Saraswati Nadi in

Haryana and its

Linkage with the
Vedic
Saraswati River –
Integrated Study
Based on Satellite
Images and
Ground Based
Information
B. K. BHADRA, A. K. GUPTA
and J. R. SHARMA
 Regional Remote Sensing
Service Centre, Dept. of Space,
CAZRI Campus, Jodhpur - 342 003
Email: bhadrabk@yahoo.com
Abstract: Detailed studies on the
status of Saraswati Nadi of
northern Haryana have been
carried out using multi
date and multi resolution satellite
images, GIS techniques and
ground data. Palaeochannels
have been delineated
using remote sensing techniques
and validated using discovered
archaeological sites,
sedimentological data from
drilled wells and water quality
data. Detailed analysis of
hydrological data (rainfall and
stream discharge), catchment
area and petrographic analysis
of rock samples have been done
to decipher the dwindling state
of Saraswati
Nadi. Likelihood of Adi Badri as
the place of origin of Saraswati
Nadi and its possible linkage with
the Vedic
Saraswati River is discussed.
Suggestions have been given for
safeguarding and revival of
Saraswati Nadi as a national
heritage.
Keywords: Remote Sensing, GIS,
Palaeodrainage, Hydrogeology,
Archaeology, Saraswati Nadi, Adi
Badri, Haryana.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN HARYANA
A number of ephemeral
drainages such as Ghaggar,
Dangri, Markanda, Saraswati
and Chautang presently drain
through Haryana (Fig. 1). Most
of these drainages originate
from Siwalik Hills and flow to
the west through Indo-
Gangetic alluvial plain. But
the River Yamuna and its
tributaries (Somb, Boli and
Pathrala) flow in an opposite
direction, to the east. Hence, it
seems logical that the westerly
flowing river systems of
northern Haryana must have
contributed to the Vedic
Saraswati River.
Saraswati Nadi of Haryana
As seen on the Survey of
India (SOI) topomaps,
Saraswati Nadi originates
from a place called ‘Rampur
Herian’ which is located south
of Adi Badri in Yamunanagar
district. The existence of
Saraswati Nadi from Rampur
Herian to Bibipur is seen
clearly on the topomaps and
satellite images. On topomap
of 1969-70, it is shown as
Saraswati Nala / Nadi / River.
Saraswati Nadi is believed to
be a sacred river in
Haryana. This is evident from
the occurrence of several
historical temples, pilgrimage
and Hindu ritual sites and
relics of archaeological sites
all along the course of this
river, indicating it to be a
perennial river of the past.
Most
of these pilgrim sites belong
to either Post-Harappan or
INTRODUCTION
Saraswati Nadi (also known
as Saraswati River,
Saraswati Nala, Sarsuti and
Chautang in certain segments)
in northern Haryana is one of
the important tributary of the
“Lost Vedic Saraswati River”
that flowed through Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan and
northern Gujarat States in full
might
around 6000 B.C. and
disappeared around 3000
B.C.
(Chauhan, 1999;
Kalyanaraman, 1999;
Kochhar, 2000;
Radhakrishna, 1999; Valdiya,
2002). The Saraswati Nadi
originates near Rampur
Herian, south of Adi Badri and
passes through Bilaspur,
Mustafabad, Thanesar, Bibipur
and Pehowa and ultimately
joins River Ghaggar near
Rasauli village in Punjab.
Presently, Saraswati Nadi is in
defunct state and exhibits as
a discontinuous drainage.
Existence of a large number
of archaeological sites
along the river, suggests it to
be an important drainage of
the past. Though Adi Badri is
located on the bank of
River Somb, but local people
believe that Saraswati
originates at Adi Badri.
Mention of Saraswati Nadi of
Haryana has been made in
drainage related studies
carried
out by various authors in this
region. The morpho-tectonic
control of the drainages of
northern Haryana has been
discussed by Thussu (1999)
and Virdi and Philip (2006).
However, exclusive studies on
this drainage system are
very rare.
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
274 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
Mahabharata period. The river
passes through Yamunanagar,
Kurukshetra, Kaithal and
Fatehabad districts and joins
with
River Ghaggar at Rasauli
village near Shatrana in
Patiala
district of Punjab. Drainage
pattern of Saraswati Nadi
derived from the topomaps
shows two southwesterly
flowing sub-parallel streams
on either side of the Chautang
Nala which crisscross at
several places between
Purangarh
and Babain villages (Fig.1).
The shifting of their course is
possibly due to discontinuous
discharge in the past. The
local people strongly believe
that Adi Badri is the place of
origin of Saraswati Nadi and
also that this nadi is the main
Vedic Saraswati River. Local
populace performs different
Hindu rituals along this river
course.
Vedic Saraswati River
The Vedic Saraswati, a
mighty and holy river of
northwest India during 6000-
3000 B.C., originated from
Har-ki-Dum glacier in Garhwal
Himalayas and finally
discharged into the Gulf of
Khambat in Gujarat coast and
disappeared around 3000 B.C.
Several remnants of this river
exist as palaeo channels
(Ghose et al. 1979; Gupta,
1996;
Mishra, 1995; Radhakrishna,
1999; Valdiya, 2002; Yashpal
et al. 1980). Today the Vedic
Saraswati River is represented
by the Ghaggar River which
flows on palaeochannel of
Vedic
Saraswati, located in the
western part of the Haryana
state
(Bhadra et al. 2006; Sood and
Sahai, 1983). The Vedic
Saraswati River has been
flowing sub-parallel to the
Indus
River in NW India (Oldham,
1893; Pilgrim, 1919; Stein,
1942; Krishnan, 1953, 1968;
Wilhelmy, 1999). Gupta et al.
(2004) have mapped the
course of Vedic Saraswati,
buried
below sands of Thar Desert,
using satellite data and
showed presence of Saraswati
channels which are self-
evident on satellite images.
They have also validated the
course of Vedic Saraswati
River through collateral data
such
as geomorphic anomalies,
drilling data (litholog) of
tube wells, hydrogeological
data (yield, quality and age of
groundwater),
archaeological data and
published old
maps.
Fig.1. Spatial distribution of major
drainages in northern Haryana.
Important pilgrim sites/tirthas lie
on the bank of Saraswati Nadi.
Inset: Location of the study area.
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 275
METHODOLOGY
In the present study, satellite
data from IRS P6 AWiFS
sensor (56 m resolution) and
IRS P6 LISS-III (23.5 m
resolution) of February, 2004
have been used to delineate
the course of palaeochannels
and the present drainage
systems in Haryana. All these
data have been digitally
processed in ERDAS/Imagine
software (version 9.0).
Digital image processing
techniques like histogram
equalization, piece/scene wise
linear stretching, contrast and
brightness enhancement,
different band combinations
and
edge enhancement etc. have
been applied on the satellite
data. Present day drainages
are traced from IRS P6 LISS-
IV data (5.8 m resolution)
and the topomaps (1969).
Available QuickBird data (2.4
m resolution) data for
Yamunanagar district was also
used to trace the course of
the river. For integrated
study, GIS database of various
thematic layers
(administrative boundary,
settlement, road,
rail, drainage, watershed area,
well location, archaeological
sites etc) have been prepared
by using ARC/INFO software
(version 9.1). The delineated
palaeochannels are validated
with various ground data and
collateral information from
archaeology, sedimentology,
hydrology, hydrogeology,
rainfall and petrography.
DATA ANALYSIS
Remote Sensing Studies
Due to synoptic viewing
capability Remote Sensing
sensors with different spatial,
spectral and multi-temporal
resolution, IRS satellite
images (AWiFS, LISS-III and
LISS-IV) have been used for
palaeochannel delineation
and other thematic
interpretations.
Palaeochannels are
basically the old course of
river channels which appears
on the satellite image as
serpentine drainage course
with
high moisture content (dark
tone). For delineation of
palaeochannels, digital image
processing techniques like
histogram equalization, linear
stretching, contrast and
brightness enhancement etc
have been applied on a small
area of the satellite images
(IRS P6 LISS-III of summer,
kharif and rabi seasons).
Drainage features are
highlighted
on applying local stretching on
~10X10 sq km area, out of
the full LISS-III scene
(141X141 sq km). In this
process,
palaeochannels are delineated
with proper care by avoiding
the canals, existing ephemeral
drainages and water-logged
areas. The delineated course
of palaeochannels passes from
east to west through
Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Jind,
Fatehbad,
Hisar and Sirsa districts of
northern Haryana (Fig.2). A
large
number of discontinuous
palaeochannels are found in
the
above districts. In the
northeast of Kurukshetra,
these
palaeochannels could possibly
have a link with the existing/
abandoned channels which
originate from the Siwalik Hills.
Study of drainage pattern
through satellite image
(February, 2004) and the
topomaps (1969) shows
shifting
and narrowing down of
Saraswati Nadi between
Pehowa
and Adi Badri in the last 35
years. A number of ephemeral
drainages such as Ghaggar,
Dangri, Markanda, Saraswati
and Chautang presently drain
through Haryana. Most of
these drainages originate from
Siwalik Hills and flow to the
west through Indo-Gangetic
alluvial plain. River Yamuna
and its tributaries (Somb, Boli
and Pathrala) flow along the
eastern margin of the Haryana
state in the eastward direction.
Field Studies Along Saraswati
Nadi
Field investigations have been
carried out during 2004-
2005 along the Saraswati
drainage course, right from
Adi
Badri (place of origin) to
Bibipur Lake (in the middle) till
Pehowa (downstream). The
presence of this drainage
course
in different villages (Bari
Pabni, Choti Pabni, Chhapar
and
Mustafabad) have been
located through Global
Positioning
System (GPS) survey and
are shown through field
photographs (Figs.3a, b, c and
d). The name of “Saraswati
Nadi/Nala” has been
inscribed at several old
rail/road
bridges, about 50-100 years
old (Figs.3e and f). In the
downstream direction, this
drainage becomes wider but
left
with stagnated water (Figs.3g,
h and i). At many places
sewerage water was observed
flowing along the Saraswati
drainage course at
Sadhaura and Mustafabad
in
Yamunanagar district and
Thanesar and Pehowa in
Kurukshetra district (Figs.3j, k
and l). Ground truth in the
area reveals that the drainage
becomes narrow (about 10-
100 m wide) at several places
which is the result of climatic
and tectonic changes
coupled with anthropogenic
interventions. The holy river of
the past has turned into a
sewerage drain, obliterated at
different places, virtually
defunct and has only the
seasonal flow. As a result,
frequent
flash floods occur in the area,
causing enormous damage to
the crop and the property.
Saraswati Nadi in this region is
in
the verge of obliteration and
witnesses an unbearable
pathetic
condition.
Catchment Area Analysis
Catchment area analysis has
been carried out for
Saraswati, Markanda and
Somb drainage systems.
Initially,
drainages of all the orders
have been demarcated using
SOI
topomaps and the respective
catchment areas have been
delineated (Fig.4). The
catchment area of Saraswati
Nadi is
found to be confined in
Yamunanagar and
Kurukshetra
districts. The analysis shows
that the watershed area of
Markanda River (882.47 sq
km) is larger than the
watershed
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
276 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
area of Saraswati Nadi (642.16
sq km). Since the catchment
area of Saraswati Nadi is
confined to the southern slope
of
the Siwalik Hills, the river
receives only seasonal flow.
Hence, it is doubted that this
stream (Saraswati Nadi)
could have been a powerful
drainage system in the past
and
served as the main powerful
channel of Vedic Saraswati
River.
Analysis of Rainfall Pattern
In the present study rainfall
data of northern Haryana,
collected by Indian
Meteorological Department
(IMD,
Pune) in 1°X1° grid pattern,
has been analyzed for the last
50 years (1951 to 2003). This
data represents the average
rainfall of 10 districts of
northern Haryana at a location
having longitude 76.5° and
latitude 29.5°. The rainfall
pattern between 1951 and
2003 (Fig.5a) shows a wide
variation in average rainfall in
different years. The trend
line of the rainfall pattern
shows an initial increase in
rainfall
between 1951 and 1978 and
gradual decrease from 1978 to
2003. District-wise rainfall
data analysis also indicates
that
the average rainfall in
Haryana decreases gradually
from
east to west.
Analysis of Annual Discharge
Pattern
As seen on the satellite image,
Bibipur Lake forms a
huge natural depression in
Kurukshetra district (Fig.5b)
where water flows in from
Saraswati Nadi and Kanthla
water
supply canal (from Markanda
River). This accumulated
water discharges through a
stream gauge, constructed at
Bibipur Kalan village across
Saraswati channel. Just at the
outlet of Bibipur Lake, water
flows out from Saraswati Nadi
through Saraswati drain / disty
/ escape. Yearly measured
discharge data from Saraswati
Nadi is also available for Pipli,
Jyotisar and Bibipur gauges for
the period from 1958-59
and 1972-1989 (Source:
Irrigation Department, Govt. of
Haryana). Annual discharge
data of Chautang Nala at
Fig.2. IRS P6 LISS-III image of Feb.
2004 showing the delineated
palaeochanels (blue lines) in
northern districts of Haryana. Two
inset
images show the delineated
palaeochannels (zone with dark
tone bounded by yellow lines)
around Hisar and Sirsa towns.
Sirsa
Fatehbad
Hisar
Jind
Kaithal
Karnal
Panipat
Sonipat
RohtakBjiwani
Kurukshetra
Ambala
Yamuna-
nagar
Panch-
kula
Ghaggar R.
PUNJAB
RAJASTHAN
UTTAR
PRADESH
HIMACHAL
PRADESH
Palaeochannels
District Boundary
N
30º
29º
75º 76º 77º
Hisar
Sirsa
75º 76º 77º
30º
29º
(Vedic Saraswati)
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 277
Fig.3. Field Photographs showing
the present status of Saraswati
Nadi during 2005-06 at different
villages between Adi Badri and
Pehowa. (a) Narrow strip at Bari
Pabni. (b) Narrow stretch at Choti
Pabni. (c) Wider at Chappar
village. (d) Pond around the
temple at Mustafabad. (e) Rail
bridge at Mustafabad Railway
Station. (f) Road bridge at
Kurukshetra. (g) Stagnated water
at
Kurukshetra. (h) Narrow strip at
Narkatari. (i) Pond water at
Jyotisar. (j) Flow of dirty water on
the southern bank of Bibipur
Lake. (k) River water gauge at
Bibipur Kalan. (l) Flow of
sewerage water at Pehowa.
Jagadhri-Ambala Road Bridge
is also available between
1991 and 1998. These
available discharge data have
been
analyzed to measure changes
in inflow and outflow of the
Saraswati Nadi and
comparative discharge
between
Saraswati and Markanda
Rivers during the same period.
Flow of Saraswati water at
Pipli and Jyotisar (East of
Bibipur) is also analysed for
the period between 1972 and
1987. Monthly lake water level
for the corresponding period
(1972-1982) at Bibipur Kalan
has also been analyzed.
Analysis of monthly discharge
data shows that Saraswati
and Markanda Rivers has been
discharging high amount
of water till 1958 (Fig.5c).
During this period, average
abc
def
i
g
h
jkl
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
278 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
discharge from Saraswati was
much higher than the average
discharge of Markanda.
Analysis of annual discharge
data
at Bibipur Lake (Fig.6a) shows
an increase in the rate of
inflow and outflow from
Saraswati Nadi to Saraswati
drain/
disty / escape during 1972-
1978 and a gradual decrease
in
the rate during 1978-1982. The
increase in water inflow have
been found to be
commensurate with the
monthly water level
measured for Bibipur Lake
(Fig.6b).
Analysis of Sedimentological
Data
To investigate the
characteristics of the
palaeochannels,
litholog and hydrological data
from a large number of
wells drilled in 9 districts of
northern Haryana have been
collected from Ground Water
Cell, Govt. of Haryana. The
locations of the individual
lithologs have been plotted in
different districts on the map
(Fig.7a). Sedimentological
characteristics encountered
at different depths of the
lithologs have also been
studied. On superimposing the
litholog points on the
palaeochannel map of
Haryana, it has
been found that most of the
lithologs falling near the
Fig.4. Drainages and watershed
boundaries of (1) Markanda, (2)
Saraswati and (3) Somb Rivers on
the Siwalik foothills of Haryana.
palaeochannels have medium
to coarse grained sands and
associated gravel and pebbles
at a depth between 10 to
100 m (Fig.7b). Water quality
data of these wells show
relatively low EC (2000-4000
µS/cm) along most of the
demarcated palaeochannels,
indicating good quality water.
Poor quality water (brackish to
saline) is found in the central
Haryana (Rohtak district) and
northwest Haryana (Sirsa
district) where EC values are
very high (>4000 µS/cm).
Analysis of Archaeological Data
The locations of archaeological
sites, discovered till 2000
in Haryana (Possel, 2000) and
a few recently discovered
archaeological sites have been
plotted and overlaid on the
mapped river courses for
age determination. The
archaeological sites are
classified into four categories
viz.
Mature Harappan, Sothi
Harappan, Late Harappan and
Post
Harappan, as given below. In
northern Haryana, mostly
Late Harappan sites have been
found to lie in Yamunanagar,
Kurukshetra and Kaithal
districts (Fig.8). However,
clustered
Mature Harappan/Sothi
Harappan sites are found to
occur
N
(1) Markanda River
(882.47 sq. km)
(2) Saraswati Nadi
(642.16 sq. km)
(3) Somb River
(241.17 sq. km)
Saraswati
Markanda
Somb
Watersheds Area
KURUKSHETRA
YAMUNA
NAGAR
AMBALA
PANCHKULA
Present day
drainages
Watersheds
Yamuna R.
1
2
3
Adi Badri
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 279
in Jind and Karnal districts,
where many palaeochannels
have been demarcated.
Archaeological sites of Late-
Harappan to Medieval
period have been discovered
in Adi Badri, Sandhya, Kapal
Mochan, Mustafabad, Bilaspur,
Sadhaura, Thanesar and
Pehowa area which lie mostly
along the course of Saraswati
Nadi. Although catchment
area of Markanda River is
larger
than that of Saraswati Nadi, but
the number of archaeological
sites are much more along the
Saraswati Nadi. This indicates
towards higher level of
historical significance of
Saraswati
Nadi in the region than that of
Markanda River. Recently,
an archaeological site (12th
Century old Painted Grey Ware
i.e. Post-Harappan) has been
discovered at Bhor Saidan
village (Fig.1) which lie on the
bank of Saraswati Nadi in
Fig.5. (a) Regional rainfall pattern
of northern Haryana (data at
Long.76.5° and Lat.29.5°) in the
last 50 years (1951-2003)
(Source: IMD, Pune). (b) Satellite
image of February, 2004
with existing drainages and
palaeochannels between Adi
Badri and Bibipur Lake. (c)
Monthly discharge pattern of
Markanda and Saraswati Rivers at
Bibipur in 1958.
Fig.6. (a) Total discharge (blue
line) and outflow (orange line)
from Saraswati Nadi to Saraswati
Drain/Disty/Escape at
Bibipur Kalan between 1972 and
1982. (b) Water level
pattern for the month of August at
Bibipur Lake during
1972-1982.
Classification of Archaeological sites
Classes (Period, B.P)* Remarks
Post Harappan Represents all the
sites which are
(3500 to Medieval) post Harappan
period. It includes
OCP, PGW, Pre-Historic,
Buddhist, Medieval, etc.)
Late Harappan Mostly Post-Urban
Harappan
(3900-3300)
Harappan Sothi-Siswal Sothi-Siswal
sites have distinct
(~ Mature Harappan) Hakra culture
but resembles
Mature Harappan culture
Mature Harappan
(4600-3900) Exclusive Harappan sites
Criterion: The archaeological sites,
reported in Possel (2000) and other
sources are plotted on the map. It is
observed that archaeological
assemblages (cultures) of many
periods are found over a single site.
To
plot on the map, only the oldest
period out of many cultures present
over a site, has been considered for a
particular class. Other lower period
cultures are not depicted on the maps.
* Source: Valdiya, 2002, p.38
(a)
(c)
(b)
Bibipur
Saraswati
Markanda
Adi Badri
IRS P6 LISS-III
Image of Feb.2004
Thanesar
Jagadhri
Existing drainage
Palaeochannel
(b)
Outflow
(a)
Inflow
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
280 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
the west of Kurukshetra
(Purohit, 2006). All these
evidence
indicate flourishment of Mature
Harappan to Post-Harappan
culture along the Saraswati
Nadi.
ORIGIN OF SARASWATI NADI AT
ADI BADRI
Drainages Around Adi Badri
Saraswati Nadi of Haryana
originates near Adi Badri,
north of Kathgarh, in the
foothill of Siwalik Hills in
northern
Yamunanagar district. The
area has immense historial,
cultural and archaeological
significance. Adi Badri area
actually lies on the banks of a
small rivulet that joins River
Somb that can be seen on the
high resolution satellite image
of 2002 (Fig.9a). This area lies
at a distance of 9 km, north
of Rampur Herian village from
where the Saraswati Nadi is
shown to originate on topomap
(no. 53F/7). Detailed studies
have been carried out in and
around the Adi Badri area to
unravel the truth regarding
the place of origin of Saraswati
Nadi and its linkage with other
Himalayan Rivers such as
Yamuna (Tons), Bata and
Vedic Saraswati River.
Historical Significance of Adi
Badri Area
A major archaeological
breakthrough has been
reported
from the archaeological
excavation, carried out during
2002-
03 at Adi Badri area, north of
Kathgar in Yamunanagar
district (Dwivedi et al. 2006).
Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) excavated three
sites viz. ABR-I and ABR-II on
western bank of Saraswati-
Somb River confluence and
ABR-
III on the eastern side of the
Somb River (Fig.9b). A rich
Fig.7. (a) Size distribution of
aquifer sediments (using litholog
data) and the palaeochannels
in northern Haryana
(b) Litholog section (A-B) showing
medium sand aquifer
along the palaeochannel in
northern Jind-Kaithal border
for a distance of ~50 km.
Fig.8. Spatial distribution of
Harappan and post Harappan
sites in relation to palaeochannels
in parts of northern Haryana. Note
the
concentration of archaeological
sites along Saraswati Nadi.
Med sand
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0

Med sand
Upper layer
Cl ay san d
Cl ay san d

A
B
Depth (m)
Med. Sand
Clay sand
(b)
Up. Clay sand
Medium sand
Lr. Clay sand
Fine Sand
Medium Sand
Coarse Sand
Gravelly Sand
Pebbly/Boulder
Sand
Sediment Size
KARNAL
KURUKSHETRA
YAMUNA
NAGAR
KAITHAL
JIND
AMBALA
Present day
drainages
Palaeochannels
Litholog
points
Saraswati Nadi
N
(a)
A
B
Markanda
Ghaggar
Yamuna R.
Chautang
Adi Badri
Present day
drainages
Palaeochannels
N
Saraswati Nadi
KARNAL
KURUKSHETRA YAMUNA
NAGAR
KAITHAL
JIND
AMBALA
Adi Badri
Markanda
Ghaggar
Yamuna R.
Chautang
Post Harappan
Late Harappan
Sothi Harappan
Mature Harappan
Archaeological Sites
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 281
Fig.9. (a) QuickBird satellite
image of 23.10.2002 around Adi
Badri area. (b) Map showing the
sites of archaeological
excavations
(ABR-I (source: Google Earth),
ABR-II and ABR-III)) around Adi
Badri area (ASI, New Delhi). (c)
Buddhist Vihar at ABR-III.
(d) Brick Stupa at ABR-III. (e)
Saraswati Udgamsthal where holy
water is oozing from a cave. (f)
Saraswati Sarovar at ABR-I.
(g) Artifacts of Buddhist period at
ABR-I. (h) The place for asthi
immersion at Saraswati-Somb
confluence (ASI map).
d
MANT RA DEVI
TEMPL E
SHIVALI K
AB R - III
NA LLAH
CHOPRI
ABR - VII
NA LLA H
N A LL AH
SALONWALI
ABR
AH
G HAR AT NAL L
S O M B S A RA S W ATI R IV E R
SA N GA M
ABR - II
BA NDHEO
ABR - VI
R OA D
CHORG HAT
A BR - V
SARASWATI
KUND
(UDGAM STHAL )
RO A D
ADI-BADRI
NARAYAN
 TEMPLE
SHRI KEDAR
TEMPLE
S OM B R IV ER
BAGAR U
ABR - IV
ABR II
EXT
ABR - I
SA RASWATI
S A RA SW A T I

.
.
R OA D
N

Site Plan
Site Plan
ABR-I
ABR-II
ABR-III
Somb R.
Brick
Brick Stupa
Stupa, ABR
, ABR-
-III
III
Buddhist
Buddhist Vihar
Vihar, ABR
, ABR-
-III
III
(c)
(d)
Udgam
Udgam Sthal
Sthal
Asthi
Asthi Immertion
Immertion
Buddhist Artifacts
Buddhist Artifacts
Saraswati
Saraswati Sarovar
Sarovar
Udgam Sthal
Saraswati Sarovar
Somb River
Somb-Saraswati
Sangam
Saraswati
ABR-II
ABR-I
ABR-III
Road
(a)
(b)
(e)
(f) (g) (h)
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
282 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
heritage of Buddhist
rd th
Civilization, right from 3 -4
Century
A.D. (Burial activity) to 10th-
th
12 Century A.D. (Dressed
stone structures) have been
discovered from ABR-III
(Figs.9c and d). Stone
sculpture associated with
Shivling of
medieval period has also been
found from this site. Local
people believe that the
udgamsthal (origin) of
Saraswati
Nadi is at Adi Badri where
water oozes from a cave
(Fig.9e).
A large pond (Saraswati
Sarovar) has been
constructed
here for a holy bath for the
pilgrims (Fig.9f) and a large
number of artifacts (Fig.9g) of
Buddhist period have been
excavated from this place
(ABR-I). Moreover, this area is
known as the Haridwar of
Haryana due to the existence
of
three old temples viz. Adi
Badri, Adi Kedar and Mantra
Devi. Based on the evidences
of Hindu rituals sites (after
death) at Adi Badri stream
confluence with Somb (Fig.9h)
and the occurrence of several
Buddhist settlements and
stupa there, it may be
concluded that Adi Badri has
been
an important historic place in
the past.
Study of Riverine Sediments
At Adi Badri area, the nature
of riverine sediments
(mostly pebbles) has been
studied by Puri and Verma
(1998),
Puri (2001) and Dwivedi et al.
(2006). They inferred that
these pebbles are of glacial
origin and belong to Higher
Himalayan metamorphic
rocks. The area has been
revisited
by the present authors in
2005-06 for detailed study of
the
nature of the sediments to
reveal their source /
provenance.
Physiographically, Adi Badri
lies on an elevated region,
on the southern flank of
Siwalik Hills in Yamunanagar
district. ABR-I and ABR-III are
located at lower elevation
on either side of the Somb
River. But the ABR-II site is
located on a ridge (locally
known as Itonwali), ½ km NE
of
Kathgarh and it lies at a higher
elevation (~70 m high) from
the Somb River bed (Fig.10a).
A large number of pebbles
of varying nature (colour and
texture) have been found at
ABR-II. These pebbles are
rounded to sub-rounded, light
to dark grey in colour and
medium to coarse grained
texture.
Moreover, the pebbles are
mostly sorted (more or less
same
size) which indicate the end
phase of fluvial deposit. At
ABR-
II site, pebbles of both
sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks
have been found at ridge
top. But pebbles of only
sedimentary origin are
reported from ABR-I and ABR-
III
sites. Since the Somb River is
the only river flowing through
this area, it is possible that in
the past, these pebbles might
have been transported by
Somb/ Saraswati which was
perhaps more energetic and
must have had higher carrying
capacity than the present day
flow. Occurrence of large
number of pebbles at such a
higher elevation at ABR-II
indicates that possibly Somb
River might have been flowing
at 70m high above the present
river bed. In other words,
present day physiography is
the result of deep river cutting
across the Siwalik Hill range.
Petrographic Study of Pebbles
Thin section study has been
carried out for the pebbles,
collected from the highest
elevation of ABR-II in July,
2006.
Hand specimens of the
pebbles (6-10 cm long, 5-8 cm
wide and 3-5 cm thick) have
been examined for their
colour,
texture and mineral
composition. A majority of
these
pebbles are of sedimentary
nature viz. sandstone, shale
etc. But, a few of them
showed anomalous nature
and
are massive, coarse grained
with interlocking grains.
Two samples of these
pebbles have been
analyzed
forpetrographic studies
under the microscope. Brief
petrographic analysis of these
two samples (named ABS-1
and ABS-2) is given below:
(a) ABS-1: It is a light grey
coloured pebble showing
medium grained texture with
sub-rounded detrital quartz
embedded within calcareous
matrix (Fig.10b). The rock is
composed of 50% quartz, 40%
calcite and 10% accessories
(hornblende, epidote and
opaque). Quartz grains show
no
undulose extinction, indicating
no deformation. Based on
the mineral composition and
texture, the rock has been
named as calcareous
sandstone which is formed
by
sedimentary origin.
(b) ABS-2: It is dark brown
coloured massive pebble
showing granulose texture
with recrystallised quartz
veins
(Fig.10c). The rock is
composed of 85% quartz and
15%
micaceous minerals and
opaque. The darker
appearance of
this pebble is attributed to
biotisation which has
developed
by metamorphic process. Most
of the quartz grains show
undulose extinction, indicating
deformation texture. Mineral
composition and textural
characteristics of this sample
indicate it to be quartzite of
metamorphic origin.
Petrographic Analysis of Rock Samples
at Adi Badri
Sample No./ ABS-1 ABS-2
Petrography
Appearance Light grey coloured Dark
coloured, massive
pebbles pebbles
Texture Medium grained, Granulose
texture with
sub-rounded detrital recrystallised
quartz
quartz embedded within along the
veins
calcareous matrix.
Deformation No deformation, as
Quartz grains show
quartz grains show no undulose
extinction
undulose extinction
Mineral 50% Quartz + 40% Calcite
85% Quartz + 15%
Composition + 10% Hbl, Ep, Op
Micaceous minerals
and opaques
Rock Type Calcareous sandstone
Quartzite (High grade
(Sedimentary rock) metamorphic rock)
Origin Sedimentary Metamorphic
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 283
Detailed field observation in
two pits of ABR-II
excavation site shows sub-
rounded pebbles which are
aligned almost parallel to the
valley configuration. It reveals
that this ridge constitutes the
basal part of T3 terrace which
is the oldest terrace in outer
Himalaya during Holocene
period (Puri and Verma, 1998;
Puri, 2001; Dwivedi et al.
2006). They have reported
pebbles of high grade
metamorphic rocks like mica
schist, quartzite and
metabasite
along with the pebbles of
Siwalik rocks. Similar
assemblages
of sedimentary and
metamorphic pebbles are also
reported
near Sudanwala T3 terrace
and Garibnath, NE of Adi Badri,
on the other side of Siwalik Hill
slope (Fig.11). Occurrence of
high grade metamorphic rocks
are very uncommon all along
the Siwalik Hills rather they
have an affinity with the rocks
of Central Crystallines / Jutogh
Group in Higher Himalaya.
DISCUSSION ON RIVER LINKAGE
Linkage of Saraswati Nadi with
Vedic Saraswati River
As observed from satellite
data and the topomaps,
Saraswati Nadi has been a
tributary to the Vedic
Saraswati
River. Saraswati Nadi
presently originates from a
place
‘Rampur Herian’ which is
located south of Adi Badri in
Yamunanagar district. The
river passes through
Yamunanagar (Bari Pabni,
Choti Pabni, Chhapar,
Sadhaura
and Mustafabad), Kurukshetra
(Pipli, Thanesar, Jyotisar,
Bhor-Saidon, Bibipur and
Pehowa), Kaithal and
Fatehabad
districts and joins with River
Ghaggar at Rasauli village
near Shatrana in Patiala
district of Punjab (Fig.1).
The catchment area of
Saraswati Nadi is found to be
confined to Yamunanagar and
Kurukshetra districts (Fig.4).
Fig.10. (a) Field photographs
showing the occurrence of
pebbles of different shape and
size at ABR-II. Photomicrographs
(b) sandstone
pebble showing detrital quartz
grains in calcareous matrix,
indicating sedimentary origin. (c)
quartzite pebble showing
granulose
texture, indicating metamorphic
origin.
Pebbles at ABR
Pebbles at ABR-
-II
II
ABR
ABR-
-II
II
ABR
ABR-
-III
III
ABR
ABR-
-I
I
(a)
Calcareous
Calcareous
Sandstone
Sandstone
Sedimentary
Origin
(b)
(c) Metamorphic

Origin
Quartzite
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
284 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
Since the catchment area of
Saraswati Nadi (642.16 sq km)
is confined to the southern
slope of the Siwalik Hills, the
river receives only seasonal
flow. Hence, this stream
(Saraswati Nadi) in its present
form does not seem to be a
powerful drainage system in
the past. However, sites of
Late-Harappan to Early
Historic period like Sandhaya,
Kapal Mochan, Sadhaura,
Mustafabad, Bilaspur,
Thanesar
and Pehowa etc. and also
the sites of Mature/Sothi
Harappan period viz.
Bhagwanpura, Garhi Rodan
and
Nandu Khera in Kurukshetra
district are found to lie
along the course of Saraswati
Nadi and its tributaries (Fig.8).
Relics of a large number of
old temples and ashramas
(hermitages) of Rishis like
Parasara, Ved Vyas, Dadhichi,
Parsurama etc described in
ancient texts of Mahabharata
and Puranas and several
sacred ponds and sites of
Vedic rituals are present along
the banks of the obliterated
Saraswati drainage course. All
these indicate Saraswati
Nadi to be a historically
important and perhaps
perennial
stream of the past and served
as the main powerful channel
of Vedic Saraswati River.
Linkage of Saraswati Nadi with
Somb River Around
Adi Badri
Saraswati Nadi originates near
Rampur Herian village,
located 9 km south of Adi Badri
area in Yamunanagar district
and flows southwestwards
from this point. The Somb
River
originates further north in the
higher reaches of the Siwalik
Hills. The river is located east
of Saraswati Nadi and flows
in N-S direction and finally
joins River Yamuna in the
southeast. Adi Badri is located
on the bank of a small rivulet
joining the Somb River (Fig.9).
Topography of Adi Badri area
is studied based on the
satellite data of Shuttle Radar
Topographic Mission (SRTM)
of February, 2000. SRTM
derived hill shade view shows
the emergence of ephemeral
st
1 order drainages of
Saraswati
Nadi and Somb River from
the Siwalik foothill zone
(Fig.12a). Close contour
pattern of this area (Fig.12b),
generated from SRTM DEM,
indicate gentle topography
between Adi Badri (360m) and
Rampur Herian (330 m). A
height difference of only 20m
has been observed from the
tip of Saraswati drainage line
at Rampur Herian (330 m)
Fig.11. IRS P6 LISS III image of
Feb. 2004 showing Markanda-
Bata divide and its mis-fit wide
valley around Paonta Sahib.
Movement
along the NNW–SSE trending
Yamuna Tear Fault was possibly
responsible for the diversion of
Yamuna towards south.
Adi Badri Paonta
Sahib
Yamuna R.
Markanda R.
Bata R.
Giri R.
Saraswati Nadi
Somb Nadi
Sadhaura
Nahan
Yamuna Tear Fault
Sudanwala
Garibnath
N
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 285
and the Somb River bed (310
m) in the E-W direction. Thus,
the drainage pattern of the
area indicates the possibility
of
joining the upstream of River
Somb with the Sarasawti Nadi
in the past.
On high resolution satellite
data (IRS P6 LISS-IV FCC)
of May, 2004, an N-S trending
dark greenish red colour
linear tonal anomaly can be
clearly demarcated in the
southwest of Adi Badri area up
st
to 1 order drainage from
where Saraswati Nadi
originates near Rampur
Herian
(Fig.12c). This strong image
anomaly indicates a possible
linkage of drainages around
Adi Badri area with Saraswati
Nadi in the past, instead of
River Somb in the present
state.
This gives rise towards a
strong possibility that
drainage
originating from the upper
catchment area of Somb River
Fig.12. (a) SRTM DEM (Feb. 2000)
with draped Landsat ETM image
(Oct. 2000) showing 3D view of
Siwalik foothill around Adi
Badri area. (b) Elevation contour
map (5m interval) is generated
from SRTM DEM (enclosed box
only) between Adi Badri and
Rampur Herian, west of Somb
River. Dashed line shows possible
linkage of the two places. (c) IRS
P6 LISS-IV Image (5.8 m)
of May, 2004 showing vegetation
anomaly (yellow dashed line)
from Adi Badri to Rampur Herian,
indicating possible link
between Somb River and
Saraswati Nadi.
Saraswati Nadi
Somb River
Adi Badri
Rampur
Harian
SIWALIK HILLS
(c)
Adi Badri Siwalik Hills
Yamuna R
Somb R
Markanda R
Bata R
YAMUNANAGAR
DISTRICT
AMBALA
DISTRICT
Lesser Himalaya
Saraswati Nadi
Giri R
(b)
360
305
310
310
315
315
315
320
320
320
325
325
325
330
330
330
335
335
345 350 34
340 0
345
350
340
345
350
335
330
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
286 B. K. BHADRA AND OTHERS
in the north of Adi Badri must
have served as the drainage
of Saraswati Nadi in the past.
The configuration of tributaries
of Somb River also indicates
towards feasibility of river
capture of previously
upstream drainage of
Saraswati Nadi
by the Somb River at Adi
Badri. All these evidences lead
towards the likely origin of
Saraswati Nadi at Adi Badri
sometimes in the past
(historic/pre-historic period),
as
strongly believed even today
by the people of the region.
Possible Linkage of Saraswati
Nadi with Yamuna River
Pebbles of metamorphic rock
have been found at several
places viz. Adi Badri,
Sudanwala, Garibnath etc
between
Tons-Yamuna River confluence
(Paonta Sahib) and Bata-
Markanda River divide (Fig.11).
Puri and Verma (1998) and
Puri (2001) postulate that
these pebbles might have
been
transported by a river like Tons
which originate from Higher
Himalaya in the north.
Transportation of these
pebbles for
such a long distance and their
deposition on river terraces
of Siwalik foothills clearly
indicates towards the
existence
of an ancient powerful
drainage system. Since this
drainage
course follows the Bata valley,
it is possible that Tons River
might have flowed through
Bata River in the past and
joined
either with Markanda or
Saraswati Nadi at Adi Badri in
Haryana. In such a case, the
present day Yamuna flow was
not to the south rather it
flowed westward along Bata
River.
Puri and Verma (1998) and
Puri (2001) also postulated
that
the Vedic Saraswati might
have drained through the Adi
Badri site and dumped the
metamorphic pebbles at ABR-
II
(Dwivedi et al. 2006).
Petrographic studies indicate
occurrence of pebbles of
calcareous sandstone and
quartzite of metamorphic
origin
at Adi Badri area. However, the
catchment area of Saraswati
Nadi is confined to the
southern slope of the Siwalik
Hills
and the river receives only
seasonal flow due to low
precipi-
tation. Hence, no linkage of
Saraswati Nadi with any major
perennial river systems like
Yamuna could be found out
based on the available data
and evidences. It remains
doubt
that Saraswati Nadi could have
formed a powerful drainage
system in the past and served
as the main channel of Vedic
Saraswati River. The present
day topography, rainfall and
drainages of the region, does
not support the hypothesis
provided by Puri and Verma
(1998) and Puri (2001).
Fig.13. Action plan map to revive
the Saraswati Nadi by three
possible River Linking schemes
(a) Saraswati-Somb for 1.5-2.0 km
distance, (b) Saraswati-Markanda
for 3-4 km distance and (c)
Saraswati-Western Yamuna Canal
for ~18 km distance.
Markanda
Somb
Saraswati
Yamuna
Dangri
Saraswati
Chautang
Major Drainages
Yamuna Canal
River Links
N
a
b
c
Western
Yamuna Canal
KURUKSHETRA
YAMUNANAGAR
AMBALA
JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
VOL.73, FEB. 2009
SARASWATI NADI IN HARYANA AND
ITS LINKAGE WITH THE VEDIC
SARASWATI RIVER 287
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are
drawn based on the
studies conducted:
(i) Study of satellite data and
the topomaps have confirmed
the Saraswati Nadi of Haryana
as a tributary to the
Vedic Saraswati River.
(ii) Due to climatic and
tectonic changes coupled with
decreased rainfall and
anthropogenic interventions /
encroachments of the river
course have been the major
reasons for desiccation and
obliteration of Saraswati
Nadi of Haryana.
(iii) Occurrence of the sites of
Late-Harappan, Mature/Sothi
Harappan to Early Historic
period and also the relics
of a large number of old
temples, sacred ponds and
ashramas (hermitages) of
many famous Rishis (Saints)
along the obliterated course of
Saraswati Nadi indicate
that Saraswati Nadi is to be a
historically important
and perhaps perennial stream
of the past at least during
Late-Harappan to Early
Historic Period.
(iv) Findings of artifacts of
Buddhists period and Stupas
from excavated sites at ABR-I,
II and III and occurrence
of Hindu ritual sites at the
confluence of Adi Badri
Saraswati stream with the
Somb River, indicate that Adi
Badri has been an important
historic and religious place.
(v) Present day drainage
systems in Haryana viz.
Dangri,
Chautang, Markanda including
Saraswati Nadi, that
originate in Siwalik Hills, are
mostly ephemeral
(seasonal) streams with
smaller catchment areas and
draining to meet River
Ghaggar (Vedic Saraswati).
These rivers in the present
form cannot provide
significant flow to the mighty
Vedic Saraswati River.
(vi) Factors such as (a)
continuity of drainage lines of
Saraswati Nadi up to the Somb
River in topomaps,
(b) low topography and little
height variations of the
area where Adi Badri and
Rampur Herian village (the
origin place of Saraswati Nadi)
are located, (c) the
configuration of tributaries of
Somb River, (d) strong
N-S trending image anomaly,
protruding southward
from Adi Badri area to
Rampur Herian, indicate
towards feasibility of upstream
drainage of River Somb
to join with Saraswati Nadi.
All these evidences
indicate that higher reaches of
Adi Badri as the source
(origin) place of Saraswati
Nadi sometimes in the past
(historic/pre-historic period).
(vii) The present day
topography, rainfall and
drainages of
the region does not support
the hypothesis of Puri
and Verma (1998) and Puri
(2001) that the Yamuna
River (Vedic Saraswati) after
passing through Paonta
Sahib and Bata valley, drained
from Adi Badri area of
Haryana through the course of
present day Saraswati
Nadi.
SUGGESTIONS
There is a need to safeguard
and revive the Saraswati
Nadi which is historically and
archaeologically important
drainage in Haryana. This
could be done by diverting
water
through canals/pipelines from
existing Rivers (Markanda
or Somb) or from the Western
Yamuna Canal, which are the
sources close to the Saraswati
Nadi. The location of possible
linkages and their
approximate distances from
Saraswati
Nadi are shown on Fig.13. The
effort will benefit the people
of the region by way of
meeting their religious needs
like
performing rituals along the
banks of flowing River
Saraswati.
Acknowledgements: The authors
are highly thankful to Shri
Darshan Lal Jain, Director,
Saraswati Nadi Sodh Sansthan,
Yamunanagar and Shri Rajesh
Purohit, Archaeologist & Curator,
Sri Krishna Museum, Kurukshetra
and Shri R.S. Hooda, Director,
Haryana Remote Sensing
Applications Center, Hissar for
their
active association, encouragement
and fruitful discussion at various
stages of the work. Thanks are
also due to Shri Vaibhav Garg and
Shri Trilok Bharadwaj who helped
in data collection and fieldwork.
Help from Shri R.C. Gupta, Chief
Hydrogeologist, Ground Water
Cell (GWC), Govt. of Haryana and
other District Hydrogeologists
of GWC in providing
hydrogeological and litholog
data is
highly acknowledged. Our sincere
thank are also due to Prof.
M.S. Sishodia, JNV University,
Jodhpur for petrographic analysis
of Adi Badri rock samples. Authors
are thankful to an anonymous
reviewer for his critical comments
and suggestions to improve the
manuscript.
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Citations (31)
 References (28)
 ... There has been a long history of research into the hydrology and associated
geomorphology of the Indus River basin, which has focused on both active rivers (e.g.,
Oldham, 1893;Pilgrim, 1919;Pascoe, 1920;Fraser, 1958;Mithal, 1968;Schroder,
1993;Meadows and Meadows, 1999) and a number of major dried river channels.
Palaeochannels were initially recognised on the ground in the nineteenth century (e.g.,
Oldham, 1874Oldham, , 1893Oldham, 1886), subsequently investigated using remote
sensing imagery (e.g., Ghose et al., 1979;Yashpal et al., 1980;Ramasamy et al.,
1991;Gupta et al., 2004;Bhadra et al., 2009), and, more recently, reconstructed through
combinations of remote sensing, coring, provenience analysis, and absolute dating
(e.g., Bhadra et al., 2009;Gupta et al., 2011;Clift et al., 2012;Giosan et al., 2012;van Dijk
et al., 2016;Petrie, 2017, 2018;. The presence of these palaeochannels suggests that
these floodplains are highly dynamic, which has major ramifications for human
settlement. ...
... There has been a long history of research into the hydrology and associated
geomorphology of the Indus River basin, which has focused on both active rivers (e.g.,
Oldham, 1893;Pilgrim, 1919;Pascoe, 1920;Fraser, 1958;Mithal, 1968;Schroder,
1993;Meadows and Meadows, 1999) and a number of major dried river channels.
Palaeochannels were initially recognised on the ground in the nineteenth century (e.g.,
Oldham, 1874Oldham, , 1893Oldham, 1886), subsequently investigated using remote
sensing imagery (e.g., Ghose et al., 1979;Yashpal et al., 1980;Ramasamy et al.,
1991;Gupta et al., 2004;Bhadra et al., 2009), and, more recently, reconstructed through
combinations of remote sensing, coring, provenience analysis, and absolute dating
(e.g., Bhadra et al., 2009;Gupta et al., 2011;Clift et al., 2012;Giosan et al., 2012;van Dijk
et al., 2016;Petrie, 2017, 2018;. The presence of these palaeochannels suggests that
these floodplains are highly dynamic, which has major ramifications for human
settlement. ...
Geoarchaeological insights into the location of Indus settlements on
the plains of northwest India
Article
Full-text available

o Dec 2019
o QUATERNARY RES
o Sayantani Neogi
o Charles A.I. French
o

Julie Durcan
o
 Cameron A. Petrie

View
Show abstract

 ... Similar course and few landforms of dried up channels were observed in
Punjab plains by Oldham (1893) and Stein (1942). About a century later, Indian workers
picked up the Saraswati palaeodrainage research and reported a number of
palaeocourses of Saraswati river using remote sensing imagery (Wilhelmy,
1999;Yashpal et al., 1980;Sood and Sahai, 1983;Ghose et al., 1979;Bakliwal et al.,
1998;Sahai, 1999;Kar, 1999;Roy and Jhakhr,2001;Rajawat et al., 2003;Gupta et al.,
2004;Radhakrishna and Merh, 1999;Valdiya, 1996Valdiya, , 2002Valdiya, ,
2013Valdiya, , 2016Bhadra et al., 2009). Many of these studies also drew support from
the ancient Hindu text Rigveda in which existence of the Saraswati river is frequently
mentioned as a river that drained northwestern India during the Vedic period and
sustained the Indus Civilization in its basin from Himalayan front to Gujarat coast
(Sharma, 1974;Kalyanaraman, 2008). ...

The Lost Saraswati River of Northwestern Indian Plains: Status and

way forward
Article
Full-text available

o Mar 2020
o EPISODES
o

Hari Singh Saini

Apurva Alok
o

Naresh Pant

View

 ... One of the best examples for the use of remote sense data in archaeology is
the delineation of several palaeochannels of the river Sarasvati in Haryana and
Rajasthan (India) and Bahawalpur in Pakistan by several scholars [16][17][18][19][20]
[21][22] . The existence of palaeochannels in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and
Bahawalpur has long been known as a result of ground surveys carried out by Oldham
23 and Oldham 24 . ...

Ground survey to aerial survey: methods and best practices in

systematic archaeological explorations and excavations
Article
Full-text available

o Jan 2017
o CURR SCI INDIA
o

Prabhakar Nandagopal

Ravi Korisettar

View
 Show abstract

 ... Dr. Nicholas Kazanas argumentē, ka Rig-vēdās tiek minēta upe Sarasvati, kas
ģeoloģisku procesu rezultātā ir izžuvusi jau 2,000 -3,000 g.p.m.ē., tas padara plašāku
sākotnējo vēdu radītāju kultūru dislokāciju ārpus iepriekš atraktajām pilsētām Harappas
un Mohenjo-daro un pārceļ to izveidošanos vēl daudz senākā pagātnē kā 3,000
g.p.m.ē. 5 . ...

Indijas reģiona kosmoloģijas evolūcija

Preprint
Full-text available

o Jun 2019
o

Aigars Kokins

View
Show abstract

 ... A pronounced change in the distribution pattern (in both time and space) of
urban settlements of Mature and Late Harappan Civilization in NW India has been
linked to a large river flowing through this region which in turn was influenced by the
intensity of the Indian summer monsoon (Possehl, 2002;Giosan et al., 2012) and
neotectonic activities (Valdiya, 2013;Pati et al., 2018). Early work based on satellite
image interpretation identified a major palaeochannel, the Ghaggar-Hakra channel
(known as Ghaggar in India and Hakra in Pakistan; see Fig. 1a), and the interconnected
drainage network in the NW India (e.g., Pal et al., 1980;Kar and Ghose, 1984;Bhadra et
al., 2009;Rajani and Rajawat, 2011;Mehdi et al., 2016) along which a large number of
Mature and Late Harappan sites were found (Wright et al., 2008;Petrie et al., 2017).
Further work attempted to link the occurrence of archaeological sites of Mature and Late
Harappans along the traces of the buried channels to the existence of a mighty
palaeodrainage system of the Vedic Sarasvati River in this region (e.g., Gupta et al.,
2004;Shinde et al., 2008;Wright et al., 2008;Saini et al., 2009;Saini and Mujtaba,
2010;Dikshit, 2013;Petrie et al., 2017;Dave et al., 2019). ...
 Discovering ‘buried’ channels of the Palaeo-Yamuna river in NW
India using geophysical evidence: Implications for major drainage
reorganization and linkage to the Harappan Civilization
Article
Full-text available

o May 2019
o J APPL GEOPHYS
o

Imran Khan

Rajiv Sinha

View
Show abstract

 ... The mapping of the Ghaggar-Hakra (often identified as the Vedic Sarasvati)
and related hydrology, has been the focus of publications using multi-spectral satellite
imagery since the late 1970s (e.g. Ghose et al., 1979;Yashpal et al., 1980;Sharma et
al., 1999;Gupta et al., 2004;Bhadra et al., 2009;Mehdi et al., 2016). A large number of
relict rivers following this same general direction are also evident in the MSRM maps. ...

Multi-scale relief model (MSRM): a new algorithm for the

visualization of subtle topographic change of variable size in digital
elevation models.
Article
Full-text available
o Mar 2018
o

Hector A. Orengo

Cameron A. Petrie

View
Show abstract

 ... These workers argued that the channels were last active at 4000-1000 bc and
could have supplied water to the Harappan settlement sites. Orengo and Petrie (2017)
employed new analytical methods to confirm and extend earlier studies (Bhadra et al.,
2009;Yashpal et al., 1980) that showed a complex array of shallow buried palaeo-
channels in this region, between the Rivers Yamuna and Sutlej, around the Ghaggar-
Hakra channel. The age of these channels is of course unconstrained by remote
sensing approaches. ...

Holocene evolution of rivers, climate and human societies in the

Indus basin
Chapter

o Nov 2018
o

Peter D. Clift
o

Liviu Giosan

View
Show abstract

 Impact on ground water due to textile industries in Kadodara

Region, Surat, Gujarat, India

Conference Paper

o Jun 2019
o

Isha Shah

o J S Sudarsan
o Umang Shah
o Mir Sehran

View
Show abstract

 River Sarasvati: A Study of Possible Revival

Chapter
o May 2019
o Aman Chauhan
o

Baldev Setia

o Arvind Kaushik

View
Show abstract

 Holocene tectono-geomorphic evolution of Haryana plains,

Western Ganga plain, India

Article

Full-text available

o Jul 2018
o

Pitambar Pati

o Vivekanand Acharya
o
 Aditya Verma

o Arun Kumar Awasthi

View

Show abstract

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