solution. Given :
(z) The velocity distribution ; = 2 (f)-(tr ... (i)
Substituting this value of.!:!... in equation (13.10), we get

u
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___!Q__
pU 2
= ~ [ r0 .!!:... ( 1- .!!:...) dy] =~ [ r0 [ 2 Y _
dx Jo U U dx Jo o
L] [
o2
1-( 2 Y _
o
L)] dy]
o2
ar [2y 5y2 4y3

0
= dx Jo o - o + o 2 3 -
l]d
o4
a[2y2 5xy3 4y4 5oy5]
y = dx 20 - 3o + 4o
2 3 - 4
0
= ~[~-~~+~-~i=~[o-~o+o-~]
dX O 3 o2 o3 5o 4 dX 3 5
= ~ [150 - 250 + 150- 30] = ~[300- 280] = ~[20] = _3__~ 0

dX 15 dX 15 ox 15 15 dX [ ]
2 a 2 a[o] ... (13.15)
'to= pU2 X --[o] = -pU 2 -
15 dX 15 dX
The shear stress at the boundary in laminar flow is also given by Newton's law of viscosity as
'to=µ (:u)y y=O

... (ii)
But from equation (i), u = u [2Y

0
_Ll
02
du = U [~-
dy o o2
2y] { ·: U is constant}
( du) =U[~-2x(0)]=2U
dy y=O O o2 0
Substituting this value in (ii), we get
2U 2µU
to= µx-y=-o- ... (iii)
Equating the two values of t 0 given by equation (13.15) and (iii)
_3_ u2 ~ [o] = 2µu

15 p dX o
or @ [o] = 15µU = 15µ or @[o] = 15µ dX

dx pU 2 pU pU
As the boundary layer thickness (o) is a function of x only.
Hence partial derivative can be changed to total derivative
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6d[6] = 15µ dx
pU
On integration, we get ~= 15µ x+ C

2 pU
x = 0, 6 = 0 and hence C = 0
62 15µx
=
2 pU
O= ✓2x15µx = ✓30µx = 5.48 ~ ... (13.16)

pU pU VPU
= 5.48 ✓ µx X = 5.48 /x' {-: R = pUx}

pUxx
X
V~ ex µ
X
=5.48 ~ ... (13.17)
-..JRex
In equation (13.16), µ, p and U are constant and hence it is clear from this equation that thickness
of laminar boundary layer is proportional to the square root of the distance from the leading edge.
Equation ( 13.17) gives the thickness of laminar boundary layer in terms of Reynolds number.
(ii) Shear stress (t0) in terms of Reynolds number
From equat10n
. (""")
m , we have t 0 = -2µU
0-
Substituting the value of 6 from equation ( 13.17), in the above equation, we get
to = 2µU = 2µU JR:: = 0.365 µU JR::

5.4g_X_ 5.48x X ex
Fe:
( iii) Co-efficient of Drag ( C 0 )
From equation (13.14), we have Cv = 1 Fv

-pAU 2
2
where FD is given by equation ( 13.12) as
Fv = rL 'to x b x dx = JorL 0.365 µU -..J!Ji;

Jo X"ex
x b x dx
= 0.365 rL µU ✓pUx x b x dx { ·: Rex = pUx}

µ
Jo X µ
= 0.365 r µU ~X lx Xb x dx
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= 0.365 µU /µ xb
{£f {£f x bx [Xl/2
Io x- n dx = 0.365 µU /µ
L 1 ½]L
0
= 0.365 x 2µU H x bx Ji
= 0.73 bµU ✓p~L ... (13.18)
0.73 bµU ✓p~L

Cv= 1
-pAU 2
2
where A = Area of plate = Length of plate x width = L x b
Cv =l 0.73 bµU ✓ pUL = 1.46 µ ✓pUL

-pxLxbxU 2 µ pLU µ
2
= 1.46 .Jµ = 1.46 ✓ µ = 1.46 ... (13.19) {.. VpUL-

{I_ 1 }
fti:
,.jpUL pUL ,JR:: 0
Problem 13.4 For the velocity profile given in problem 13.3, find the thickness of boundary layer
at the end of the plate and the drag force on one side of a plate 1 m long and 0.8 m wide when placed
in water flowing with a velocity of 150 mm per second. Calculate the value of co-efficient of drag also.
Take µfor water= 0.01 poise.
Solution. Given :
Length of plate, L=lm
Width of plate, b = 0.8 m
Velocity of fluid (water), U = 150 mm/s = 0.15 mis
. 0.01 Ns Ns
µ for water = 0.01 potse = - - - - 2 = 0.001 - 2
10 m m
Reynold number at the end of the plate i.e., at a distance of 1 m from leading edge is given by
R = pUL = lOOO x 0.15x 1.0 (·: p = 1000)
eL µ .001
= 1000 X .15 X 1.0 = l 50000

0.001
(i) As laminar boundary layer exists upto Reynold number = 2 x 10 5 • Hence this is the case of
laminar boundary layer. Thickness of boundary layer at x = 1.0 mis given by equation (13.17) as
X 5.48X l.Q
O= 5.48 II) = 1 0.01415 m = 14.15 mm. Ans.
--.JRe, -v150000
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(ii) Drag force on one side of the plate is given by equation (13.18)
Fv=0.73bµU ~
= 0.73 X 0.8 X 0.001 X 0.15 X ✓150000
= 0.0338 N. Ans.
(iii) Co-efficient of drag, Cv is given by equation (13.19) as
CD =...;Rel
1.46
{p=-v150000
1.46
= I .00376. Ans .
Problem 13.5 For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer !!:_ = l_
U 2 o 2 o
• (I)-!_ (l'..) 3
Determine the boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force and co-efficient of drag in terms of
Reynold number.
Solution. Given :
Velocity distribution, u =
U 23 (I)- 21 (2'..)3
0 0
Using equation (13.10), we have p~ 2 = ! [J°; ( 0 1 - ; ) dy]
Substituting the value of ; = ¾(f)-½ (f) 3

in the above equation
p~' = ! [r [Ht)-HiJl[ -{¾(t)-Ht)'}H 1
=![Ia°(~~ -;;3 )(1- ~~ ;;3 )dyl +
= ax
a [loo (3y 9y
2o - 45
2
2
3y 4
+ 45 4 -
y3
25 3 + 45 4
3y 4
-
y6 )
45 6 dy
l
a[ 3y2 9y3 3/ y4 3y5 y7 ] 0
= ax 2 X 20 - 3 X 40 + 5 X 40 2 4 - 4 X 20 3 + 5 X 40 4 - 7 X 40 6 0
a [ 30 2 3o 3 3 o5 1 o4 3 o5 1 01 ]
= ax 40 - 40 2 + 20 0 4 - 8 03 + 20 0 4 - 28 0 6
= ~
ax 4
[I o - I o + _i_ o - .!.. o + _i_ o - -1 a]
4 20 8 20 28
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1 o] = ao [84- 35-10] =l2.__ ao

= ~[~ 0 _ _!_ 0 __
dX 20 8 28 dX 280 280 dX
_ 2 x l2._ ao =l2.__ u 2 ao ... (13.20)
'to - pU 280 dx 280 p ax
Also the shear stress t 0 is given by t 0 = µ (du) ,where u= U[i 2'.. - y33 ]
dy y=o 2 o 20
du _U [ 3 3y 2 ]
dy - 2o - 2o 3
Hence (du) - U[l._
dy y=o -
__3 xo]- 320u
20 20 3 -
t =µ(du) =µ 3U =i µU ... (13.21)

0 dy y=o 20 2 o
Equating the two values of t 0 given by equations (13.20) and (13.21)
39 u2 ao = 3 µu
280P dX 2T
oao = i2 µU x 280
39
x -1-ax = 420 __E:_ dX
pU 39 pU 2
Integrating, we get ~= 420 __E:_ X +C

2 39 pU
where x = 0, o= 0, :. C = 0
02 420 µ
-=-.-x
2 39 pU
or 0= 420 X 2 __E:_ X = 4.64 ~ = 4.64 ✓ µx X X

39 pU 'JpU pUx
=4.64 ✓ µ X = 4.64 X ... (13.22)

pUx ,JR;
(i) Shear Stress t 0• Substituting the value of ofrom equation (13.22) into equation (13.21), we get
t = i ~ = _ 3_ µU ,JR; = 0.323 µU fR
O 2 4.64 X 9.28 X X '\J"e,
K
(ii) Drag force (F 0 )
Using equation (13.12), we get the drag force as
FD = JorL 'to X b X dx = JorL 0.323 µU fJi; X b X dx

x '\J"e,
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=0.323 r 0
µU
X
✓pUx
µ
x bx dx =0.323 µU {£f x b
Vµ
r0 -vX
~dx
= 0.323 µU N x b ( x- 112 dx
=0.323µU Nxf½'I =0.323x2µU Nxb[,/L]

= 0.646 µU ✓p~L xb ... (13.23)
(iii) Drag Co-efficient (C 0 ). Using equation (13.14), we get the value of Cv as

F
Cv = 1 D , where A= bx L
-pAU 2
2
0.646 µU ✓pUL x b
µ
- px b x L x U 2
_0
= ___,1- - ~ - - - - .646 X 2 X
__l:_
pUL
X
µ
f¥
✓ pUL -_ 1.292
pUL
2 µ
{-: ✓p~L =JR::} .. (13.24)
Problem 13.6 For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer
.!!:... = 2 (y/6) - 2(yl6)3 + (y/6)4

u
obtain an expression for boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force on one side of the plate and
co-efficient of drag in term of Reynold number.
Solution. Given :
u 2y 2y3 y4
(z) The velocity profile, -=---+-
u O 3 4 o o
Using equation (13.10), we have
~
pU
=
2 ax ~[rJo .!!:....(1-.!!:...)dy]
0
U U
Substituting the given velocity profile in the above equation
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= ~[ro
ax
(2y - 4y2 + 4y4 - 2y5 - 2y3 + 4y4 - 4y6 + 2y1
Jo O 0 2 04 o5 o3 o4 06 o7
+L- 2y5 + 2y1 _L)dy]
o4 o5 o7 08
= ~[ro
ax
(2y _ 4y 2 _ 2y3 + 9y4 _ 4y 5 _ 4y6 + 4y 1
Jo O 0 2 03 o4 o5 06 o7
_L) 08
dy]
a [2y2 4y3 2y4 9y5 4y6 4y1 4y8 y9I

= ax2o - 3o 2 - 4o 3 + 50 4 - 60 5 - 70 6 + 80 7 90 8
= ~[o-±o-!o+2-o-~o-±o+!o _ _!_o]
ax 3 2 5 3 7 2 9
=~[315-420+63x9-210-45x4-35] 0
ax 315
= ~[315-420+567-210-180-35] 0
ax 315
= ~ [882 - 845] 0 = ~ [ 37 ] 0 = 37 ao
ax 815 315 ax 315 ax
-r _ 37 u2 ao ... (13.25)
o - 315 p ax
Also shear stress is given by Newton's law of viscosity as
'to=µ(!u)
y y=O
where
( :; ) = u[ ½- :r -i4 3
]
( :; \ = 0 =U [ ½- ; (0) - ; (0)] = 2~
au) 2U 2Uµ
'to=µ ( ay y=O =µX-y=-0- ... (13.26)
Equating the two values of t 0 given by equations (13.25) and (13.26)

37 U2 ao = 2Uµ or oao = 315 X 2Uµ ax= 630 __!:_ ax
315 p o ax 37 pU 2 37 pU
. .
0 n mtegration, we get -32 =-630 -µx + C, where C = Constant o f mtegration
. .
2 37 pU
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At x = 0, o= 0 and hence C = 0
02 630 µ
-=--x
2 37 pU
O= 630x2 ~ x= 5.84 ~
37 pU 'Jpu
=5.84 = 5.84 ~
- - XX=
5.84x
~ ... (13.27)
-..JRe,
pUx
(ii) Shear Stress (t0). Substituting the value of ofrom (13.27) into (13.26)
t = 2Uµ = 2Uµ = 2Uµ TR= 0.34 Uµ TR.

0 O 5.84x 5.84x -..J"e, x -..J"e,
JR::
( iii) Drag Force (F 0 ) on one side of the plate :
Using equation (13.12), we get
Fv = ILt xbxdx= IL 0.34-

0
0
uµ
/Ji; xbxdx= IL 0.34---bdx
-..J "e,
0 X
uµ -Jpuµ
µ µ 0
= 0.34 Uµ U xb rL x- 112 dx= 0.34 Uµ ~ xbx [Xl/2

..e_ - ]L
µ Jo 1/2 0
=0.34 x 2Uµ ~ bJi =0.68 bµU ✓p~L ... (13.28)
(iv) Drag Co-efficient (C 0 )
Using equation (13.14), Cv = 1 Fv , where A= bx L

-pAU 2
2
0.68xbxµUx ✓pUL
= -~1----'--
- pxbx L xU 2
µ - = 0.68 X 2 -µ- X ✓-
pUL
pUL
µ
- = 1.36 X !¥ 1
pUL
2 µ
... (13.29)
Problem 13.7 For the velocity profile for laminar boundary flow .!:!... = sin
U
(1t2 z).
o
Obtain an expression for boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force on one side of the plate
and co-efficient of drag in terms of Reynold number.
Solution. (i) The velocity profile is .!:!... = sin

U
(1t20z).
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Substituting this value in equation (13.10), we have
=a
ax [(o + -
1]_(
1t -
¾)] = axa [2o _n x 20]
1t 1t 4 1t
20 20
= j___[20 _ ~] =j___[4-
ax 1t 2 ax
n] 0 = (4- n) aoax
21t 21t
_(4-21t--n) pu2 -aoax

'to- ... (13.30)
t 0 is also equal = µ (:u )

y aty=O
But
( :; ) = U cos(~ f) x;0
(:;\=o =Ux;0 cos(~x%)=~;
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to =µ (auay ) y=O
= µUn
26
... (13.31)
Equating the two values t 0 given by equations (13.30) and (13.31)
(
4-n)pu
2n
2 a 6 = µUn
ax 26
or 6a6= µUn x ~ x -
2
1-ax
4 - n pU 2
6a6 = n2 µU2 • ax= 11.4975 __E:_ax

(4-n) pU pU
62
Integrating, we get - = 11.4975 __E:_x + C
2 pU
At x = 0, 6 = 0 and hence C = 0
62
- = 11.4975 __E:_ X
2 pU
6= 2 x ll.4975__E:_x = 4.795 ~ x
pU 'JpU
= 4.795 ✓ pUx
µ = 4.795 ✓ µ
pUx
XX
4.795 X
... (13.32)
=Fe:
(ii) Shear Stress (t0)
µUn µUn µUn JR;

From equation (13.31), 't - - - - ~~~- =- ---
0- 26 - 2 X 4.795 X 2 X 4.795 X
Fe:
= n µU TR = 0.327 µU TR.
2 X 4.795 X -.J"e, X -.J"e,
(iii) Drag force (F 0 ) on one side of the plate is given by equation (13.12)
FD= ILt 0
0X b X dx = IL 0.327 -Fe:
0
µU
X x
X b X dx = 0.327 µU X b IL -1 ✓pUx
ox
- - dx
µ
= 0.327 µU x b x ,ii,
1£![ f, L
x-la dx = 0.327 µU x b
1£![ [Xl/2
x '{I' ½]L
0
= 0.327 X 2 X µU X b n X ./L
= 0.655 X µU X b x✓p~L ... (13.33)
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(iv) Co-efficient of drag, C 0 is given by equation (13.14),
F
CD =1 D , where A =b x L
- pAU 2
2
0.655 X µU X b X ✓pUL
CD = l µ =0.655 X 2 X -µ- X ✓-
pUL
-
- pU 2 X b XL pUL µ
2
= 1.31 X l =....!l!_ ... (13.34)

✓p~L .jReL
Note. f sin xds = (f- sin42x) is used.

2
Table 13.1 shows the values of boundary layer thickness and co-efficients of drag in terms of
Reynold number for various velocity distributions
Table 13.1
Velocity Distribution 8 CD
I.
~ =2 (i) -(tY 5.48xl.JR; 1.461 .jR:;_
2.
~ =¾(t) -½(tr 4.64xl.jR; 1.2921.jR:;_
3.
~ =2 (i) - 2 (tr +(tr 5.84xl.)R; 1.361.jR:;_
u . (ny) K
4. U =sm 28 4.79 xi 1.311.jR:;_
5. Blasius's Solution 4.91 xi.JR; 1.3281.jR:;_
Problem 13.8 For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer as,
find the thickness of the boundary layer and the shear stress 1.5 mfrom the leading edge of a plate. The
plate is 2 m long and 1.4 m wide and is placed in water which is moving with a velocity of
200 mm per second. Find the total drag force on the plate if µfor water= .OJ poise.
Solution. Given :
Velocity profile is
; = ½(i)-½(iJ
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Distance of x from leading edge, x = 1.5 m
Length of plate, L=2m
Velocity of plate, U = 200 mmls = 0.2 mis
Viscosity of water, µ = 0.01 poise= O.Ol = 0.001 Ns/m 2

10
For the given velocity profile, thickness of boundary layer is given by equation (13.22) as
O= 4.64 X
Fe:
2 5
[ Here R = pUx = 1000 X 0. X l. = 300000]
e, µ 0.001
s: 4.64x 1.5
u = ,J = 0.0127 m = 12.7 mm. Ans.
300000
Shear stress (t0) is given by t 0 = 0.323 µU ~

X "1/"e,
=0.323 X 0.001 X 0 ·2 X ✓300000 =0.0235 N/m2• Ans.

1.5
Drag Force (Fv) on one side of the plate is given by (13.23) as
Fv=0.646 µU ~ x b
= 0.646 X 0.001 X 0.2 X 1000 X 0 ·2 X 2·0 X 1.4

0.001
= .646 X 0.001 X 0.2 X ✓400000 X 1.4 =0.1138 N
Total drag force = Drag force on both sides of the plate
=2 X 0.1138 =0.2276 N. Ans.
Problem 13.9 Air is flowing over a smooth plate with a velocity of 10 mis. The length of the plate is
1.2 m and width 0.8 m. If laminar boundary layer exists up to a value ofRe= 2 x 105,find the maximum
distance from the leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer exists. Find the maximum thickness
of laminar boundary layer if the velocity profile is given by
Take kinematic viscosity for air= 0.15 stokes.

Solution. Given :
Velocity of air, U = 10 mis
Length of plate, L = 1.2 m
Reynold number upto which laminar boundary exists = 2 x 105
V for air= 0.15 stokes= 0.15 x 10-4 m 2/s
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Reynold number R = pUx = Ux

ex µ V
If Rex= 2 x 105 , then x denotes the distance from leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer
exists
2 X 105 = 10 XX
0.15 X 10--4
5
2 X 10 X 0.15 X 10--4
x =- - - - - - - - =0.30 m = 300 mm. Ans.
10
Maximum thickness of the laminar boundary for the velocity profile, ; =2 ( f)-(f) 2
is given by
equation (13.17) as
5.48 X 0.30
O= 5.48 XX ----.===- =0 .003 67 m = 3.67 mm. Ans.
JR:: ✓2 X 10 5
Problem 13.10 Air is flowing over a flat plate 500 mm long and 600 mm wide with a velocity of
4 mis. The kinematic viscosity of air is given as 0.15 x 10-4 m2/s. Find (i) the boundary layer thickness
at the end of the plate, (ii) Shear stress at 200 mm from the leading edge and (iii) drag force on one side
of the plate. Take the velocity profile over the plate as ; = sin (; . f) and density of air 1.24 kg/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Length of plate, L =500 mm =0.5 m
Width of plate, b =600 mm =0.6 m
Velocity of air, U = 4 mis
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.15 x 10--4 m 2/s
Mass density, p = 1.24 kg/m 3
For the velocity profile .!!.... = sin

u
(1t202'..), we have
(i) Boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate means value of oat x = 0.5 m. First find Reynold
number.
R = pUx = Ux = 4x0.5 = 1. 33 x 10s_
ex µ V 0.15 X 10--4
Hence boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of the plate as Reynold number at the end of
the plate is 1.33 x 105 •
o at x = 0.5 m for the given velocity profile is given by equation (13.32) as
o= 4 ·795x 4·795 X 0 ·5 =0.00656 m =6.56 mm. Ans.

JR:: .J1.33 X 10 5
(ii) Shear stress at any distance from leading edge is given by 'to = 0.327 µU ~
X "'1/"ex
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Uxx 4x0.2
At x = 200 mm = 0.2 m, Re = - - = = 53333
x v 0.15 x 10--4
0.327 X µ X 4 X ✓53333
'to=
0.2
u
But µ=vxp {-: V=-,
p
= 0.15 X 10--4 X 1.24 = 0.186 X 10--4
_ 0.327 X 0.186 X 10--4 X 4 X ✓53333 _ O 02805 NI 2 A
'to - - • m . ns.
0.2
(iii) Drag force on one side of the plate is given by equation (13.33)
FD = 0.655 X µU X b X ✓ p~L
{UL
= 0.655 X 0.186 X 10--4 X 4.0 X 0.6 X v----;-
4x0.5
= 0.29234 X 10--4 X ,_.l_5_x_l0_--4~ = 0.01086 N. Ans.
Problem 13.11 A thin plate is moving in still atmospheric air at a velocity of 5 mis. The length of
the plate is 0.6 m and width 0.5 m. Calculate (i) the thickness of the boundary layer at the end of the
plate, and (ii) drag force on one side of the plate. Take density of air as 1.24 kg/m 3 and kinematic
viscosity 0. 15 stokes.
Solution. Given :
Velocity of plate, U= 5 mis
Length of plate, L= 0.6m
Density of air, p = 1.24 kg/m 3
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.15 stokes= 0.15 x 10--4m2/s
Reynold number, R = UL= 5 x 0 ·6 = 200000.

e V 0.15 X 10--4
As Re is less than 5 x 105, hence boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of the plate.
(i) Thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate by Blasius's solution is
4.9lx 4.91 L 4.91 X 0.6
s:
u = JR; JR::
Rex
=
ReI
= 1
-v200000
= .00658 m = 6.58 mm. Ans.
(ii) Drag force on one side of the plate is given by equation (13.14) as
-
Cv- FD
_!__pAU2
2
1 2
Fv=-pAU XCv
2
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. .
where Cv from Blasms's solut10n, Cv =
1.328
Re L
= K ,J
1.328
200000
= 0.002969 .:::: .00297
1 2
FD = - X 1.24 X 0.6 X 0.5 X 5 X .002970 {·:A= L X b = 0.6 X 0.5}
2
= 0.01373 N. Ans.
Note. If no velocity profile is given in the numerical problem but boundary layer is laminar, then Blasius' s
solution is used.
Problem 13.12 A plate of 600 mm length and 400 mm wide is immersed in a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 and
kinematic viscosity (v =) 10-4 m 2/s. The fluid is moving with a velocity of 6 mis. Determine
(i) boundary layer thickness, (ii) shear stress at the end of the plate, and (iii) drag force on one side of
the plate.
Solution. As no velocity profile is given in the above problem, hence Blasius' s solution will be
used.
Given : length of plate, L =600 mm = 0.60 m
Width of plate, b =400 mm = 0.40 m
Sp. gr. of fluid, S= 0.9
Density, p = 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
Velocity of fluid, U= 6 mis
Kinematic viscosity, v = 10--4 m 2/s
Reynold number, R = U XL = 6 X 0.6 = 3 _6 X l04.

ei V 10--4
As ReL is less than 5 x 105 , hence boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of the plate.
(i) Thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate from Blasius's solution is
491x
O= JR; ,
R
where x = 0.6 m and Re = 3.6 x 10
4
X
ex
4.91 X 0.6
= I = 0.0155 m = 15.5 mm. Ans.
\13.6 X 10 4
(ii) Shear stress at the end of the plate is
'to= 0.332 pU2 = 0.332 X 900 X 62 56.6 N/m2. Ans.

,JR::
.J3.6xl0 4
(iii) Drag force (Fv) on one side of the plate is given by
1 2
Fv= 2 pAU xCv
1.328 1.328
where Cv from Blasius's solution is Cv = - - = I = 0.00699
K
"3.6Xl0 4
1 2
Fv=-pAU XCv
2
= _!_ X 900 X 0.6 X 0.4 X 6 2 X .00699 { ·: A =L X b =0.6 X .4}

2
= 26.78 N. Ans.
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• 13.4 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE
The thickness of the boundary layer, drag force on one side of the plate and co-efficient of drag
due to turbulent boundary layer on a smooth plate at zero pressure gradient are determined as in case
of laminar boundary layer provided the velocity profile is known. Blasius on the basis of experiments
give the following velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer
... (13.35)
1 7 5
where n = - for Re < 10 but more than 5 x 10
7
... (13.36)
Equation (13.36) is not applicable very near the boundary, where the thin laminar sub-layer of
thickness o' exists. Here velocity distribution is influenced only by viscous effects.
1/4
The value of t 0 for flat plate is taken as t 0 = 0.0225 p U2 ( ___l:__ ) ... (13.37)
poU
Problem 13.13 For the velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer ; =( f} 11
, obtain an
expression for boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force on one side of the plate and co-efficient
of drag in terms of Reynold number. Given the shear stress ( i-0 ) for turbulent boundary layer as
14
Z'o = 0.0225 p U 2 (p~o }
Solution. Given : ; =( f) 117
(z) Substituting this value in Von Karman momentum integral equation (13.10),
~
pU
= 0
ax Jo U
2
~[r
.!!:...(1-.!!:...)dy]
U
= ~[ r0
ax Jo
(I)O [i-(I)O
111 111
] d ]
y
=~[ r0
ax Jo
(L-
0117 Y 217
0
211
) d ]
y
= ax
a[ y111+1
(~+ 1 )111
(%+~)"' 1
a ~1 y8 11
1 y 911 ] a ~1 0 811
1 0917 ]
= ax l8 0111 90 211 = ax l8 0 111 9 0211
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8
= ~[2
9
_2
ax 0 0
]=~[63- 56] o=~[}_] o=}_ ao
72 72 ax 72 ax ax
In the above expression, the integration limits should be from o' too. But as the laminar sub-layer is
very thin that is o' is very small. Hence the limits of integration are taken from 0 to o.
1 2 ao
Now pU -
t0 = - ... (13.38)
72 ax
But the value of t 0 for turbulent boundary layer is given,
t 0 = 0.0225 pU2 (l) pUo

114
... (13.39)
Equating the two values of t 0 given by equations (13.38) and (13.39), we have
}_ pu 2 ao = .0225 pu2
72 ax
(l)
pUo
114
1/4
or l_ ao = .0225 ( ~) x - 1- {cancelling pU2 }
n ax pU o114
114 114
or O 114ao = .0225 X 72
7
X (~)
pU
ax= 0.2314 (~)
pU
ax.
01/4+1 ( µ ) 114
Integrating, we get
(¼+l) =0.2314 pU x+ C
114
or _i X 0 514 = 0.2314 (~) x+C
5 pU
where C is constant of integration.
To determine the value of C, assume turbulent boundary layer starts from the leading edge, though
in actual practice the turbulent boundary layer starts after the transition from laminar boundary layer.
The laminar layer exists for a very short distance and hence this assumption will not affect the
subsequent analysis.
Hence at x = 0, o = 0 and so C = 0
±05/4 = 0.2314 (~)1/4 X or 05/4 = 0.2314 X 5 (~)1/4 X

5 pU 4 pU
or 6= [ 023~4x5 (:u r{' =(023~4x5r (:u )"'x~,

1/5
= 0.37 (
:U )
X4l5 ... (13.40)
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=0.37 (p~J' x' 15

xx~5 =0.31 ( R'.J' xx= (::1~, .. (13.41)
From equation (13.40), it is clear that ovaries as x415 in turbulent boundary layer ~hile in case of
laminar boundary layer o varies as ✓ x •
(ii) Shear Stress (t0) at any point from leading edge is given by equation (13.40) as
t 0 = 0.225 pU2 ( -µ- )1/4

pUo
Substituting the value of o from equation (13.40), we have
114
t 0 = 0.0225 pU2 [ µ 115 ]
pU X 0.37 X (:u) X x 415
1/4
- .0225 X 2 u2 ( µ 415 ]
- 2 p 0.37 X (pU)4' 5 X x 415
u2
= .0225 x2 x-P-x 1 114 ( -µ-) 115
2 (0.37) pUx
= 0.0577 X pU
2
2
(_!:_) pUx
115
... (13.42)
( iii) Drag force (F 0 ) on one side of the plate is
2 115
FD= fL 'to X b X dx = fL 0.0577 X pU X (~) ~/5 X b X dx
Jo Jo 2 pU x
= 0.0577 X pU 2 X ( ~ )1/5 X b fL x- 115 dx

2 pU Jo
= .0577 x pU 2 x ( ~)1/5 xbx [ ~4/5 ]L

2 pU 4/ 5 0
= .0577 X 1 X pU 2 ( ~)1/5 X b X L415

4 2 pU
= 0.072 X pU 2 X
(
~)1/5 X b X L 415
2 pU
(iv) Drag co-efficient, C 0 is given by
F
Cv = 1 D , where A= L x b
-pAU 2
2
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.072 X pU
2
2
X (L)"
pU
5
X b X L415
= - - - -u2
--------
_p _ xbxL
2
=0.072 X (~)1/
pU
5
• -k-
L
=0.072 (~)1/
pUL
5
.072
=
R"5
.. .(13.43) {·: Re
L
= pUL}
µ
el
This is valid for ReL > 5 x 105 but less than 10 7 •
• I 3.S ANALYSIS OF TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
(a) If Reynold number is more than 5 x 105 and less than 10 7 the thickness of boundary layer and
drag co-efficient are given as:
s: = 0.37 X 0.072
u -(R_e_,)_l/_5 and CD= ( ReJl/5 .. .(13.44)
where x = Distance from the leading edge

Re, = Reynold number for length x
Rel = Reynold number at the end of the plate.
(b) If Reynold number is more than 107 but less than 109 , Schlichting gave the empirical equation as
CD= 0.455 258 ... (13.44A)

( log 10 ReJ ·
• 13.6 TOTAL DRAG ON A FLAT PLATE DUE TO LAMINAR AND

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
Consider the flow over a flat plate as shown in Fig. 13.5.
LAMINAR BOUNDARY
LAYER
___,.u
,....t=_A_-1
__ L----
Fig. 13.5 Drag due to laminar and turbulent boundary layer.
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Let L = Total length of the plate, b =Width of plate,
A = Length of laminar boundary layer
If the length of transition region is assumed negligible, then
L- A = Length of turbulent boundary layer.
We have obtained the drag on a flat plate for the laminar as well as turbulent boundary layer on the
assumption that turbulent boundary layer starts from the leading edge. This assumption is valid only
when the length of laminar boundary layer is negligible. But if the length of laminar boundary layer is
not negligible, then the total drag on the plate due to laminar and turbulent boundary layer is calculated
as:
(1) Find the length from the leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer exists. This is done
by equating 5 x 10 5 = Ux. The value of x gives the length of laminar boundary layer. Let this length is
V
equal to A.
(2) Find drag using Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer for length A.
(3) Find drag due to turbulent boundary layer for the whole length of the plate.
(4) Find the drag due to turbulent boundary layer for a length A only
Then total drag on the plate
= Drag given by (2) + Drag given by (3) - Drag given by (4)
= Drag due to laminar boundary layer for length A
+ Drag due to turbulent boundary layer for length L
- Drag due to turbulent boundary layer for length A. ... (13.45)
Problem 13.14 (S.I. Units). Determine the thickness of the boundary layer at the trailing edge of
smooth plate of length 4 m and of width 1.5 m, when the plate is moving with a velocity of 4 mis in
stationary air. Take kinematic viscosity of air as 1.5 x 10-5 m 2/s.
Solution. Given :
Width of plate, b= 1.5 m
Velocity of plate, U= 4 mis
Kinematic viscosity, V = 1.5 X 10-5 m 2/s
Reynold number, R __ U X L 4.0 X .40

= 1.5 = l0 .66 X
l05
el v x10-5
As the Reynold number is more than 5 x 10 5 and hence the boundary layer at the trailing edge is
turbulent.
The boundary layer thickness for turbulent boundary layer is given by equation (13.44) as
0 = 0. 37 x =L and Re =Re
(Re, t5 I Here x
x L
0.37 x4.0
0.0921 m = 92.1 mm. Ans.
= (10.66 X 10 5 )1' 5
Problem 13.15 In Problem 13.14, determine the total drag on one side of the plate assuming that
(i) the boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of the plate and (ii) the boundary layer is
turbulent from the very beginning. Take pfor air= 1.226 kg/m 3•
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Solution. The data of problem 13.14,
L =4 m, b = 1.5 m, U =4 mis,
v = 1.5 x 10-5 m 2/s
Re = 10.66 X 105 and p = 1.226 kg/m 3•
L
(i) When the boundary layer is laminar over the entire length, the value of Cv is given by
Blasius' s solution as
Cv = 1.328 = 1.328 .001286

Ti .Jl0.66 X 10 5
Drag force (Fv) on one side of the plate is
1 2
Fv=- pAU xCv
2
where A = b x L = 1.5 x 4 = 6.0 m 2
= -1 2
=0.0757 N. Ans.
x 1.226 x 6.0 x 4 x .001286
2
(ii) When the boundary layer is turbulent from the very beginning, the value of co-efficient of
drag, Cv is given by equation (13.43) as
0072 0.072
C - . =----.,..,,.. .00448
v- (Rej'
5 (10.66x10 5 5 )1'
1 2
Drag force, Fv= - pAU x Cv
2
1 2
= - X 1.226 X 6.0 X 4 X .00448 {·:A= b XL= 1.5 x 4 = 6 m 2 }
2
= 0.2637 N. Ans.
Problem 13.16 Water is flowing over a thin smooth plate of length 4 m and width 2 mat a velocity
of 1.0 mis. lfthe boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent at a Reynold number 5 x 105,
find (i) the distance from leading edge upto which boundary layer is laminar, (ii) the thickness of the
boundary layer at the transition point, and (iii) the drag force on one side of the plate. Take viscosity
of waterµ= 9.81 x 10-4 Ns/m 2•
Solution. Given :
Width of plate, b=2m
Velocity of flow, U = 1.0 mis
Reynold number for laminar boundary layer = 5 x 10 5
Ns -4
Viscosity of water, µ = 9.81 x 10 -
2
m
(i) Let the distance from leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer exists = x
5 X 105 = pUx = 1000 X LOX x (·: p = 1000)

µ 9.81 X 10-4
5
5 X 10 X 9.81 X 10-4
x =- ------- 0.4900 m = 490 mm. Ans.
1000
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1644 Fluid Mechanics

(ii) Thickness of boundary layer at the point where the boundary layer changes from laminar to
turbulent i.e. , at Reynold number= 5 x 105 , is given by Blasius's solution as
o= 4 ·91 x x I Here x = 49 cm = 0.49 m, Rex = 5 x 105

.JR;
4 ·91 X 0.49
us: = ----;,===- 0 .0034 m = 3•4 mm. Ans .
.Jsx10 5
(iii) Drag force on the plate on one side
= Drag due to laminar boundary layer+ Drag due to turbulent boundary.
(a) Drag due to laminar boundary layer (i.e., from E to F)
1 2
FEF = - pAU X CD ...(i)
2
where CD is given by Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer as
1.328
CD = JR;
R
, where for EF, Re = 5 x 10
X
5
ex
1328
= ----;====- = 0.001878
.J5 X 10 5
A = Area of plate upto laminar boundary layer

= 0.49 X b = 0.49 X 2 = 0.98 m 2
TURBULENT BOUNDARY
LAYER
---- u LAMINAR BOUNDARY

LAYER
PLATE
E _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _/_ _ _~
-------, G
--r'm~ 4.0m - - - - - - • I
Fig. 13.6 (a)
Substituting the value of CD and A in equation (i), we get

1
FEF = - =0.92 N.
2
X 1000 X 0.98 X 1.0 X .001878 ...(ii)
2
(b) Drag force due to turbulent boundary layer from F to G
= Drag force due to turbulent boundary layer from E to G
- Drag force due to turbulent flow from E to F
= (FEG)turb. - (FEF)turb.
1 2
Now (F FG)turb. = 2 pAU X CD
. . 0.072
where CD from equation (13.44) ts CD= "5
(Rel )
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But R = pUL = 1000 X 1.0 X 4 -~ = 40.77 X 10 5

~ µ 9Blx10
0.072
Cv = 115 = 0.00343
(40.77 X 10 5 )
(FEG)turb. = 21 pAU2 X Cv = 21 x 1000 X (4 X 2) X

2
1 X .00343 = 13.72 N
1 2
Also =
2 pAEF XU X Cv
(FEF)turb.
where AEF = Area of plate upto EF = EF x b = 0.49 x 2 = 0.98 m 2
and C - 0.072 0.072 115 = .00522

v- (REF)1' 5 (5x10 5 )
(FEF)turb. = 21 X 1000 X 0.98 X 12 X .00522 = 2.557 N

Drag force due to turbulent boundary layer from F to G
= (FEG)turb. - (FEF)turb. = 13.72 - 2.557 = 11.163 N
Drag force on the plate on one side
= Drag force due to laminar boundary layer upto F
+ Drag due to turbulent boundary layer from F to G
= 0.92 + 11.163 = 12.083 N. Ans.
Problem 13.16 {A) Air flows at JO mis past a smooth rectangular flat plate 0.3 m wide and 3 m
long. Assuming that the turbulence level in the oncoming stream is low and that transition ocurs at
Re= 5 x 105, calculate ratio of total drag when the flow is parallel to the length of the plate to the value
when the flow is parallel to the width. (R.G.P.V., Bhopal S 2001)
Solution. Given :
U = 10 mis ; b =0.3 m ; L = 3 m ;
Reynolds number for laminar B.L. = 5 x 10 5 •
The kinematic viscosity of air and density of air may be assumed as their values are not given in the
question. Take p = 1.24 kg/m 2 and v =0.15 stoke
p = 1.24 kg/m 3 and v = 0.15 stoke =0.15 x 10-4 m 2/s.
(i) Drag when flow is parallel to the length of the plate
Let x = the distance from leading edge upto which laminar boundary exists
Uxx lOxx
5 X l05 = p X U X X =----
µ V 0.15 X 10-4
5x10 x0.15x10-45
X =- - - - - - - - =0.75 m
10
Now the drag force on the plate on one side
= Drag due to laminar boundary layer+ Drag due to turbulent boundary layer ... (i)
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_ __ ___, G
LAMINAR BOUNDARY
u LAYER I
F PLATE I
I
I
E - - - - " " " ' ° ! - - - - - - - - - -I G
t 0.75 m --1+--- - - 2.25 m

~-,------3m-------
- - --11
Fig. 13.6 (b)
(a) Drag due to laminar boundary layer (i.e., from E to F)

1 2
FEF= - pAU X CD
2
where CD is given by Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer as
1.328 5
CD= ~,whereRex=5x10
...JRe,
= 1.328 =0.001878
,J5x10 5
A = Area of plate upto laminar boundary layer
=0.75 X b =0.75 X 0.3 =0.225 m2
p = 1.24 kg/m 3
1 2
FEF = 2 X 1.24 X 0.225 X 10 X 0.001878 =0.0262 N
(b) Drag force due to turbulent boundary layer from F to G
= Drag force due to turbulent boundary layer from E to G
- Drag force due to turbulent B .L. from E to F
= (FEG)turb. - (FEF) turb.
1 2
Now (FEG)turb. = 2 pAU X CD
where CD for turbulent boundary layer is given by equation (13.44) as

C _ 0.072
D - ( ReJl/5
But R =U X L = 10 X 3 = 20 X 10 s
e, V 0.15 X 10-4
0.072
CD= l/5 = 0.00395
(20 X 10 5 )
1 2 1 2
(FEG)turb. = 2 pAU X CD= 2 X 1.24 X (3 X 0.3) X 10 X 0.00395
= 0.2204 N
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1 2
Now (FEF)turb. = 2 p X AEF XU X CD
where AEF = Area of plate upto EF = EF x b = 0.75 x 0.3 = 0.225 m 2
and C - 0.072 - 0.072 - 0 00522

D- [(Re)EF r5 - (5 X 105/'5 - .
(FEF)turb. = 21 X 1.24 X 0.225 X 102 X 0.00522 =0.0728 N

Drag force due to turbulent boundary layer from F to G
= (FEG)turb· - (FEF)turb· = 0.2204 - 0.0728 = 0.1476 N
Total drag force when flow is parallel to the length of the plate
= Drag due to laminar boundary layer upto F
+ Drag due to turbulent boundary layer from F to G
=0.0262 + 0.1476 =0.1738 N ... (A)
(ii) Drag when flow is parallel to the width of the plate
We have already calculated that upto the length of 0.75 m from the leading edge, the boundary layer
is laminar. As the width of the plate is only 0.3 m, hence when flow is parallel to the width of the plate,
only laminar boundary layer will be formed.
Drag force on the plate
1 2
= - pAU x Cv
2
where Cv from Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer is given as
1.328
Cv = ~ , here x = width of plate= 0.3 m hence
...;Re,
R = UXX = 10 X 0.3 = 2 X l05

ex V 0.15 X 10-4
1.328
= ---.==== = 0.00297
✓2x10 5
A = Area of plate upto width (0.3 m) = 3 x 0.3 = 0.9
p = 1.24 kg/m 3
:. Total drag on the plate = _!_ X 1.24 X 0.9 X 102 X 0.00297

2
= 0.1657 N ... (B)
Ratio of two total drags given by equations (A) and (B) becomes as
Total drag when flow is parallel to the length of the plate Equation (A) 0.1738
-----"---------=----------''------"-- = ------'--'- = - - = 1.05. Ans.
Total drag when flow is parallel to the width of the plate Equation (B) 0.1657
Problem 13.17 Oil with a free-stream velocity of 2 mis flows over a thin plate 2 m wide and 2 m
long. Calculate the boundary layer thickness and the shear stress at the trailing end point and
determine the total surface resistance of the plate. Take specific gravity as 0.86 and kinematic
viscosity as 10-5 m2/s.
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Solution. Given :
Free-stream velocity of oil, U = 2 mis
Width of plate, b=2m
Area of plate, A = b x L = 2 x 2 =4 m 2
Specific gravity of oil, S = 0.86
Density of oil, p =0.86 x 1000 = 860 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity, v = 10-5 m 2/s
Now the Reynold number at the trailing end,
R = UL = 2 X 2 =4 x l05.
eL V 10-5
Since Re L is less than 5 x 10 5, the boundary layer is laminar over the entire length of the plate.
Thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate from Blasius' s solution is,
O= 4.91 XL 4.91 x2.0
.J =0.0155 m = 15.5 mm. Ans.
,JR:: 4 x10 5
Shear stress at the end of the plate is, t 0 = 0.332 x = 1.805 N/m 2• Ans.
Surface resistance on one side of the plate is given by
1 2
Fv= 2 pAU x Cv
where Cv = 1.328 = 1.328 =0.0021

,JR:: ,J4x10 5
1 2
FD= 2 X 860 X4.0 X 2 X .0021 = 14.44 N
Total resistance =2 X Fv =2 X 14.44 =28.88 N. Ans.
• 13. 7 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
When a solid body is immersed in a flowing fluid, a thin layer of fluid called the boundary layer is
formed adjacent to the solid body. In this thin layer of fluid, the velocity varies from zero to
free-stream velocity in the direction normal to the solid body. Along the length of the solid body, the
thickness of the boundary layer increases. The fluid layer adjacent to the solid surface has to do work
against surface friction at the expense of its kinetic energy. This loss of the kinetic energy is recovered
from the immediate fluid layer in contact with the layer adjacent to solid surface through momentum
exchange process. Thus the velocity of the layer goes on decreasing. Along the length of the solid
body, at a certain point a stage may come when the boundary layer may not be able to keep sticking
to the solid body if it cannot provide kinetic energy to overcome the resistance offered by the solid
body. In other words, the boundary layer will be separated from the surface. This phenomenon is
called the boundary layer separation. The point on the body at which the boundary layer is on the
verge of separation from the surface is called point of separation.
13. 7.1 Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Separation. The effect of pres-
sure gradient ( : ) on boundary layer separation can be explained by considering the flow over a
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curved surface ABCSD as shown in Fig. 13.7. In the region ABC of the curved surface, the area of
flow decreases and hence velocity increases. This means that flow gets accelerated in this region.
Due to the increase of the velocity, the pressure decreases in the direction of the flow and hence
pressure gradient dp is negative in this region. As long as dp < 0, the entire boundary layer moves
dx dx
forward as shown in Fig. 13.7.
Region CSD of the curved surface. The pressure is minimum at the point C. Along the region
CSD of the curved surface, the area of flow increases and hence velocity of flow along the direction
of fluid decreases. Due to decrease of velocity, the pressure increases in the direction of flow and
hence pressure gradient dp is positive or dp > 0. Thus in the region CSD, the pressure gradient is
dx dx
positive and velocity of fluid layer along the direction of flow decreases. As explained in the Art. 13. 7,
the velocity of the layer adjacent to the solid surface along the length of the solid surface goes on
decreasing as the kinetic energy of the layer is used to overcome the frictional resistance of the
surface. Thus the combined effect of positive pressure gradient and surface resistance reduce the
momentum of the fluid is unable to the surface. A stage comes, when the momentum of the fluid is
unable to overcome the surface resistance and the boundary layer starts separating from the surface
at the point S. Downstream the point S, the flow is taking place in reverse direction and the velocity
gradient becomes negative.
SEPARATING
STREAM LINE
PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION
Pmin ~ >O
dx
B C s
Fig. 13.7 Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer separation.
Thus the positive pressure gradient helps in separating the boundary layer.
13. 7.2 Location of Separation Point. The separation point Sis determined from the condition,
(au)
dy y ;O
=0 ...(13.46)
For a given velocity profile, it can be determined whether the boundary layer has separated, or on
the verge of separation or will not separate from the following conditions :
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1. If (!u)y y=O
is negative ... the flow has separated.
2. If ( !u)
y y=O
= 0 ... the flow is on the verge of separation.
3. If (!u)
y y=O
is positive ... the flow will not separate or flow will remain attached with the surface.
Problem 13.18 For the following velocity profiles, determine whether the flow has separated or on
the verge of separation or will attach with the surface :
(i) ; =%(i)-1(iJ,
(iii) ; =-2(f)+(fJ2
Solution. Given :
1st Velocity Profile
; =¾(f)-½(fJ or u= ~(f)-~(fJ3
Differentiating w .r.t. y, the above equation becomes,
du = '3U X _!_ - UX 3 (l'._)2 X _!_

ay2 32 o o
At y =O' (du)
dy y=O
=23 2(Q_)o xo=20
3U _ 3U
2
_!_ 3U.
As (!u)
y y=O
is positive. Hence flow will not separate or flow will remain attached with the surface.
2nd Velocity Profile
(iJ-(iJ; =2
(iJ- (iJ u = 2U U
!; = 2(f) x3(fJ2 x½ 2Ux x½-u
at y=O, (!;\=o =2Ux2(%)x½-Ux3(%r x½=O
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As ( !u)
y y =O
= 0, the flow is on the verge of separation. Ans.
3rd Velocity Profile
; =-2(f)+(fr
-2u(f)+u(fr u=
:: =-2u(½)+2u(f)x½
at y=o,(!;\= =- 2~+2u(%)x½=- 2~
0
!u)
As (
y y =O
is negative the flow has separated. Ans.
13. 7.3 Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer. When the boundary
layer separates from the surface as shown in Fig. 13.7 at point S, a certain portion adjacent to the
surface has a back flow and eddies are continuously formed in this region and hence continuous loss of
energy takes place. Thus separation of boundary layer is undesirable and attempts should be made to
avoid separation by various methods. The following are the methods for preventing the separation of
boundary layer :
l. Suction of the slow moving fluid by a suction slot.
2. Supplying additional energy from a blower.
3. Providing a bypass in the slotted wing.
4. Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
5. Providing small divergence in a diffuser.
6. Providing guide-blades in a bend.
7. Providing a trip-wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.
HIGHLIGHTS
1. When a so lid body is immersed in a flowing fluid, there is a narrow region of the fluid in the
neighbourhood of the solid body, where the velocity of fluid varies from zero to free-stream velocity.
This narrow region of fluid is cal led boundary layer.
2. The boundary layer is ca lled laminar boundary layer if the Reynold number of the flow defined as
Ux x s
R, = - - is less than 5 x 10
V
where U = Free-stream velocity of flow, x = Distance from leading edge,

and v = Kinematic viscos ity of flu id .
3. If the Reynold number is more than 5 x I 05, the boundary layer is called turb ul ent boundary layer.
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1652 Fluid Mechanics
4. The distance from the surface of the solid body in the direction perpendicular to flow, where the
velocity of fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free-stream velocity is called boundary layer
thickness and is denoted by o. For different zones, o is represented as
o1am. = Thickness of laminar boundary layer
otur. = Thickness of turbulent boundary layer
o' = Thickness of laminar sub-layer.

5. Displacement thickness (o*) is g iven by o* = fo'5 (1 - ; ) dy.
6. Momentum thickness (0) is given by 0 = fa° ; [1 - ~ ] dy.
7. Energy thickness (o**) is given by o** = s: ~ [1 - ; : ] dy.
8. Yon Karman momentum .integral equation is given as ~ = -

1: ae
pU dx
where 0 = fo6 ~ [1 - ~ ] dy, 1: 0 = shear stress at surface.
This equation is app licable to laminar, transition and turbulent boundary layer flows .
9. Thickness of laminar boundary layer and co-efficient of drag from Blasius ' s solution is given as
O = 4.9 1 X
K
1.328
where Rex = Reynold number, CD = ~
...;Rel
10. Veloc ity profile for turbulent boundary layer is ; = (f)1 17
This equation is not valid very near the boundary, where laminar sub-layer ex ists.
11. The shear stress at the boundary for turbu lent boundary layer over a flat pl ate is given as
1: 0 = 0.0225 pU 2 (___t_J
pUo
114
12. Total drag on a flat plate due to laminar and turbulent boundary layer flows= Drag due to laminar bound-
ary layer upto distance x + Drag due to turbul ent boundary layer for length L
- Drag due to turbulent boundary layer for length x.
[ where x is given by 5 x l 0 5 = ~ ]
13. If the pressure gradient is positive, the boundary layer separates from the surface and back flow and
eddies format ion take place due to which a great loss of energy occur.
14. The conditions for separation, attached flow and detached flow are :
(1) (!u)y y=O

= 0 ... .. condition for separation (ii) (!u)y y=O
=positive ..... condition for attached flow
(iii) (!u)
y y=O
=negative ..... cond ition for detached flow .
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EXERCISE
(A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS

1. What do you understand by the terms boundary layer, and boundary layer theory ?
2. Define : laminar boundary layer, turbulent boundary layer, laminar sub-layer and boundary layer
thickness.
3. Define displacement thickness. Derive an expression for the displacement thickness.
4. Prove that the momentum thickness and energy thickness for boundary layer flows are given by
r0
0 = Jo Uu [ 1- U
u ] dy and o** = r 0 u2 ] dy.
Jo Uu [ 1-U
5. Obtain an expression for the boundary shear stress in terms of momentum thickness.
6. Obtain Von Karman momentum integral equation.
7. What are the boundary conditions that must be satisfied by a given velocity profile in laminar boundary
layer flows ?
8. How will you find the drag on a flat plate due to laminar and turbulent boundary layers ?
9. What do you mean by separation of boundary layer ? What is the effect of pressure gradient on boundary
layer separation ?
10. How will you determine whether a boundary layer flow is attached flow, detached flow or on the verge of
separation ?
11. What are the different methods of preventing the separation of boundary layers ?
12. What is meant by boundary layer ? Why does it increase with distance from the upstream edge ?
13. Define the terms : boundary layer, boundary layer thickness, drag, lift and momentum thickness.
14. What do you mean by boundary layer separation ? What is the effect of pressure gradient on boundary
layer separation ? (R.G.P. V., Bhopal S, 2001)
(B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. (a) Find the ratios of displacement thickness to momentum thickness and momentum thickness to energy
thickness for the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by
.!!:_ = 2 (y/o) - (ylo)2

u
where u = Velocity in boundary layer at a distance y
U = Free-stream velocity
o= Boundary layer thickness [Ans. 2.5, 7/11]
(b) Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and energy thickness for the velocity
distribution in the boundary layer given by
(Delhi University, December, 2002)
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2. For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer given as .!!:_ =

U 2
i
(y!o)-.!..(yto)3, find the thickness of
2
the boundary layer and shear stress 1.8 m from the leading edge of a plate. The plate is 2.5 m long and
1.5 m wide and is placed in water which is moving with a velocity of 15 cm per second. Find the drag on
one side of the plate if the viscosity of water= 0.01 poise. [Ans. 1.6 cm, 0.0014 N/m2 , 0.0889 N]
3. Air is flowing over a smooth plate with a velocity of 8 mis. The length of the plate is 1.5 m and width 1 m.
If the laminar boundary exists upto a value of Reynold number = 5 x 105, find the maximum distance
from the leading edge upto which laminar boundary layer exists. Find the maximum thickness of laminar
boundary layer if the velocity profile is given by
.!!:_ = (ylo) - (ylo)2. Take v for air= 0.15 stokes. [Ans. 0.9375 m, 7.26 mm]
u
4. If in Problem 3, the velocity profile over the plate is given as .!!:_ = sin (~ x
U 2 o
Z.)
and density of air as 1.24 kglm3, find : (i) maximum thickness of the laminar boundary layer, (ii) shear
stress at 20 cm from the leading edge and (iii) drag force on one side of the plate assuming the laminar
boundary layer over the entire length of the plate. [Ans. (i) 0.635 cm, (ii) 0.099 Nlm 2 , (iii) 0.0871 N]
5. A thin plate is moving in still atmospheric air at a velocity of 4 mis. The length of the plate is 0.5 m and
width 0.4 m. Calculate the (i) thickness of the boundary layer at the end of the plate and (ii) drag force on
one side of the plate. Take density of air as 1.25 kglm3 and kinematic viscosity 0.15 stokes.
[Ans. (i) 0.672 cm (ii) 0.00728 N]
6. Find the frictional drag on one side of the plate 200 mm wide and 500 mm long placed longitudinally in a
steam of crude oil (specific gravity= 0.925, kinematic viscosity= 0.9 stoke) flowing with undisturbed
velocity of 5 mis. Also find the thickness of boundary layer and the shear stress at the trailing edge of the
plate. [Ans. 9.34 N, 14.75 mm]
7. A smooth flat plate of length 5 m and width 2 mis moving with a velocity of 4 mis in stationary air of
density as 1.25 kglm3 and kinematic viscosity 1.5 x 10-5 m 2Is. Determine thickness of the boundary layer
at the trailing edge of the smooth plate. Find the total drag on one side of the plate assuming that the
boundary layer is turbulent from the very beginning. [Ans. 110 mm, 0.43 N]
8. Water is flowing over a thin smooth plate of length 4.5 m and width 2.5 mat a velocity of 0.9 mis. If the
boundary layer flow changes from laminar to turbulent at a Reynold number 5 x 10 5, find (i) the distance
from leading edge upto, which boundary layer is laminar, (ii) thickness of the boundary layer at the
transition point, and (iii) the drag force on-one side of the plate. Take viscosity of water as
0.01 poise. [Ans. (i) 555 mm (ii) 3.85 mm (iii) 13.75 N]
9. For the velocity profile given below, state whether the boundary layer has separated or on the verge of
separation or will remain attached with the surface :
u 1 3
(i) .!!:_ = 2 (ylo) - (ylo)2 (ii) - = - 2 (ylo) + - (ylo) and
u U 2
u 3 2 1 3
(iii) - = - (ylo) + -(ylo) .
U 2 2
[Ans. (i) Remain attached (ii) has separated (iii) on the verge of separation]
10. Oil with a free-stream velocity of 1.5 mis flow over a thin plate 1.4 m wide and 2.2 m long. Calculate the
boundary layer thickness and the shear stress at the trailing end point and determine the total surface
resistance of the plate. Take specific gravity of oil as 0.80 and kinematic viscosity as 0.1 stoke.
[Ans. 1.88 cm, 1.04 Nlcm 2 , 12.8 N]
-II Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg
I~
Assistant Professor
~I IL
11. (a) For the velocity profile ~ =i

U
(I)-_!_ (i)
2<> 2<>
2
• Calculate the co-efficient of drag in terms of Reynolds
number.
(b) A thin smooth plate of 0.3 m width and 1.0 m length moves at 4 mis viscosity in still atmospheric air
of density 1.20 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity of 1.49 x 10-5 m 2/s. Calculate the drag force on the plate.
[Ans. 0.00716 N]
12. Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and energy thickness for the velocity
distribution in the boundary layer given by,
-u = 2 - -
U <>
(y) (y)-
<>
2
where <> = boundary layer thickness. [ Ans. -<> ; -<>;
3 15
2 22 ]
-<>
105
-11
Assistant Professor
_JI IL
-11
Assistant Professor

Fuild Mechanics Unit 5

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Fuild Mechanics Unit 5

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SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1

I 612 Fluid Mechanics

Boundary Layer Flow 613 I

Hence for laminar boundary layer, we have 5 x 10 5 = U xx ... (13.1)

I 614 Fluid Mechanics

= J: pb(U - u)dy = pb J:<u - u)dy ... (iii)

or o* =-U1 lo (U - u)dy = lo (U - u)dy {

Boundary Layer Flow 615 I

Total loss of momentum/sec through BC= J: pbu(U - u)dy ... (13.3)

p0bU2 = J: pbu(U - u)dy = pb J: u(U - u)dy {If fluid is assumed incompressible}

0= I: ; [ 1- ; ] dy. ... (13.5)

Kinetic energy of this fluid = .!_ m x velocity 2 = .!_ (pubdy) u2

= .!_ (pubdy)U2 - .!_ (pubdy) u2 = .!_ pub [U2 - u2 ] dy

I 616 Fluid Mechanics

= rs_!_ pub [U 2 - u 2 ] dy = _!_pb rs u (U2 - u2 ) dy

= _!_ (mass) x velocity 2 = _!_ (p x area x velocity) x velocity 2

o** = 1-u 1 -uu-

(ii) Momentum thickness, 0 is given by equation (13.5),

Boundary Layer Flow 617 I

Substituting the value of .!!:.... = 2'..,

(iii) Energy thickness 6** is given by equation (13.6), as

6** = 1a6-uu [ 1 -uu-ldy= l6a -6 1 -6y2-ldy

the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by ; =2 ( f)-(fr-

(z) Displacement thickness 6* is given by equation (13.2),

Substituting the value of ; = 2(f)-(fY, we have

I 618 Fluid Mechanics

= ro [2y _ 4/ + 2y3 _ L + 2y3 _ LJdy

= ro [2y _L_ 8/ + 12y 4

Boundary Layer Flow 619 I

Fig. 13.4 Drag force on a plate due to boundary layer.

The shear stress t 0 is given by t 0 = µ ( ;u) ,

p x velocity x area of strip of thickness dy

pxuxbxdy { ·: Area of strip= bx dy}

I 620 Fluid Mechanics

= fa° pubdy + ! [fa° pubdy] x Ax - Ioli pubdy

= Ioli momentum flux through strip of thickness dy

= Ioli mass through strip x velocity= Ioli (pubdy) x u = Ioli pu 2bdy

Momentum flux leaving the side BC = Ioli pu2bdy + ! [f 01i pu 2 bdy] x Ax

Momentum flux entering the side DC = mass rate through DC x velocity

= ! [Ia° pubdy] X Ax X U ( ·: Velocity= U}

=![Ia° puUbdy] xAx

= Ioli pu 2 bdy + ! [Ioli pu 2 bdy] x Ax - Ioli pu 2 bdy- ! [Ioli puUbdy] x Ax

=! [f\u bdy] x Ax-! [Ia° puUbdy] x

=! [Ia° pu bdy- Ia° puUbdy] x Ax

= ! [Ioli (pu 2 b - puUb )dy] x Ax

Boundary Layer Flow 621 I

Cancelling Ax x b, to both sides, we have

or t0 =- p ! [fa° ( u2 - u U )dy] = p ! [fa° ( u U - u 2 )dy]

equation (13.10) is also written as

I 622 Fluid Mechanics

Fv= f 11Fv= (-r 0 xbxdx {changeAx=dx}. . .. (13.12)

quantity .!_ p U2 • It is denoted by CD*

1. At y = 0, u = 0 and du has some finite value

(z) The velocity distribution ; = 2 (f)-(tr ... (i)

Substituting this value of.!:!... in equation (13.10), we get

Boundary Layer Flow 623 I

ar [2y 5y2 4y3

= ~ [150 - 250 + 150- 30] = ~[300- 280] = ~[20] = _3__~ 0

'to=µ (:u)y y=O

But from equation (i), u = u [2Y

Equating the two values of t 0 given by equation (13.15) and (iii)

_3_ u2 ~ [o] = 2µu

or @ [o] = 15µU = 15µ or @[o] = 15µ dX

=![Ia°( -;;3 )(1- ;;3 )dyl +