Sources of acculturative stress among

International Students
Written Report
Anne-Laure Andrea S 2731886

7246EDN – Extended Special Project in Education

Convenor: Dr Paula Jervis-Tracey
Griffith University Semester 2 - 2014
 Content
__________________________________________________________

Literature Review…………………………..……………………………………. 3

Professional Paper…………………………..……………………………………. 15

Research Paper …………………………..………………………………………. 27

References ………………………………………………………………………. 44

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 Starting a new life in a host culture brings many potential challenges and can

be confusing for individuals who change countries due to several reasons. In fact,

adapting to a new place where language, values and norms are different to

individuals, can confront newcomers to cope with sociocultural, environmental and

psychological adjustments (Chen, 1999). While some individuals may perceive their

mainstream and ethnic cultural identities as compatible and integrated, others may

experience some adjustment problems and encounter at least some degree of stress

resulting from the changes in the acculturation process, or so called ‘acculturative

stress’ (Berry, 2005, 2006). Such stress caused by the process of acculturation has

often been found in refugee, immigrant, as well as sojourner populations (Berry,

2005; Brein and David, 1971; Church, 1982; Sandhu and Asrabadi, 1994; Kaczmarek

et al., 1994). As the number of international students enrolled in higher education

worldwide is increasing every year, researchers have particularly focus their attention

on how the process of acculturation affect the students’ attitudes, behaviors, values

and identity. For instance, studies have constantly suggested that international

students might undergo changes in behaviors such as identity, values and attitudes;

which involves some amount of stress and psychological conflicts derived from cross-

cultural adjustment (Mori, 2000; Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, and Al-Timimi, 2004;

Sandhu and Asrabadi, 1994). Indeed, international students encounter distinctive

challenges in adjusting to a new cross-cultural environment that might influence their

academic achievements and psychological well-being. According to Pederson (1991),

international students provide a perfect example of how individual must learn new

ways of acting to adapt to the new cultural norms in a short period of time and under

conditions of considerable stress. International students often struggle with

challenging stressors related to language barriers, cultural differences, academic

3
styles, poor social support and integration, racial discrimination and problems in daily

life tasks (Mori, 2000; Sandhu, 1995). International students are often under pressure

to maintain their academic achievement and yet at the same time struggle to survive

without the social support (family and friends) they were used to back home.

Therefore, it is crucial for higher education institutions and leaders (academic and

university staff) to understand the acculturation process that international students

experience in cross-cultural environment. As a result, higher education institutions

were compelled to adopt changes to better address and meet the international

students’ needs (Berry 1999; Sherry et al., 2010; Toyokawa & Toyokawa, 2002).

The purpose of the paper is to discuss the complex and multifaceted nature of the

experience of international students in a new cross-cultural environment. The study

also contributes to get a better understanding of how acculturative stress affect

international students’ health and psychological well-being. It also discusses the

important role of higher education institutions to create and implement programs that

would assist international students to adjust successfully in their new academic

environment. Lastly, the paper emphasizes on the stress-buffering effect of social

support on acculturative stress.

As today’s society become more ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse, how

individuals cope with adjustment and the process of acculturation become

increasingly important areas of study (Berry, 1980, 2006; Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng,

2009). Researches on cross-cultural adjustment issues of international students have

been extensively studied in the United States (e.g., Constantines, Anderson, Berkel,

Caldwell and Utsey, 2005; Misra, Crist, and Burant, 2003; Poyarazli and Kavanaugh,

2006) United Kingdom (e.g., Greenland and Brown, 2005), Australia (e.g., Burns,

4
1991; Khawaja and Dempsey, 2008; Rosenthal, Russell, and Thomson, 2008), and

more recently in New Zealand (e.g., Butcher and McGrath, 2004). Researchers

consider that adjusting to new cultural and environment can be a challenging and

stressful process for newcomers (Yusoff and Chelliah, 2010). According to Duru and

Poyazli (2007), it is an important psychosocial process that may affect the

performance and functioning of an individual. For instance, international students

who enter a new institution for further study in a foreign country often experience a

process of cultural adjustment; this process of adjustment to new a culture is called

‘acculturation’ (Berry, 1992, 1997, 2005, 2006; Berry and Kim, 1988; Berry, Kim,

Minde, and Mok, 1987; Williams and Berry, 1991). Acculturation refers to the

changes in behaviours and values that group and individuals undergo as a result of

contact with another culture (Berry, Kim, Minde, & Mok, 1987; Gibson, 2001;

Mainous III, 1989). According to Berry (2005), acculturation is define as “the dual

process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact

between two or more cultural groups and their individual members”. Berry’s (2005)

definition clearly state that acculturation results in changes on a group level (cultural

acculturation) and on an individual level (psychological acculturation) in both

cultures. For example, while acculturation changes may affect one’s behavioral

repertory, it also involves changes of cultural customs and social institutions for the

host culture (Berry, 2005). Thus, note that acculturation changes often take place in

different domains of life such as social affiliation, cultural identity and pride,

language preference, and cultural knowledge, beliefs, and values (Zane & Mak,

2003). Additionally, Berry (1994) developed a taxonomy for understanding the

acculturation attitudes that both migrant and host groups use during the process. Berry

(1990, 1997) and Berry & Sam (1997) identified four types of acculturation strategies:

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  Integration: Individual wish to maintain both ethnic identity while at the same

time interacting and becomes a participant in the host culture

 Assimilation: Individual does not wish to maintain his/her cultural identity and

adopt the cultural identity of the dominant society

 Separation: Individual maintains his/her own cultural identity and wish to

avoid participation in the host culture

 Marginalization: Individual has little interest in maintaining his/her own

cultural identity as well as having relation with others

Consequently, individuals who do not perceive the mainstream and the heritage

cultures as being mutually exclusive, conflicting or oppositional are able to integrate

both cultures in their everyday lives. According to Birman (1994) and Chuang (1999),

these individuals are showing behavioral competency in both cultures allowing them

to switch their behavior depending on the cultural context. Thus, many studies

showed that the integration strategy is the most ideal one, leading to greater benefits

in life (Berry, 1997; Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001), while

marginalization is considered to be the worst (Berry, 1997; Berry, Trimble, &

Olmedo, 1986; Chan, 2001; Dona & Berry, 1994; Hurh & Kim, 1984). Indeed, while

for some groups these adjustments may be easy, others may be confronted to cultural

conflicts or culture shock; which increases the risk of separating and marginalizing

from society. International students are one of those groups experiencing culture

shock. Zhou, Jindal-Sape, Topping, & Todman, (2008) defined culture shock as “the

collective effect of the unfamiliar experiences of a person entering a new culture”.

While previous studies stated that both domestic college students and international

college students are facing challenges during the college adjustment process, such as

stress of academic life and issues related to normal development of their age (identity

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formation, economic independence and psychological autonomy) (Spencer-Oatey &

Xiong, 2006; Toyokawa & Toyokawa, 2002); many others advocate that international

students experience more complex and challenging adjustments than domestic

students. For instance, in the literature, international students have been studied in

four main areas: 1) international students’ challenges/problems; 2) the psychological

reactions of sojourners entering a new cultural environment; 3) the effect of social

interaction and communication on sojourner adjustment; and 4) the cultural learning

process in the cross-cultural sojourn (Hammer, 1992). Thus, empirical studies

investigating college adjustment of international students found several variables that

may affect the process of these students, such as gender, age, cultural distance,

language proficiency, pre-acculturation, length of stay, social support, self-esteem,

status, education level, motivation, coping styles, spirituality and acculturative stress

(Berry, 1997; Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Timimi, 2004; Rosenthal, Russell, &

Thomson, 2007; Yeh & Inose, 2003; Yusoff & Chelliah, 2010). Among the variables

affecting the adjustment process of international students, acculturative stress is one

of the most researched subjects (Berry, 1997; Berry & Annis, 1974; Berry, 2003).

Indeed, previous researchers considered international students as a high-risk group

regarding acculturative stress (Alexander, Workney, Klein, & Miller, 1976) and are

found to experience more stress than other immigrant and ethnic groups (Berry and

Kim, 1986). Berry (1970) first introduced the concept of acculturative stress as an

alternative to the term culture shock. Berry et al. (1992) defined acculturative stress

as "a particular set of stress behaviours […] lowered mental health status (especially

anxiety, depression), feelings of marginality and alienation, heightened

psychosomatic symptom level, and identity confusion”. Acculturative stress refers to

the result of collective stressors that individuals face during the process of

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acculturation. For instance, international students face a number of challenges, also

known as ‘acculturative stressors’ that include issues such as language barriers,

difficulties in adjustment (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007), homesickness (Poyrazli &

Lopez, 2007), loneliness (Sawir, Marginson, Deumert Nyland & Ramia, 2008),

difficulties adjusting due to cultural differences (Constantine, Anderson, Berkel,

Caldwell, & Utsey, 2005; Reynolds & Constantine, 2007), financial issues (Poyrazli

et al., 2001; Yang & Clum, 1995), perceived prejudice and discrimination (Beoku-

Betts, 2004; Karuppan & Barari, 2011; Lee & Rice, 2007), loss of social support

(Pedersen, 1991) and feelings of hatred, guilt and fear (Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994).

The effects of these ‘acculturative stressors’ often result in mental-health issues, such

as anxiety, depression, confusion, and academic challenges Grahame, Poyrazli &

Sumer, 2008). For instance, Berry et al. (1987) listed the behaviors that occur during

the process of acculturation that include a lowered mental health (e.g. anxiety,

depression and confusion), feelings of marginality and alienation, increased

psychosomatic symptoms, and identity confusion (Williams & Berry, 1991).

Although the relationship between acculturative stress and international students’

physical and psychological well-being has not been extensively studied, there is little

empirical evidence that suggests acculturative stress influence their physical and

psychological well-being. Indeed, researchers found that the process of acculturation

may involve some amount of stress for international students that have valuable

repercussion on the physical and psychological well being (Berry & Kim, 1988;

Organista et al., 2003; Williams & Berry, 1991) and emotional development of

acculturative individuals (Ghaffarian, 1998; Sonderegger & Barrett, 2004). Compared

to domestic students, international students are often at higher risk of psychological

problems due to stress (Ebbin & Blankenship, 1988; Hyun, Quinn, Madon, & Lustig,

8
2007; Mortenson, 2006; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). Stress refers to “ any

uncomfortable emotional experience accompanied by predictable biochemical,

physiological and behavioral changes" (Baum, 1990). Similarly, previous studies

showed high rates of psychological distress, especially symptoms of anxiety and

depression, among international students while studying abroad (Carroll & Ryan

2005; Constantine, Okazaki, and Utsey, 2004; Nerdrum, Rustoen, & Ronnestad, 2006;

Ovuga, Boardman, & Wasserman, 2006; Winefield, 1993). Most of international

students have to adjust both their minds and bodies to the new cross-cultural

environment, which can lead to physical problems (e.g. insomnia, upset stomach

and/or headache) and psychological distress (e.g. anxiety, irritability, depression,

homesickness) (Axelson, 1993; Bock, 2008; Constantine, Okazaki, & Utsey, 2004;

Sandhu, 1995; Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994; Sumer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2008;

Winkelman, 1994). Psychological distress not only involves unhappiness but it is also

characterized by feelings of anxiety and depression (Hardy, Woods, & Wall, 2003).

For instance, international students reported somatic complaints (Sapranaviciute et al.,

2012) that involve symptoms of headaches, increases in blood pressure,

gastrointestinal problems (Mori, 2000; Thomas & Althen, 1989), sleep and appetite

disturbance, fatigue (Mori, 2000; Lin & Yi, 1997), and respiratory disorders (Allen &

Cole, 1987). Thus, they may also suffer psychological symptoms such as isolation,

loneliness, feelings of sadness, anger, hopelessness, a sense of inferiority, feelings of

dread, and; which in the most severe cases can lead to clinical depression (Mori,

2000). Overall, international students encounter complex challenges that will

inevitably impact not only on their cultural adjustment and psychological well-being,

but also affect their academic success.

Therefore the challenge for higher education institutions is to assist international

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students with their adjustment, and to provide relevant and accessible support to help

students cope with the difficulties they may experience while studying abroad.

Universities need to better equip these students with the necessary skills, knowledge

and connections they need to adjust to their new cross-cultural environment. Thus,

universities need to acknowledge the unique cultural and academic difficulties

international students face, and are recommended to tailor interventions that are more

culturally sensitive so that it will benefit to a wider range of students. Universities

should therefore provide relevant and accessible information, promote community

connections (e.g. peer-pairing interventions), facilitate social activity, and promote the

importance of the international students’ presence in the university campus (e.g.

international fairs). Therefore, it is imperative for universities to provide special

assistance and support services that would help reducing the acculturative stress

international students may experience. Universities play a significant role in social

support discourse for international students, and can assist them to successfully adjust

to their new cross-cultural environment. According to Ward & Masgoret (2004),

social support mainly consists in solving practical problems, providing living

arrangements, including education activities and academic genres. Therefore, many

universities have established special support services for international students and

offered assistance programs such as orientation programs, peer-pairing programs,

peer-mentorship programs, promoting intercultural connections, health and

counseling and academic counseling (Jenkins & Galloway, 2009).

As the international students’ attitude become more negative, social support has been

extensively study within the field of psychology, sociology and public health; and

mostly focuses on social support between family and friends. It exist four types of

social support: instrumental (assistance with practical problems), emotional (affective

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aid, showing sympathy and understanding) (Sarason et al. 1990), informational

(providing information and advice), and appraisal/esteem (boosting individuals’ self-

confidence). Udry (2002) also presented a model of social support that includes

esteem/emotional, informational, tangible and motivational. According to Udry

(2002), universities can provide an emotional support for international students by

showing sympathy and affection through programs tailored for them. Thus,

motivational support is provided through informational support and encouragement,

as well as, the provision of suggestion and advice from supervisors or academic

advisors. It is necessary to distinguished that social support usually comes from a

variety of resources (e.g. family, friends and universities) and that each source can

help students to cope with social, emotional and educational problems (Ward,

Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). For instance, students that experience emotional and

social problems will usually seek help from family, friends and other students, while

they tend to opt for administration staff and lecturers for educational problems (see

Leong & Sedlacek, 1986).

Previous studies suggested that international students most needed academic and

career counseling (see Leong & Sedlacek, 1989: MacArthur, 1980; Walter-Samli &

Samli, 1979), while others recommended personal counseling (see Altscher, 1976;

McMiIlen, 1976). Current research, such as Rajab, Rahman, Panatik, & Manson’s

studies (2014) recommended that university policy makers should provide

international students with not only psychological counseling, but also social and

academic counseling. Thus, they emphasized on the significant role that university

counseling services, international student office, and university academic/non-

academic staffs play in the adjustment process of international students. As stated by

Bartman (2007) and Ramsay et al. (2007), the roles of different parties in supporting

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international students should be emphasizing by universities. For instance, Bektas

(2004) believed that international student office is usually the first place where

international students seek for information and assistance.

Orientation programs were also considered to be the most effective assistance

program (Borland & Pearce, 2002; Guilfoyle, 2004). Orientation programs can serve

as a key support strategy that provides international students with the necessary skills

and information needed to adjust to a new environment. According to Kwon (2009),

orientation programs can assist international students to integrate to the new campus

culture, which facilitate their adjustment. As Moores & Popadiuk (2011) suggested,

student orientation programs should focus on essential and relevant information to

avoid overwhelming students, and should provide information on a) internal and

external support services (e.g. welfare services, academic and career support,

accommodation services, students learning assistance etc...), b) legal services, c)

emergency and health services, d) organizational policies and procedures (e.g. course

progress, course transfer, attendance monitoring, complaints and appeals), e) facilities

and resources, and f) any student visa conditions relating to course progress and

attendance. In addition, Misra et al. (2003) encourage orientation programs to include

domestic students in order to facilitate social networks and improve intercultural

understandings. Kwon (2009) also found that students participating in international

student orientation programs were more likely to participate in the campus life and

thus are less likely to feel homesick. Indeed, universities have the responsibility to

facilitate and involve these students in different social activities in order to reduce the

gap between domestic and international students. Consequently, Mamiseishvili (2012)

suggested that orientation programs and first-year experiences courses should

encourage peer-pairing interventions, such as paired international student with

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domestic students, as well as, with faculty. Indeed Rajab, Rahman, Panatik, &

Manson (2014) believed that “each faculty should track the performance of each

international student” in order to tailor appropriate intervention programs across

cultures that reduce their acculturative stress. Muldoon and Goodwin (2003)

considered peer-mentoring as an effective support strategy that creates a connection

between a student and their institution, and observed that such involvement is an

important factor in student retention. Thus, Westwood & Barker, (as cited in Trice,

2004) found that international students who participated in peer-pairing programs and

were paired with domestic students had a positive impact on their academic

performance. International students reported having higher grades and higher

retention rates than students who were not participating in the program. Additionally,

strong support systems will encourage international students to create friendships,

social support and networking, minimize cultural differences, reduce acculturative

stress, and influence students’ sense of steadiness and self-esteem (Bang &

Montgomery, 2013; Demakis & McAdams, 1994 Rose-Redwood, 2010). Thus,

universities are also recommended to host a wide range of social events and off-

campus activities that will facilitate international students’ integration (Erichsen &

Bolliger, 2011). For example, sporting events, community groups, organizing trips

and excursions, functions such as international food festival etc… (Redwood &

Redwood, 2013; Rose-Redwood, 2010).

In conclusion, during the process of acculturation, international students undergo

psychological and socio-cultural changes that could lead students to experience

acculturative stress. International students often experience stress due to various

acculturative stressors such as discrimination, culture shock, homesickness, loss of

social support and financial issues that inevitably impact on international students’

13
health and psychological well-being. Therefore, higher education institutions need to

gain a better understanding of how these factors contribute to acculturative stress in

international students by implementing adequate programs that provide effective

social support. Indeed, university plays an important role in providing international

students with effective social support that would alleviate their acculturative stress,

enhance their psychological and social well-being, and assist them to successfully

adjust to their new cross-cultural environment. University should not only focus on

conveying academic knowledge but also provides opportunities for international

students to understand and participate in the host culture. Therefore, it is crucial for

counsellors, academic staffs, student support services and international offices to

understand the mechanisms that underlie the relationship between the process of

acculturation, psychological and socio-cultural adjustment, and social support in order

to better prepare and assist international students.

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Upon arrival to a new cross-cultural environment, international students go through an

acculturation process that sometimes induces feelings of insecurity, frustration,

loneliness and confusion. In fact, International students are often under pressure to

maintain their academic achievement and yet at the same time struggle to survive

without the social support (family and friends) they were used to back home. Students

may face adjustment problems due to challenging stressors related to language

barriers, cultural differences, academic styles, poor social support and integration,

financial issues, racial discrimination and problems in daily life tasks. Therefore, it is

imperative for higher education institutions and education providers to understand the

acculturation process that international students experience in cross-cultural

environment. Australian higher education institutions need to provide opportunities

for international students to “feel welcome” in Australia, and to encourage students to

interact with domestic students. Previous studies argued that Australian institutions

could positively “improve international student attitudes about living in Australia by

developing programs designed to increase the interaction between Australian and

international students, and the level of tolerance towards international students by

Australian students”. The role of universities is to better equip these students with the

necessary skills, knowledge and connections to develop inter-cultural communication

skills. Thus, universities need to promote and provide opportunities, skills and support

for both international and domestic students to interact productively. Educational

providers need to understand the mechanisms that underlie the relationship between

the process of acculturation, psychological and socio-cultural adjustment, and social

support in order to better prepare and assist international students.

Between 2008 and 2011,

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the Australian Education International (AEI) conducted national benchmarking

surveys, in order to understand the experiences and views of international students

while living and studying in Australia. In 2010, one of these surveys found high levels

of satisfaction with the overall overseas experiences of international students in

Australia. Nevertheless, the surveys noticed three main areas that needed

improvements such as:

 Helping international students to interact with Australian students, as well as,

the broader community

 Providing and promoting adequate support services to international students

 Providing opportunities for international students to gain work experience

relevant to their studies

As a follow up to the 2010 International Student Survey (ISS) and to support

Australian institutions to assist international students to adjust to their new cross-

cultural environment, the Council of Australian Governments proposed the

International Students Strategy for Australia 2010-2014 (ISSA). The purpose is to

“support a high-quality experience for international students in order to ensure a

sustainable future for quality international education in Australia”. Through ISS, the

ISSA indented to provide more insights for Australia’s international educational

education sector to “better understand international students’ experience of living

and studying in Australia”. As a response to the surveys, the Australian Government

implemented a number of initiatives in order to support international students’

academic experiences, and to enhance students’ cultural adjustment. This article aims

at providing Australian education institutions with better understandings of and ideas

for improving international students’ academic and social-cultural adjustments.

International students undergo changes that are inherently distressing and, institutions

16
have to keep in mind that “language learning itself is a ‘profoundly unsettling

psychological position’ because it directly threatens an individual’s self-concept and

world view” (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986). Therefore, institutions need to

undertake new initiatives to provide professional guidance through support services,

promote social interaction between Australian and international students and provide

effective practices that enhance international students’ adjustment to a new cross-

cultural environment.

Support Services

Higher education institutions play a significant role in social support discourse, and

can assist international students to reduce the acculturative stress they may experience

during their adjustment period. International students providers need to design and

implement a wide range of services that would support and enhance the overall

experience of international students in Australia. Also, it is necessary to notice that

social support usually comes from a variety of resources (e.g. family, friends and

universities) and that each source can help students to cope with social, emotional and

educational problems. Institutions can provide an emotional support for international

students by showing sympathy and affection through programs tailored for them.

Thus, motivational support is provided through informational support and

encouragement, as well as, the provision of suggestion and advice from supervisors or

academic advisors. For instance, students who experience emotional and social

problems will seek help from family, friends and other fellow students, while they

tend to opt for administration staff and lecturers for educational problems.

Social support mainly consists in solving practical problems, providing living

arrangements, including education activities and academic genres. Many institutions

17
have established special support services for international students and offered

assistance programs such as, orientation programs, ‘buddy’ programs, student peer

mentoring programs, careers services, health and counseling services and academic

services. The 2010 ISS report revealed that 86% of higher education students and

87% of VET students showed high levels of satisfaction with the overall information,

support and advice provided at students’ arrival. However, while these students were

mostly satisfied with the support services, the results only concern students who

previously used these services. As the report noted, a proportion of international

students were unaware of the types of services offered by their institution and stated

that they would have used these services if they were aware that they existed. The

table below represents the proportion of HE and VET students who were unaware of

key support services offered by the institution but thought these services might have

been useful to them.

Educational sector

Support Services Higher Education VET

Accommodation 23% 32%
office
Health and 31% 32%
Counselling
services
Careers and 34% 41%
employment
services
Student advisory 22% 27%
information
services

Even though international students reported high levels of satisfaction and highly

valued the support services offered by their institutions, these findings suggest that

institutions need to explore new ways to increase awareness of campus support

18
services for international students. In order to develop a better understanding and

enhance the students’ experiences, the Australian Education International (AEI)

worked in collaboration with Universities Australia (UA) in 2012 and commissioned

them to “provide selected organisations with small grants to undertake innovative

projects on international students’ experience”. The goal is to provide Australian HEI

with a better understanding of international students’ needs, increase education

providers awareness of the issues international students face while studying in

Australia, promote international students’ importance and contribution to the broader

community, and highlight Australian education institution’s contribution to support

and enhance international students’ experience. The report concludes: “education

institutions have programs and processes in place to make the experience of

international students studying in Australia a successful and enjoyable one”.

Orientation and study preparation programs

Many Australian education institutions run orientation programs to assist newly

international students to integrate to the new campus culture, which facilitate their

adjustment (Kwon, 2009).

Orientation programs serve as a key support strategy that provides international

students with the necessary information needed to adjust to their new campus.

Orientation programs are mandatory for international students and are usually

conducted for a couple of weeks before the start of semester. They provide a great

opportunity for international students to be introduced to their education providers,

and the services they offer.

Orientation programs usually offer:

 Programs information sessions

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  Guided campus tours

 Library tours

 Social activities

 Faculty-specific orientation

 Opportunities to form interpersonal links with education providers and

students (both new and existing domestic and international students)

 Introduction to student support services and facilities

In 2011, Moores and Popadiuk ‘s research called Positive aspects of international

student transitions: A qualitative inquiry, recommended institutions to provide and

focus on relevant information in order to avoid overwhelming students. For instance,

orientation programs should provide information on:

 Internal and external support services (e.g. welfare services, academic and

career support, accommodation services, and students learning assistance)

 Legal services

 Emergency and health services

 Organizational policies and procedures (e.g. course progress, course

transfer, attendance monitoring, complaints and appeals)

 Facilities and resources

 Any student visa conditions relating to course progress and attendance.

Additionally, studies showed that international students who participated in student

orientation programs were more likely to participate in the campus life and thus felt

less homesick and isolated.

Social support

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Most of international students, who choose to study in Australia, want to get a ‘real’

experience of the Australian culture and customs, and often look forward to socially

engage with fellow students and the wider community. While international students

express strong interest in interacting with Australian students and the broader

community, they reported having difficulties establishing relationships with the local

community. Indeed, social interaction is a theme that has been widely studied and is

not unique to Australia’s international education system. Previous international

students surveys in other countries like New Zealand, France and Canada showed

similar results (CBIE, 2009; NZ, 2008; Marshall, 2011). In order to better prepare and

support education providers to encourage social interaction, numerous resources have

been made available. For example, in 2009, the AEI published the Example of good

practice in assisting international students to integrate with Australian students and

the wider community, and also provided in 2011, funding to the International Student

Advisers Network of Australia (ISANA), TAFE Directors Australia and English

Australia. Another relevant resource is the Finding Common Ground: enhancing

interaction between domestic and international students guide for academics written

by Arkoudis, et al. in 2010, which sought to investigate new ways to enhance social

interaction. In 2010, the ISS found that 67% of higher education, 69% of ELICOS,

and 76% of VET students were mostly satisfied with the opportunities to interact with

Australian students. However, 81% of school students expressed their desire to have

more Australian students as close friends. For international students, making and

maintaining friendships with Australian students is often a disappointing and difficult

experience due to several factors such as language barriers, cultural differences and

perceived racism/discrimination. Thus, previous studies showed that an international

student’s social life plays a big role in their happiness with their education experience.

21
In 2008, Sawir et al.‘s research called Loneliness and International students: An

Australian study, suggested that international students who were able to create

friendships with Australian students noted experiencing less culture shock, felt less

homesick, and were found to be happier and healthier individuals. Institutions play a

significant role in social support discourse for international students, and can assist

international students to successfully adjust to their new environment by promoting

community connections through ‘buddy’ programs and student peer mentoring

programs (Mamiseishvili, 2012). For example, some institutions implemented

“buddy’ programs as part of their orientation programs in order to provide

opportunities for social interaction and engagement. Institutions are encouraged to

include domestic students into their orientation programs in order to facilitate social

networks and improve intercultural understandings.

Another example is the use of student peer mentoring programs, which aim at offering

transitional support to encourage student engagement. In 2009, the Australian and

New Zealand Student Services Association (ANZSSA) claims that student peer

mentoring programs in higher education are “widely acknowledged to be immensely

valuable experiences for both mentors and mentees”, adding that such programs

“make a positive contribution to the quality of student life and institutional

effectiveness”. Student peer programs can enhance student engagement, increase

retention rates and increase student overall satisfaction. Senior student mentors can

share their own recent experiences and provide guidance for international students to

meet the challenges of transition to tertiary studies. Studies have shown that

international students who participated in student peer mentoring programs reported

having higher grades and higher retention rate than students who did not participate in

the program. Clearly, peer interventions are one of the most prominent ways to

22
facilitate international students’ integration with domestic students. Indeed,

institutions have the responsibility to facilitate and involve these students in different

social activities in order to reduce the gap between domestic and international

students. Such strong support systems will encourage international students to create

friendships, minimize cultural differences, reduce acculturative stress, and influence

students’ sense of steadiness and self-esteem (Bang & Montgomery, 2013). Lastly,

universities are also recommended to host a wide range of social events and off-

campus activities that will facilitate international students’ integration (Erichsen &

Bolliger, 2011). For example, sporting events, community groups, organizing trips

and excursions, and functions such as international food festival (Redwood &

Redwood, 2013; Rose-Redwood, 2010). Students’ participation in extra-curricular

activities will considerably have a positive impact on their academic experiences,

achievement and cultural adjustment. Previous studies revealed that student

involvement in extra-curricular activities tends to positively associate with self-

esteem and leadership development, academic and learning satisfaction, better

psychosocial and interpersonal skills, and psychological development.

Counselling services

Since researchers found that the process of acculturation may involve some amount of

stress for international students that have valuable repercussion on their physical,

psychological well-being and emotional development, most institutions offer free

counselling services with qualified and experienced counsellors to help international

students overcome their personal, social and academic issues. Counselling services

provide alternative ways for international students to explore and address their

concerns. Previous studies showed that counselling services are one of the most

23
effective ways to facilitate international students’ socio-cultural adjustment (Tsai and

Wong, 2012). Education counsellors have specialised skills in cross-cultural

counselling and provide professional guidance to international students on matters

such as:

 Feelings of anxiety, depression and stress

 Homesickness and culture shock

 Academic related issues (exam anxiety, motivation, concentration)

 Identity, self-esteem and confidence issues

 Family/Relationship issues

 Accommodation problems

Overall, professional counselling services can assist international students to resolve

their issues, and support students experiencing psycho-sociological problems to

successfully adjust in Australia; which could positively impact on their academic,

social, and cultural adjustment.

Career and employment services

Many international and domestic students work part-time during their studies.

International students often pay higher tuition fees than domestic students and also

need to fund their accommodation and living costs. Fortunately, Australian

institutions offer a range of services and resources, which aim at providing guidance,

information on career planning, job seeking and preparation for the Australian

workforce. Working while studying can not only provide students with financial

assistance, but also assist them in maximizing their employability as graduates.

Students will be able to develop attributes, skills and knowledge that are considered

valuable by employers. However, the 2006 ISS revealed that a majority of

24
international students were unsatisfied with the opportunity to gain relevant work

experience in their field of education. Most of international students surveyed

expressed their need to gain more relevant work experience and opportunities for

social interaction. Indeed, the 2006 ISS international students stated that they were

more likely to make friends through part-time employment than with their classmates.

Therefore, institutions need to provide career and employment services to help

international students to gain work experience relevant to their field of study:

 Job search workshops (writing a resume, cover letter etc…)

 Offer mock interviews

 Individual meeting with careers advisors

 Offer career mentoring programs

 Provide opportunities to find a job via a ‘jobsdatabase’ and connect with

employers through social media groups

 Create events such as career fairs

 Invite industry associations to come and talk to first-year experience

students

Cross-cultural adjustments often result in a loss of emotional and social support, loss

of self-validation and cultural conflicts, which are inherently distressing for

international students. Numerous studies have shown that a lack of social support

often lead to psychological, physical and health problems among international

students. Social support from peers, family and educators has been considered as a

protective factor that can help students to cope with social, emotional and educational

problems (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). Social support plays an important role

in reducing psychological problems such as stress, depression and loneliness (Calvete

and Connor-Smith, 2006), providing motivational influence on students’ academic

25
achievement (Wentzel, 1998), and moderating the effects of stressors on students’

psychological well-being (Nahid and Sarkis, 1994). Therefore, it is crucial for

educators, leaders and counselors to gain knowledge on how social support can

reduce students’ acculturative stress. Indeed, Australian education institutions need to

acknowledge the unique cultural and academic difficulties international students face,

and need to design and tailor adequate intervention programs and support services that

are more culturally sensitive so that it will benefit to a wider range of students.

Institutions were compelled to undertake new initiatives to support international

students’ experiences by implementing special support services and assistance

programs such as orientation programs, peer-pairing programs, peer-mentoring

programs, counseling and career/employment services. Such assistance programs can

serve as a key support strategy that provide international students with the necessary

information and skills to integrate to their new socio-cultural environment, as well as,

providing opportunities for social interaction and engagement between international

students, Australian students and local community. Besides, strong support systems

will alleviate acculturative stress, foster inter-cultural understandings, encourage

social interaction, improve academic performance and enhance the process of

acculturation of international students.

26
Introduction

Adjusting to new cultural and environment can be a challenging and stressful process,

especially for international students who decide to pursue tertiary study overseas. As,

Rosenthal, Russell, and Thompson (2008) noted, “it is inevitable that becoming an

international students is a transition that will challenge an individual”. In fact, during

the process of acculturation, international students often go through environmental,

cultural, social, and psychological changes; that might have valuable repercussion on

their academic performance, socio-cultural adjustment, and health and psychological

well-being. Indeed, previous studies considered international students as the high-risk

group for experiencing psychological and physical problems due to stress derived

from the process of acculturation (Quinn, Madon, & Lustig, 2007; Mortenson, 2006;

Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). For instance, international students often face unique

challenges when adjusting to a new cross-cultural environment, and have to adapt to

stressors related to language barriers, cultural differences, academic styles, lack of

social support, poor social integration, racial discrimination and problems in daily life

tasks (Mori, 2000; Sandhu, 1995). As a consequence, international students may

experience a type of stress, labeled as the acculturative stress (Pederson, 1991;

Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994).

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the range of potential stressors that

international students face while studying in higher education institutions; and how

these challenges might impede students’ adaption to their new cross-cultural

environment. The paper sought to understand the acculturation process of

international students by investigating the relationships between acculturative

27
stressors and acculturative stress. The paper attempts to answer the following key

research questions: How might the process of acculturation impact on international

students’ adjustment in a new cross-cultural environment? What are the major sources

of acculturative stress among university international students?

We also discuss the implications for Australian higher education institutions and

educators to understand the experiences of international students for tailoring and

implementing culturally sensitive interventions that provide academic, social, and

personal support.

Literature Review

Australia is the third most popular destination for international students in the

English-speaking world, behind the United Stated and United Kingdom, and will

continue to attract the largest numbers of students. Students from all around the world

choose to study in Australia because its renowned education system, cultural

diversity, laid-back nature, and high quality of life. From year-to-date, it is estimated

that more than one in five (22,3%) tertiary students studying in Australia are

international students (AEI, 2012). Of these, 240,307 international students were

enrolled in the higher education sector.

The increasing number of international students enrolled in higher education

institutions has prompted researchers to explore how individuals cope with cross-

cultural adjustment, and how it may be a stressful process that may affect the

performance and functioning of an individual (Berry, 1980, 2006; Duru & Poyazli,

2007; Yusoff & Chelliah, 2010). Researches on cross-cultural adjustment issues of

international students have been extensively studied through the lens of many fields of

study such as education, psychology, sociology, and counseling. Indeed, living and

studying in a new country where language, values and norms are different to

28
international students, can confront students to experience socio-cultural,

environmental and psychological adjustments (Chen, 1999); this process of

adjustment is also called ‘acculturation’ (Berry and Kim, 1988; Berry, et al., 1987;

Williams and Berry, 1991). Acculturation refers to the changes in behaviours and

values that group and individuals undergo as a result of contact with another culture

(Berry, et al., 1987; Gibson, 2001). From psychological perspectives, acculturation

researches essentially focus on the changes at an individual level, and expanded the

area of study to include changes on individual’ identity, attitudes, values, and

behavioural norms (Berry, 1980, 1990; Sam & Berry, 2006; Zane & Mak, 2003).

Johnson and Sandhu (2007) have defined acculturation as “changes in values, and

behaviours that result from sustained contact with a second culture”. Therefore, it is

expected that international students are more likely to experience environmental,

cultural, social, and psychological changes during the process of acculturation.

Studies previously demonstrated that international students encounter significant

added stressors that are more likely to influence their adaptation (Yeh & Inose, 2003).

International students confronted to these stressors can lead them to experience a kind

of stress, commonly referred to as “acculturative stress” (Berry, 1997, 2003),

“foreign student syndrome" (Ward, 1967), “up rooting disorder” (Zwingman, 1978),

and/or “international adjustment” (Tsang, 2001).

Throughout the literature, studies showed that international students face a number of

‘acculturative stressors’ that include issues such as language barriers, difficulties in

adjustment (Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007), homesickness (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007),

loneliness (Sawir, et al., 2008), difficulties adjusting due to cultural differences

(Constantine, et al. 2005; Reynolds & Constantine, 2007), financial issues (Poyrazli et

al., 2001), perceived prejudice and discrimination (Karuppan & Barari, 2011; Lee &

29
Rice, 2007), loss of social support (Pedersen, 1991) and feelings of hate, guilt and fear

(Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). The effects of these stressors often have valuable

repercussion on the physical and psychological well-being (Organista et al., 2003;

Williams & Berry, 1991) and emotional development of the acculturative individuals

(Sonderegger & Barrett, 2004). International students may suffer psychological

symptoms (e.g. loneliness, homesickness, and depression; Sumer, Poyrazli, &

Grahame, 2008), and somatic symptoms (e.g. loss of appetite, and insomnia;

Sapranaviciute et al., 2012). For instance, Schweitzer (1996) found that about 45% of

college students in Australia reported experiencing emotional distress. Similarly, Furr,

et al., (2001) found that about half of tertiary international students reported suffering

depressive symptoms since the beginning of college. They also noted that students

those students were depressed due to academic problems, feelings of loneliness,

financial concerns, and relationship difficulties.

Purpose of the present study

The present study combined previous findings from several independent studies in

order to determine the factors influencing acculturative stress among international

students in Higher Education institutions. The study explored how acculturative

stressors and acculturative stress are related. Based on previous empirical and

theoretical studies, several variables have been identified as contributing to

acculturative stress. The study mainly focused on predictors of acculturative stress

among university international students that include language stressors, educational

stressors, socio-cultural stressors, discrimination, and practical stressors. Additionally,

we investigated the influence of acculturative stressors and acculturative stress on

students’ academic performance, socio-cultural adjustment, and psychological

functioning. The goal is to assist international students to understand the challenges

30
that they may encounter during their mobility. Lastly, we suggest that it is imperative

for Australian higher education institutions and educators to understand the

fundamental psychological processes and adjustment difficulties that international

students experience, in order to design effective intervention programs that will assist

and support students to successfully adjust to their new environment.

Possible sources of acculturative stressors among university international

students

While for some international students adjusting to a new cross-cultural environment

may be easy, others may be confronted to cultural conflicts or culture shock; which

increases the risk of separating and marginalizing from the host society. In fact, based

on the acculturation models by Berry (1997, 2006), Arends-Toth and van de Vijver

(2006), and Ward, Bochner and Furnham (2001), international students encounter

considerable changes when adjusting to a new culture. Smith and Khawaga (2011)

recently reviewed the major stressors that international students faced during the

process of acculturation. Thus, the effects of these ‘acculturative stressors’ often

include lowered mental health (e.g. anxiety, depression and confusion), feelings of

marginality and alienation, increased psychosomatic symptoms and identity confusion

(Berry et al., 1987; Grahame, et al., 2008; Williams & Berry, 1991). The following

section reviews some of the major acculturative stressors documented within the

international students literature.

Language stressors

Language barriers have been identified as one of the major acculturative stressor that

affects international students’ adjustment (Masgoret & Ward, 2006; Mori, 2000,

Wilton & Constantine, 2003; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Previous studies demonstrated that

31
second language proficiency was a predictor of international students’ adjustments

(Poyrazli, et al., 2002; Poyrazli, 2003). Similarly, Zhang and Goodson (2011) argued

that English proficiency was a predictor for both psychological and socio-cultural

adjustments.

According to Chen (1999), “a key variable that interrelates with many stressors in

educational and socio-cultural domains is second language anxiety”. Horwitz,

Horwitz, & Cope (1986) conceptualised “second language anxiety” or also termed

“foreign language anxiety” as a unique type of anxiety specific to second/foreign

language learning, and is defined “as a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs,

feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the

uniqueness of the language learning process”. International students may experience

second/foreign language anxiety due to linguistic difficulties and insufficient

command when learning and using the target language (Sparks & Ganschow; as cited

in Horwitz, 2001). Previous studies found that about a third of international students

may experience some second language anxiety (Horwitz, Tallon, & Luo, 2009).

Second/foreign language anxiety is a significant variable that affect international

students’ academic performance and achievement. In many cases, students

experiencing second/foreign language anxiety may impede their language learning

and performance abilities, which may have a detrimental effect on students’

confidence, self-esteem and self-efficacy, and level of participation (Horwitz, et al.,

1986). In terms of academic achievement and performance, researchers found

significant negative correlations between second/foreign language speaking anxiety

and oral scores (Seller, 2000), between foreign listening anxiety and listening course

grades (Elkhafaifi, 2005; Bekleyen, 2009), between foreign language reading anxiety

and reading scores (Zhao, 2009), and between foreign language writing anxiety and

32
writing achievement (Chen & Lin, 2009). Thus, second/foreign language anxiety is

described as a situation specific anxiety (Ellis, 1994) that has three main components:

a) communication apprehension (learners’ inability to express mature ideas and

thoughts); b) test anxiety (learners’ apprehension over academic evaluation and fear

of failure); and c) fear of negative evaluation (avoidance of evaluation situations)

(Horwitz, et al., 1986). Furthermore, international students with language difficulties

often struggle to access academic support, understand lectures and lecturer accents,

teaching styles, assignment writing, oral and written assessments, and their ability to

communicate with lecturers and peers (Huang & Klinger, 2006). Poyrazli and

Kavanaugh’s (2006) findings revealed that international students with low academic

performance reported lower levels of English language proficiency and greater level

of acculturative stress. Besides, Trice’s (2003) qualitative study observing academic

staff’s perceptions emphasized that staff members perceived English language

proficiency as one of the main challenge that affect international students’ academic

performance. Additionally, studies among Asian international students revealed that

poor language skills might cause low self-esteem and low self-efficacy, which in turn

can lead to emotional problems such as depression, stress and anxiety (Huang &

Klinger, 2006; Huang & Rinaldo, 2009; Lin, 2002).

In the socio-cultural domain, language difficulties can prevent international students’

to socially interact with peers and the host community (Chen, 1999; Mori, 2000). In

fact, Barratt and Huba (1994) showed that international students’ English language

proficiency can boost students’ self-esteem, and was positively associated with

interpersonal relations with members of the host community. Besides, when

communicating in a second language, international students might no be able to fully

express their opinions and personality (Horwitz, et al., 1986). Students might fear to

33
be misunderstood or mistaken leading to higher communication apprehension in the

target language. For example, students with different backgrounds may feel anxious

to discuss controversial topics such as politics, religion, and history (Anarbaeva,

2006; Wang, 2004). Therefore, some international students may intentionally avoid,

and even more, fear to orally communicate with people. Indeed, according to Horwitz

et al. (1986), performance in the target language is more likely to challenge students’

self-concept as a competent communicator, which could lead to embarrassment. For

instance, students with communication apprehension reported experiencing

frustration, feeling hopeless, stupid, suffering from a lack of confidence and

assertiveness; and in worst-case scenario led to depression (McCroskey, 1977).

Educational stressors

International students not only have to face challenges of cross-cultural adjustment,

but also adjusting to a new educational environment. Indeed, international students

face a number of potential acculturative stressors such as academic stress, second

language anxiety, and adapting to a new learning environment. For instance, various

studies considered academic adjustment as a complex process that impact on both

domestic and international university students (Hashim & Zhiliang, 2003; Misra et al.,

2003). International students are often under pressure to master the host language,

adjusting to learning in a new educational system, and yet at the same time,

maintaining their academic achievement. Besides, international students’ background

knowledge has been developed through their cultural experiences, which will

influence students’ conceptual learning and language skills (Carrell & Eisterhold,

1988; Steffenson, Joag-Dev, & Anderson, 1979). For instance, international students

differ in learning styles, approaches to learning and orientations to study, and

intellectual development levels. Students have different attitudes about teaching and

34
learning, and therefore have different expectations and conventions about

participation, instructional practices and performance. Poyrazli and Grahame (2007)

noted that international students expressed their concerns regarding the differences in

curriculum and teaching procedure, test taking, oral communication and classroom

instruction. Such difference in teaching styles and approaches can be a source of

complexity for international students (Andrade, 2006). Indeed, two Australian

qualitative studies found that international students had difficulties adjusting to the

teaching styles of the host country (Edgeworth & Eiseman, 2007; Townsend & Poh,

2008). For example, differences in teaching approaches in Asian countries and

Western countries can affect Asian international students’ adjustment in the

classroom. English language teachers often view speaking as a vital aspect of

language acquisition, and are more likely to use a communicative approach. In

Western culture, students are encouraged to engage in debates and to be critical,

whereas Asian students learn by listening and usually avoid being critical out of

respect for their teacher. Mori (2000) viewed Asian international students as surface

learners (e.g. students’ passivity in classroom settings), probably due to different

expectations within educational systems (Abel, 2002; Jenkins, 2000); and/or

confidence levels in the target language (Watkins, Biggs, & Regmi, 1991). Sherry, et

al., (2004), and Khawaja and Dempsey, (2008) also highlighted that international

students reported a mismatch in expectations between the quality and efficiency of

services offered by their educational institutions. International students with lower

perceptions of services offered by the educational institutions were found to be

associated with poorer adjustment (Khawaja & Dempsey, 2008) and increased

depression levels (Kennedy, 1999, as cited in, Ward, et al., 2001). In addition,

35
international students might feel pressured by their family to academically succeed,

which can increase acculturative stress (Mori, 2000; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007).

Overall, adjusting to new social settings, taking on intensive academic workloads, and

being exposed to new educational concepts considerably put a counterproductive

stress on international students. As a result, international students may suffer from

academic stress. Indeed, university students face specific academic demands that may

that include meeting deadlines (Misra et al., 2000), intensive academic workloads

(Warwick, 2006), examinations (Robotham, 2008), time related pressures (Macan, et

al., 1990), interactions with faculty members, academic and achievement

expectations, lack of social support (Von Ah, et al., 2004), transition to university,

financial issues (Robotham, 2008), and competitive academic atmosphere (Lee, Kang,

& Yum, 2005). Although, Khawaja and Dempsey’s (2008) study found no significant

difference in academic stress between international students and domestic Australian

students; international students are at a high risk due to added stressors of second

language anxiety and adjusting to a new educational environment. Also, international

students who experience academic stress may suffer from major physical and mental

health problems (Andrews & Wilding, 2004; Tennant, 2002), which in turn can affect

academic performance and achievement. In other words, within the educational

domain, international students encounter a number of acculturative stressors that may

affect their psychological, social and academic adjustments.

Socio-cultural stressors

While most international students express strong interest in participating and

interacting with the host community, previous studies showed that cross-cultural

differences, language barriers and personality traits might impede students’ ability to

establish new social networks, and thus affect students’ socio-cultural and

36
psychological adaptation (Brisset, et al., 2010; Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006; Ying &

Han, 2006). Indeed, international students studying abroad face real challenge of

making new friendships, coping with loss of social support, and developing strong

social support system. For instance, Australian qualitative studies found that

international students reported having difficulties socializing with Australian students,

which contribute to their feelings of loneliness and/or isolation (McLachlan & Justice,

2009; Townsend & Poh, 2008). Indeed, in their study, Sawir et al. (2008) noted that

two thirds of international students reported that they had experienced ‘periods of

loneliness and isolation’ while studying in Australia. Similarly, Zhang and Brunton

(2007) found that 55% of Chinese international students studying in New Zealand

were unsatisfied with the opportunities to interact with domestic students, and 71%

expressed their desire to have more domestic students as close friends. Asian

international students may experience more difficulties than European students, when

interacting and attempting to form friendships with locals (Yeh & Inose, 2003). It has

been suggested that international students from collectivist cultures often express a

strong desire to maintain their heritage socio-cultural values and behaviors, while

domestic students expect international students to assimilate or integrate to their

culture. In addition, Zhang and Brunton (2007) noted that domestic students were

disinterested in forming intercultural relationships. International students often

perceived personal relationships with domestic students as shallow and, which rarely

move from superficial ‘hi-bye’ type relations to deeper friendships (Bradley, 2000;

DuBois, 1956).

Furthermore, being separated from loved ones, friends and family can be a distressing

experience. Indeed, lack or loss of social support is one of the biggest challenges

experienced by international students. According to Pederson (1991), international

37
students with low level of social support will negatively impact on academic

performance and lead to psychological symptoms such as depression, confusion and

anxiety. In contrast, studies found that international students with higher levels of

social support can alleviate acculturative stress and depression, and therefore facilitate

adjustment (Smith & Khawaga, 2011; Sümer, Poyrazli, & Grahame, 2008; Zhang &

Goodson, 2011). International students often reported feeling emotionally deprived

without the social support from friends and family they were used to back home,

which results in greater level of loneliness and homesickness (Parr & Bradley, 1991;

Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Rajapaksa & Dundes, 2002). Homesickness usually includes

factors such as missing family and friends, feeling lonely, experiencing adjustment

problems, and constantly thinking about home (Kegel, 2009; Willis, Stroebe, &

Hewstone, 2003). In addition, other studies related homesickness with academic

performance (Willis et al., 2003), physical symptoms (e.g. insomnia, upset stomach

and/or headache) and psychological symptoms (e.g. anxiety, depression, and

irritability); difficulty with concentration and memory (Stroebe et al. 2002), low level

of social support (Urani, et al., 2003); adjustment to university life (Poyrazli &

Lopez, 2007) and cultural identity (Ye, 2005; Poyrazli et al., 2004).

Besides, students with greater degree of incongruence between their mainstream

culture and the host culture may experience more socio-cultural difficulties than

students with similar values and behavioral practices. Indeed, students with greater

differences in terms of language, religion, and cultural norms may experience ‘culture

shock’ (De Araujo, 2011; Zhou, et al., 2008). For example, differences in

communication and mannerism can be sources of cultural shock for international

students. International students from Asia and Africa are often surprise about the

informality and lack of respect shown by domestic students and faculty members

38
(Chen, 1999). Thus, culture shock can lead to serious psychosocial difficulties and

mental health problems such as loss of identity, feelings of loneliness, depression,

insomnia, low self-esteem, and changes in mood.

Racial discrimination and perceived prejudice

The literature also suggests that perceived prejudice and discrimination are other

potential acculturative stressors that affect international students’ psychological health

and cultural adjustments (Beoku-Betts, 2004; Karuppan & Barari, 2011; Lee & Rice,

2007; Winkelman, 1994; Yoon & Portman, 2004). Studies in several countries such as

in the United Sates, Canada, New Zealand and Australia, noted that international

students often experience some form intentional or unintentional racial discrimination

(e.g. favouritism, stereotypical remarks etc…) (Pedersen, 1991). Findings from

participants in Lee and Rice’s (2007) qualitative study revealed that international

students from India, Asia, Middle East and Latin America experienced significant

discrimination varying from verbal insults, feelings of inferiority and being

devaluated, discrimination when seeking job, and in worst case physical attacks. One

extreme example of social prejudice and hostility is a tragic incident that happened in

January 2010 in Australia, where individuals from the host society attacked and

assaulted Indian international students (O'Loughlin, 2010; O'Malley, 2010). In fact,

international students from Africa, Asia, India, Middle East and Latin America are

from cultures that are the most different from the host countries, and often report to

experience greater levels of discrimination than domestic students and European

international students (Hanassab, 2006; Lee & Rice, 2007; Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007).

As a consequence, international students experiencing any form of racial

discrimination and prejudice will inevitably impact on students’ psychological health

39
(Atri, Sharma, & Cottrell, 2006; Jung, Hecht, & Wadsworth, 2007; Wei, et al., 2007).

Thus, such experiences can discourage international students to interact with domestic

students and the broad community, which can lead to loneliness and

isolation/alienation (Constantine, et al., 2005; Klomegah, 2006; Sawir, et al., 2007).

In addition, international students who feel rejected by members of the host

community may experience feelings of hate.

Practical stressors

Practical stressors or also called lifestyle acculturative stressors often include financial

issues (Poyrazli et al., 2001; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007). Indeed, studies have shown

that international students often experience financial problems (Poyrazli & Grahame,

2007) mainly because of work restrictions in the host country, lack of scholarships,

unanticipated inflation and higher tuition fees (Mori, 2000). Thus, for international

students who rely on graduate assistantships, Kuo (2004) criticize these assistantships

that hardly cover students’ living expenses. Further qualitative studies highlighted

accommodation and transportation issues as other possible practical stressors

(Bradley, 2000; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007).

Conclusion and implications

By understanding the variables contributing to acculturative stress among

international students, Australian universities can tailor culturally sensitive

interventions that will assist international students to cope with the difficulties they

may experience while studying abroad. Therefore, governments and educational

providers must work together to develop, implement, and enforce infrastructures and

students services that support international students’ academic experiences, and

enhance students’ socio-cultural adjustment. For instance, the International Students

40
Strategy for Australia 2010-2014 was proposed by the Council of Australian

Governments (COAG) to increase Australian universities’ awareness of the issues

international students face while studying in Australia, and provide alternative ways

to enhance students’ academic and socio-cultural adjustment. The goal is to enhance

international students’ experience by improving students’ well-being, strengthening

consumer protection, ensuring the quality of education, and providing better

information to current and future international students. The Strategy provide

Australian universities with a better understanding of international students’ needs,

promote international students’ importance and contribution to the community, and

highlight Australian education institution’ significant role in social support discourse

for international students.

As a result, many Australian universities implemented a number of initiatives to

support international students’ academic experience, and provide both academic and

administrative support services. From the administrative aspect, administrative

support is an important part of university support services. Universities established

International student centre and other administrative departments to provide effective

support to international students. Student support centre can provide course

information; assist with processing enrolments, issuing timetables, and general

information about services and other campus facilities. International students can also

use these services to seek assistance with practical problems such as visa problems,

legal issues, accommodation problems, and transportation. Thus, student support

centre plays an important role in promoting and facilitating intercultural connections

through social events on campus (e.g. Cultural Gala, Harmony Week), sporting

events, off-campus activities (e.g. excursions and trips), and community groups

(Erichsen & Bolliger, 2011; Redwood & Redwood, 2013). Universities also commit

41
to provide a high quality professional psychological service to their students.

Education counsellors have specialised skills in cross-cultural counselling, and are

dedicated to help international students overcome their personal, social and academic

issues (Tsai and Wong, 2012). Professional counselling services can support

international students to enhance their university experience, achieve academic

success, and alleviate the effects of stress and anxiety caused by academic, personal,

and social pressures. In addition, academic and study support services is another

important part of university support services. Universities offer a range of assistance

programmes such as orientation programmes, English language support, student peer

mentoring programs, peer-mentorship programs, academic advising and career

counseling (Jenkins & Galloway, 2009). Providing academic support tailored for

international students would considerably promote academic success, enhance student

social interaction and engagement, increase retention rates, and increase student

academic experience.

Furthermore, teacher social support is crucial to the educational success of

international students. Teacher social support consists in two main forms: appraisal

and informational support. Appraisal support involves receiving instructive/evaluative

feedback for self-evaluation purposes, while informational support consists in

providing needed information (e.g. tangible aid). Moreover, researchers indicated that

teacher social support should both include instrumental and emotional support

(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2013). Instrumental support includes teachers’ clarifying,

questioning, and correcting, which contribute to problem solving, help-seeking

behaviours, intrinsic motivation and skill development (Bezzina, 2010; Sakiz, 2012).

Also, Skaalvik & Skaalvik (2013) noted that teachers needed to be more emotionally

supportive to their students. According to Malecki and Demaray (2003), students

42
reported that teachers were mostly providing informational and appraisal support than

instrumental and emotional support. Thus, findings consistently indicated that

teachers’ providing emotional support was positively associated with educational

outcomes. For instance, Wentzel, et al. (2010) perceived teacher social support as a

predictive of academic success, and social motivation. A number of studies associated

teacher social support with higher levels of achievement such as higher students’

grades, higher retention rates, and students’ engagement (Elias & Haynes, 2008).

Besides, teacher social support can enhance students’ socio-emotional well-being,

such as self-esteem, motivation, commitment to learning, and self-efficacy (De Wit, et

al., 2011). Other studies considered positive teacher-student relationships (e.g. trust,

low conflict, warmth) as a predictive of student social interaction, motivation,

academic achievement, adaptive learning strategies, and well-being (Sakiz, Pape, &

Hoy, 2012). Therefore, it is important for teachers to gain an understanding of

international students’ unique academic, emotional and cultural differences, and help

those learners on their academic and life journeys. Teachers need to be able to design

and implement lessons and learning activities that will address their students’

academic needs, learning styles and level of English proficiency. Teachers that are

interested in their learners’ cultural background and experiences will be able to

provide learning styles and structures that adequately meet the learners’ needs.

Indeed, teachers that care and develop methodologies sensible to their learner’s

expectations can foster students’ academic success. For example, teachers’

understanding of the preferred learning styles of students will allow them to adjust

their teaching style and practice to maximize teaching and learning opportunities (see

Reid, 1987). In contrast, teacher insensitivity to academic, social, and cultural

differences among international students will negatively impact on their academic

43
adjustment (Zhou et al., 2003). Consequently, Gay (2002) believes that teachers need

to use “the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically

diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively”. Indeed, he argued

that the ability for teachers to provide ‘cultural scaffolding’ requires them to have

more specific, rather than generic, understandings of cultural similarities and

differences. Teachers need to understand how and why learners differ in their

language learning behaviours and performances in the classroom, in order for them to

tailor instruction and feedback that fit the needs of their students. Thus, teachers’

awareness of cultural differences can promote tolerance, respect, openness, interracial

and intercultural understanding.

In summary, given the negative effect of acculturative stress on international students,

higher education institutions, educators, and governments should take a broad view of

the role they can play during students’ adjustments. Therefore, it is important to

understand and implement interventions that create long-term benefits for students’

academic success and psychological well-being.

9557 words

44
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 7246EDN Special Project – Semester 2, 2014 – Written Assignment Option B (10, 000 words) (across multiple
publications)
NAME: Anne-Laure Andrea
Criteria/Standard Outstanding High Achievement
s
Specific Clear, well explained and
thoroughly justified
issue/problem is description of the rationale
explicated and the for and context underpinning
rationale & context of the study/issue, drawing
upon extensive relevant
the study drawn from review of literature. The
literature review issue(s) under investigation
are clearly articulated.
Interrelated sub-topics are
lucidly explained and justified
by the conclusion of the lit
review section.
Underlying Clear evidence of thorough
review of seminal papers
Theoretical which articulate the
Framework/context theoretical framework
drawn from literature underpinning this
study/issue. Consistent cross
review referencing of contextual
literature and specific theory
(ies) that inform the analysis
and structure of the overall
report.
Evidence of Data is collated from
completely relevant sources
systematic inquiry e.g. analyses derived from
(e.g. document reputable published
analysis, survey or documents relating to the
issue, survey data generated
interview data) from own survey or
published surveys (e.g. ABS,
PISA, OECD reports),
interview data generated
from own questions,
demonstrating applicable
methodological conventions.
Use of Endnote or similar
61
Student ID: 2731886
Credit Satisfactory
Clear, well explained and
mostly justified description of
the rationale for and context
underpinning the study/issue,
drawing upon a broad, mostly
relevant review of literature.
The issue(s) under
investigation are articulated.
Interrelated sub-topics are
explained and justified by the
conclusion of the lit review
section.
Clear evidence of extensive
review of mostly seminal or
highly regarded papers which
articulate the theoretical
framework underpinning this
study/issue. Cross referencing
of contextual literature and
specific theory (ies) that inform
the analysis and structure of
the overall report.
Data is collated from mostly
relevant sources e.g. analyses
derived from reputable
published documents mostly
relating to the issue, survey
data generated from own
survey or published surveys
(e.g. ABS, PISA, OECD reports),
interview data generated from
own questions, demonstrating
applicable methodological
conventions Use of Endnote or
similar cataloguing system
optional.
Unsatisfactory
Usually clear and justified
description of the rationale for
and context underpinning the
study/issue, drawing upon a
relevant review of literature.
The issue(s) under
investigation are described,
perhaps with some unresolved
explanations. Some sub-topics
are explained, may be justified,
by the conclusion of the lit
review section.
Evidence of extensive review of
many highly regarded papers
which articulate the theoretical
framework underpinning this
study/issue. Evidence of cross
referencing of contextual
literature and specific theory
(ies) that inform the analysis
and structure of the overall
report.
Data is collated from often
relevant sources e.g. analyses
derived from published
documents relating to the issue,
survey data generated from
own survey or published
surveys (e.g. ABS, PISA, OECD
reports), interview data
generated from own questions,
usually demonstrating
applicable methodological
conventions Use of Endnote or
similar cataloguing system
optional.
Basic and sometimes justified
description of the rationale for
and context underpinning the
study/issue, drawing upon a
usually relevant review of
literature. The issue(s) under
investigation are described,
perhaps with a number of
unresolved explanations. Some
sub-topics may be explained
and/or justified, by the
conclusion of the lit review
section.
Some evidence of review of a few
highly regarded papers which
assist to articulate the theoretical
framework underpinning this
study/issue. Occasional cross-
referencing of contextual
literature and specific theory
(ies) that are somewhat useful in
informing the analysis and/or
structure of the overall report.
Data is collated from sometimes
relevant sources e.g. analyses
derived from published
documents, though may rely on
non-refereed material, relating to
the issue, survey data generated
from own survey or published
surveys (e.g. ABS, PISA, OECD
reports), interview data
generated from own questions,
may have methodological
inconsistencies.
Unclear, and/or incomplete,
rarely justified description of
the rationale for and context
underpinning the study/issue,
failing to make links to
relevant literature or review
is too brief (see below). The
issue(s) under investigation
are poorly described, with
many unresolved
explanations. Few sub-topics
are explained and/or justified,
by the conclusion of the lit
review section.
Little or no evidence of
review of highly regarded
papers which assist to
articulate the theoretical
framework underpinning this
study/issue. Little or no
cross-referencing of
contextual literature and
specific theory (ies) that could
be useful in informing the
analysis and/or structure of
the overall report.
Data is not collated
systematically from few or
any relevant sources e.g.
analyses derived from
published documents, may be
irrelevant, non-refereed or
non-reputable, to the issue,
survey data poorly generated
from own survey or published
surveys (e.g. ABS, PISA, OECD
reports), interview data
poorly generated from own
questions, may have failed to
follow methodological
 cataloguing system optional.
Interpretation & Excellent interpretation of
data, discussed cohesively
discussion of findings and cross-referenced to
systems of analysis &
theoretical framework.
Trustworthy inferences
drawn with powerful,
defensible conclusions.
Limitations are explained
Referencing and Publishable quality – perfect
literacy & report conventions
Presentation Style of followed (e.g. clear system of
Report headings, sections logically
sequenced, introduced and
concluded, use of appendices,
tables & figures). Close
adherence to word limit
suggestions. Relevant
references (approx 35+),
perfectly cited and listed in
the reference list according to
nominated referencing
system (e.g. APA). Emphasis
on recent publications (with
exception of seminal articles)
from a wide range including
empirical research articles,
reviews, government/NGO
reports where applicable and
professional papers.
Overall rating: Outstanding
Mark: ____ / 100
Comments:
62
Well interpreted data,
discussed with consistent
reference to systems of
analysis& theoretical
framework. Trustworthy
inferences drawn with
defensible conclusions.
Limitations are explained
Publishable quality – almost
perfect literacy & report
conventions followed (e.g. clear
system of headings, sections
logically sequenced, introduced
and concluded, use of
appendices, tables & figures).
Close adherence to word limit
suggestions. Relevant
references, mostly accurately
cited and listed in the reference
list according to nominated
referencing system (e.g. APA).
Emphasis on recent
publications (with exception of
seminal articles) from a wide
range including empirical
research articles, reviews,
government/NGO reports
where applicable and
professional papers.
High Achievement
Consistently interpreted data,
discussed with a lot of
reference to systems of
analysis& theoretical
framework. Inferences drawn
are mostly trustworthy with
defensible conclusions.
Limitations are outlined.
Publishable with minor
editorial corrections – some
errors in literacy, mostly clear
use of report conventions (e.g.
headings, introductions &
conclusions, use of appendices,
tables & figures). Often adheres
to word limit suggestions.
Relevant references, accurately
cited and listed in the reference
list according to nominated
referencing system (e.g. APA).
Emphasis on recent
publications (with exception of
seminal articles) from a range
which may include empirical
research articles, reviews,
government/NGO reports
where applicable and
professional papers.
Credit
Interpretations make some links
to the data collected, making
occasional reference to systems
of analysis and/or drawing upon
theoretical themes. Some
inferences are trustworthy. Some
conclusions are defensible but
may need to think further about
others. Brief limitations included.
Would be publishable with major
corrections to expression and/or
specific content. May include
errors in literacy, report
conventions (e.g. inconsistent use
of headings, introductions &
conclusions, use of appendices,
tables & figures). Problems with
adherence to word limit
suggestions. 25 Relevant
references cited and listed with
some errors in the reference list
according to nominated
referencing system (e.g. APA).
Some emphasis on recent
publications (with exception of
seminal articles) from a range
which may include empirical
research articles, reviews,
government/NGO reports where
applicable and professional
papers. May be too focused on
one type of publication or omits
important types of literature
relevant to the topic
Satisfactory
conventions, many
inconsistencies..
Interpretations fail to make
clear links to collected data,
making little or no reference
to systems of analysis and/or
failing to relate back to
theory. Few if any inferences
are trustworthy. Few if any
conclusions are defensible -
needs much additional editing
to meet this requirement.
Brief or no limitations
included.
Would not be publishable
Significant errors in content,
expression, literacy, report
conventions (e.g. inconsistent
use of headings, introductions
& conclusions, use of
appendices, tables & figures).
Little adherence to word limit
suggestions. Fewer than 20
references cited and listed
with numerous errors in the
reference list according to
nominated referencing
system (e.g. APA). Little
emphasis on recent
publications, few or no
seminal articles, from a
limited range which may
include only empirical
research articles, or reviews,
or government/ NGO reports.
Unsatisfactory