Influence of casting parameters on void

volume and centre segregation in

continuously cast 100Cr6 blooms
O. Bode1, K. Schwerdtfeger*1, H. G. Geck2 and F. Höfer2
Continuously cast ball and roller bearing steel 100Cr6 exhibits comparatively strong segregation
which poses a quality handicap. In the present work which was carried out in the time between
1992 and 1996 the void formation which is related to the centre segregation and the centre
segregation were measured on 2 m long segments of 2406200 mm2 blooms cast at the steel
plant of Georgsmarienhütte GmbH. It was found that the segregation of carbon expressed with
the ratio of Cmax/Co increases with casting speed and superheat. Many experiments were carried
out to elucidate the effect of electromagnetic stirring along the lower part of the metallurgical
length (F-EMS). But, unfortunately, a decrease in segregation could not be achieved by F-EMS.
The only method to decrease the centre segregation in continuously cast blooms of 100Cr6
seems to be casting at low speeds with low superheat.
Keywords: Continuous casting, Ball bearing steel, 100Cr6, Void volume, Macrosegregation, F-EMS

Introduction As already mentioned the investigation was carried

The ball and roller bearing steel 100Cr6 tends to exhibit
comparatively strong macrosegregation, due to its long
freezing interval and the carbon–chromium interaction.
This is the reason for the late application of the
continuous casting process to the grade. Still today
100Cr6 steel for high quality balls is made only by ingot
casting, as far as we know. Owing to the segregation,
primary carbides (Fe,Cr)3C can precipitate from the
residual melt, at the end of solidification. These carbides
elongate during rolling and cause banding in the centre
region of the bar which decreases the life of the bearing
made from it. Only a certain extent of banding
(expressed in terms of an index number) is accepted by
the ball bearing manufacturers.
The centre segregation of continuously cast ball
bearing steel has been investigated in several papers.1–6
Hence, there is knowledge on the subject but it is not
detailed, i.e. the dependences on the casting variables are
not well known. The present study was intended to be of
a systematic nature. It had the purpose to elucidate the
effect of casting parameters (casting speed and super-
heat) on the centre segregation and related phenomena.
Long strand sections were used in the investigations to
obtain meaningful averages. Particularly, the work had
the aim to explore the possibility for decreasing
segregation by electromagnetic stirring in the final
solidification zone (F-EMS).
1
Technische Universität Clausthal, Institut für Metallurgie, Robert-Koch-
Strasse 42, Clausthal-Zellerfeld 38678, Germany
2
Georgsmarienhütte GmbH, Neue Hüttenstr. 1, 49124 Georgsmarienhütte,
Germany
*Corresponding author, email schwerdtf@t-online
out some time ago.7 Nevertheless, the centre segregation
in 100Cr6 continues to be a hot subject and the opinions
on the usefulness of F-EMS with respect to segregation
and porosity in high carbon steels are not the same
everywhere. Although it has been found in several
steelworks that F-EMS did not cause much improve-
ment of the centre structure of blooms, there are other
places where this is not known and an expensive stirring
equipment is installed to fight the problem.
Casting of strands
The investigated strands were cast on a six strand bloom
caster of Georgsmarienhütte (GMH). The caster has a
radius of 10 m. The strand section was then 2406
200 mm2. The mould had an active length of 600 mm. In
the foot roll segment linear stirrers were installed behind
austenitic rolls. These stirrers were operated in all
normal castings. The spray cooling zone was divided
into three zones: zone 1 from 600 to 1420 mm below the
meniscus, zone 2 from 1420 to 3500 mm and zone 3
from 3500 to 5100 mm. In the normal operation, 56% of
the cooling water was applied in zone 1, 26% in zone 2
and 18% in zone 3. The total flow was between 45 and
74 L min21 depending on the casting speed and the
particular experimental series. The stirrers for electro-
magnetic stirring in the lower region of the strand (called
F stirring subsequently), as applied in the experimental
programme, were rotary stirrers, made by AEG
Elotherm (now SMS Elotherm). They had a total length
of 750 mm and a sheet package length of 500 mm. The
voltage, current and frequency were 400 V, 1280 A and
49 Hz respectively. The maximum magnetic induction

ß 2008 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Received 7 June 2007; accepted 29 June 2007
DOI 10.1179/030192307X233511 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2 137
Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
1 Sample position in strand (half of 2 m long strand
piece)
was y100 mT. These stirrers were inserted into the
segments instead of support rolls.
The casting speed was varied from 0?50 to
0?95 m min21. The superheat in the tundish was
between 22 and 32uC. The solidification structure in
the centre region of the strands was equiaxed (dendritic
equiaxed or globular) in all the studied strands. In total
31 strands were investigated.
Sampling and investigation of samples
The void formation and associated segregation can be
rather non-uniform in billets and blooms along their
length and must be investigated over a sufficiently long
strand length for obtaining reproducible averages. In the
present work, strand samples of 2 m long were used.
From these pieces at first two transverse sections were
cut at the ends. Then the samples were divided into
segments of 250 mm long and 30 mm thick slices were
machined from them at the centre of the strand in the
vertical (thickness) plane, as shown in Fig. 1. So, from
each studied strand there were two transverse slices and
eight longitudinal slices of 250 mm long, 200 mm high
and 30 mm thick. The analyses of the investigated
strands were in the ranges of 0?91–0?99% carbon, 0?33–
0?40% manganese and 1?47–1?50% chromium.
Volume of voids
The void volume was measured with an X-ray technique
which is explained in Fig. 2. The X-ray installation has
an opening of 3?663?6 mm2 and an exit angle of 40u.
Two of the 30 mm thick slices were exposed at the same
time. The radiation penetrates through the sample and is
weakened according to the local material thickness, and
blackens the film. The exposure time was y1 min. In
order to relate the extent of blackening of the film to the
local void volume two calibration wedges were X-rayed
with each exposure. Their thickness varies in steps and
so a greyscale is produced by them giving the blackness
as a function of the steel thickness. The blackness was
measured with a photometer and converted to total void
volume using an image analysis system. The form of the
voids was recorded by manually copying the film picture
to paper. In the 30 mm thick slices the void band was
138 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO
a explanation of method; b example for X-ray photo
2 Determination of void volume in strand centre by X-
ray method
enclosed almost completely. That is only in a few
samples void ends penetrated through the surfaces of the
30 mm thick slice. But also in theses cases the void
volume beyond the slice was comparatively small, and
the void was obtained almost completely.
Segregation
For the segregation measurements the 25062006
30 mm3 slices were machined on one side to 10 mm in
thickness so that the centre plane became free. The
analyses were carried out with a mobile spectrometer.
The measurements were taken at the centreline of the
strand at distances of 10 mm. Hence, 200 values were
obtained for the total sample of 2 m long. Figure 3 gives
an example of the results for the sample of 1 m long. The
contents of carbon, chromium and manganese were
measured. The concentrations of these three elements
run parallel to each other (Fig. 4). Therefore, the extent
of segregation can be characterised by that of one of the
elements. Carbon exhibits the strongest segregation. In
the following the data will be given for carbon.
Results of investigation
Void formation
The voids at the centre of the bloom can have different
morphologies as is well known. The main four kinds of
appearance observed in the present work are depicted in
Fig. 5. In type a the voids are in a narrow centre region.
There is one large main void with a sharp end at its top,
and with several small voids under it. V lines emerge
from the top void. But the chain of small voids below is
free or almost free of V lines. In type b the chain of large
voids at the centre is more uniform and V lines appear
along it, although non-uniformly. Type c consists of a
band of very uniform V lines. There are some medium
size voids at the centre. Some V lines broaden and go
2
 Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
3 Example for longitudinal profiles of contents of carbon, manganese and chromium at strand centre
over, towards the centre, into a void. Finally, in type d
the porosity forms a broad band. There is also an
orientation in the form of short V lines at the centre. But
long pronounced V lines (as in types b and c) are absent.
There is a variety within each main type and transition
structures exist between the main types a–c. For
instance, instead of one large void as shown in Fig. 5a
there may be a row of several large voids, and then the
structures could also be that in Fig. 5b. Within type b
the centre voids may range from rather small ones with
uniform distances between them to voids of larger and
smaller size, and the V lines may be non-uniform to a
lower or higher degree. Type b may be taken to be a
transition structure between types a and c. Because of
this ambiguity there is some subjectivity in allocating the
structures to these types. Type a was formed at all
casting rates and when an equiaxed dendritic structure
existed at the strand centre. Type b was also found at all
casting rates (0?50 to 0?95 m min21). But the crystal
morphology at the centre was globular in most cases.
The term globular is used for compact crystals which
do not exhibit a clear dendritic morphology. Type c
occurred at low casting rates (0?50 to 0?70 m min21) and
when the crystals at the centre were also mainly
globular. Finally, type d was developed when stirring
was with two stirrers, the casting velocity was high (0?80
and 0?95 m min21) and the structure was either
equiaxed dendritic or globular. The outer part of the
void band of this type forms due to the action of the
upper stirrer, and the inner part is made by the lower
stirrer. So this structure is in fact an addition of an outer
void zone (upper stirrer) and an inner void band. The
latter would then belong to type b.
The internal appearance of several voids was investi-
gated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The
surface consists of dendrite groups which are directed
with the tips of the individual dendrites towards the
interior of the void (Fig. 6). In the V channels (Fig. 7),
there are fine dendrites, as shown in Fig. 6, and coarse
dendrites. The latter makes a comparatively smooth
channel wall and was formed by melting of dendrite
arms during the flow of the melt in the channel or by
ripening of free dendrites after the melt was sucked
away.
Figures 8–10 show the results of the quantitative
measurements. In Fig. 8 the void volume per 25 cm long
disc was plotted against the position in the 2 m long
strand section, for a representative strand section. It is
evident that there can be considerable variation from
disc to disc (up to more than a factor of 2). Averaging
over 1 m (four discs) decreases the difference between
the averages in adjacent 1 m sections, and it is believed
Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2 139
Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
4 Relationship between segregation ratios of carbon,
chromium and manganese at strand centre
that the average over the 2 m section is a representative
average for the particular casting conditions.
Nevertheless, the present data confirm the findings of
previous investigations that the void volume can be
rather non-uniform along the strand length and that
sufficiently long sections must be investigated to obtain
meaningful average values. The void volume in 2 m long
strands is between 12 and 22 cm3 for most of the
strands, or 6 to 11 cm3 m21 (Fig. 9). There seems to be
an increase with the casting speed in series 4, but a
decrease in series 3. So, in total, a clear effect of casting
speed cannot be deduced from the data. But there is an
influence of casting speed on the width of the void band.
The width decreases with the casting speed (Fig. 10).
Increasing the casting speed moves the end of the
sump downwards in the strand and, consequently,
increases the length over which the residual melt has
to flow downwards for balancing the solidification
shrinkage at the tip of the sump. It may be assumed that
the resistance to fluid flow increases and that feeding
stops earlier when the sump becomes longer. Con-
sequently, the void volume should increase with the
casting speed. However, this is not necessarily so. The
resistance of the fluid flow does not depend solely on
the length of the channel over which feeding has to occur,
but also or even more on the permeability of this length
that is on the crystallisation details in the channel
(uniformity, bridging) which change with the casting
speed and channel length. Thus, it cannot be taken to be
clear that void volume should increase with increasing
casting speed. Previously void volumes in round c. c.
strands have been measured by Wünnenberg et al.8 using
6 or 13 m long segments and applying the buoyancy
140 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2
method. A comparison between their data and the data
from the present paper is given in Fig. 11. It is known that
columnar solidification structures have a larger void
volume than equiaxed structures. So the void volume for
the columnar strands of Wünnenberg et al. is about twice
the volume for the equiaxed (globular) structure. The
latter is of similar size as the data from the present paper.
Segregation
The local distribution of the elements at the centre is
related to the void geometry as has been reported also in
previous literature.9 Figure 12 presents an example for
the transverse profiles of carbon together with the form
of the void as determined by X-raying. The void is of
type a. The highest concentration peaks exist at the V
lines and at the lower part of the large centre void.
The longitudinal profiles as shown in Fig. 3 were
measured in all the experimental strands. Segregation
ratios of Cmax/Co and Cmin/Co were deduced from the
data by taking the averages of the eight highest (Cmax(8))
and the eight lowest values (Cmin(8)) in each segment of
2 m long. Co is the melt composition. The obtained
ratios are plotted against the casting speed in Fig. 13.
There is a clear increase in Cmax(8)/Co with the casting
speed in experimental series 3 and 4, and the series with
low superheat (series 1 and 3) and equiaxed globular
central structure exhibit lower Cmax(8)/Co values than
the heats with higher superheat (series 2 and 4) and
equiaxed dendritic central structure. It can be concluded
that the macrosegregation in 100Cr6 steel increases with
increasing casting rate and increasing superheat.
Influence of F-EMS on porosity and
segregation
The roller plan of the machine is given in Fig. 14. The
rotary electromagnetic stirrers were positioned on
strands 2 and 4 in series 1 and 2. The positions are
symmetrical so that the lateral cooling is the same at
both sides. In series 3 and 4 two stirrers were installed on
strand 2, at the roll positions 11 and 13, or 9 and 13
respectively. The stirrer distribution is summarised in
Table 1. Strand 3 is the investigated non-stirred
reference strand.
It is very important that the electromagnetic stirrers
were positioned correctly. If the stirrer is located too low
in the machine, the mushy interior of the strand may
have a high fraction of solid close to 1 or the strand may
be completely solid already. So the operation of a stirrer
cannot have a metallurgical effect. If the stirrer is at a
too high position in the machine where the interior of
the strand is still completely liquid, there may be neither
the desired effect. The suitable position of the stirrer
depends on the casting speed and was determined in the
present work with the help of a mathematical model
available at the institute.10 As an example for the
computational results, Fig. 15 shows the progress of
solidification of a 2406200 mm2 strand cast under the
conditions of the GMH casting machine with a velocity
Table 1 Stirrer distribution
Experimental series Stirrer at roll position Strand number
1 and 2 13 2 and 4
3 11 and 13 2
4 9 and 13 2
 Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
5 Different kinds of morphologies of voids at strand centre: length of discs is 250 mm
of 0?8 m min21. The lowest diagram gives the lines of
constant solid fraction fs50?03, 0?25, 0?5 and 1?0. The
curve fs51?0 is the solidus contour and represents
the thickness of the solid shell. Above the curve
fs50?03 the interior of the strand is practically liquid.
The positions of the rolls 9, 11 and 13 at which stirrers
have been installed during the investigation are marked
by the dashed vertical lines. It is evident that at vc5
0?8 m min21 the rolls 9 and 11 are above and the roll 13
is at the position where fs is 0?03 at the centre.
Consequently, stirring at these positions is in the region
where the strand centre is practically completely liquid.
Whether the mushy zone of the strand has been set
into motion by the stirrer or not is evident from the
internal structure of the strand. Figure 16 shows the
longitudinal section of a strand cast at vc50?8 m min21
with stirrers operated at the roll positions 9 and 13
6 Scanning electron microscopic view of void showing
pronounced dendritic structure of internal void surface
(series 4). The pronounced stirring band is caused by the
upper stirrer at roll 9. The boundary in the structure
between the stirred material and the non-stirred material
(stirring mark) exhibits negative segregation (‘white
bands’) if the stirring is strong. Figure 17 gives three
transverse carbon profiles from which the effect of
casting speed on the marks is visible. The transverse
sections were cut from the same experimental strand
which was cast, subsequently, at vc50?65, 0?80 and
0?95 m min21. The outer carbon minima corresponding
to the boundary between stirred and unstirred material
in Fig. 16 move outwards with increasing casting speed.
So, the stirred inner region of the mushy zone becomes
wider with increasing casting speed corresponding to the
7 Scanning electron microscopic view of V channel
showing fine and coarse dendrites: coarsening may
have occurred by remelting of dendrite arms caused
by melt flowing in channel, or by ripening of exposed
dendrite tips after melt had withdrawn
Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2 141
Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
8 Void volume in 25 cm long adjacent segments of 2 m
long strand piece: series 4, no F-EMS
increased total width of the mushy zone at the stirrer
position 9, as is to be expected. At 0?95 m min21 there
are other minima within the outer stirring bands,
originating from the stirrer at roll 13.
By the comparison between the location of the stirring
marks (carbon minima) with the computer calculation
of the fs field it was deduced that the stirring marks
exist where the solid fraction had been y0?25 at the
particular stirrer position (roll 9) during casting
(Fig. 18). Assuming that this is similar if the first stirrer
is at roll 11 it is concluded that the F rotary stirrers have
to be positioned, depending on the casting speed, so that
there is still a zone with fs,0?25 in the strand. The data
for the solid fraction at the strand centre and for the
distance from the surface of the contour with fs5 0?25
are given in Table 2. For instance, at 0?5 m min21 there
is a region with fs(0?25 which can be stirred only at roll 9.
At 0?80 m min21 a zone with fs(0?25 is present at all
the three roll positions and the half-thickness of the
9 Effect of casting speed on average void volume in 2 m
long pieces of 100Cr6 blooms of 2406200 mm2
142 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2
10 Effect of casting speed on average width of void
band in 2 m long pieces of 100Cr6 blooms of
2406200 mm2
stirred zone decreases from 4?3 at roll 9 to 2?1 cm at
roll 13.
The effect of F-EMS on the void volume and centre
segregation is depicted in Figs. 19 and 20. In all cases
there was still mushy material at the strand centre where
the stirrer was positioned or where the upper stirrer was
installed when two stirrers were used. It is evident that
F-EMS did not exert much influence on the void volume
(Fig. 19). The centre segregation expressed in terms of
the ratio of Cmax(8)/Co increased with the casting speed
also if the stirring was performed and compared to the
non-stirred strands, the ratio increased (Fig. 20).
Many authors have reported that electromagnetic
stirring is beneficial with respect to centre segregation in
billets and blooms of high carbon steels. But the
beneficial effect depends on the position of the stirrer
at the machine and whether the internal structure is
already equiaxed without stirring (low superheat cast-
ing) or is made equiaxed by the stirring. In the first case
there may not be much beneficial effect. But, at high
superheat M and S stirring can cause a shift from
columnar to equiaxed crystal structure. The white band
formation can be minimised if the stirring is not too
11 Comparison of data on void volume obtained in pre-
sent work and in work of Wünnenberg et al.8
 Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
12 Transverse carbon profile together with void contour: casting speed was 0?5 m min21 and F-EMS was at position of
roll 13
strong. It seems to be clear also that the centre porosity
decreases if the centre structure changes from columnar
to equiaxed. However, the effects of EMS on segrega-
tion are not so clear.
Usually, it is claimed that the globular centre structure
obtained by M and S stirring exhibits less segregation
and improves the quality of product. But this is not
always so. For instance, high carbon wire achieves more
favourable properties with columnar (not stirred) strand
structure.9 It is particularly unclear whether F stirring,
in combination with M and S stirring, can decrease the
centre segregation. Early papers claimed considerable
beneficial effect.1,11–15 But other work followed and
found little effect or no effect.3,5,16 In a recent investi-
gation17 supported by the EC, F-EMS improved the
centre segregation in 140 and 180 mm formats but not in
120 and 140 mm billets. In the present investigation the
13 Segregation ratio of carbon plotted against casting
speed
superheat (tundish) was always sufficiently low to
produce an equiaxed centre structure although the
structures at the higher superheat (y30 K) were
equiaxed dendritic and at the lower superheat (y22 K)
globular. Great effort was made to find the proper
stirring location along the strand. It was found that
under the present conditions, F-EMS was not beneficial
with respect to centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms but
made it even worse. It is to be mentioned that in
previous investigations usually rather small samples
were investigated compared to the 2 m long sections
studied in the present work, and the method to
determine segregation often was qualitative (sulphur
prints). It is believed that, due to the non-uniformity of
the structure in the strand centre, unambiguous data on
segregation can be deduced only by using long strand
segments.
14 Roller scheme of bloom caster at GMH
Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2 143
Bode et al. Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms

17 Transverse carbon profiles of strand stirred at posi-

tions of rolls 9 and 13 (100 mT) and cast subse-
quently with different casting speeds of 0?65, 0?80
and 0?95 m min21: structure shown in Fig. 16 belongs
to part of strand cast with 0?80 m min21

15 Computational results on course of solidification of

100Cr6 bloom at GMH cast with 0?80 m min21: strand
format is 2406200 mm2; possible positions of stirrer
are marked in lowest diagram by vertical straight
lines; wf5centre of wide face, nf5centre of narrow
face

Summary and conclusions

The segregated part of continuously cast billets and 18 Distance from bloom surface x(fs) at which specified
blooms is located around the shrinkage voids. Hence, solid fraction fs exists at stirrer position of roll 9:
void formation and formation of centre segregation are dots indicate location of stirring mark in stirred
strongly interrelated. There is the problem that the strands
solidification structure is so non-uniform at the strand
centre and that it is very difficult, therefore, to define
and measure representative values for void formation

19 Void volume in stirred strand pieces of 2 m long in

16 Solidification structure on longitudinal section of
100Cr6 bloom: casting speed was 0?80 m m21 and F-
EMS was with 100 mT by two stirrers at positions of
rolls 9 and 13; stirred centre zone is clearly visible;
width of picture corresponds to disc height of
200 mm
comparison to that in non-stirred strands
and segregation. In the present work 2 m long strand
samples were investigated. The void volume was
determined with an X-ray technique and the segregation
by spectroscopic analyses at 1 cm distance along the
centreline, and averaging the eight highest concentration

144 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2008 VOL 35 NO 2

 Bode et al.
Table 2 Computed solid fraction at strand centre fs (centre) and distances of contour x(fs50?25) from 100Cr6 bloom
surface at positions of rolls 9, 11 and 13*
Distance Solid fraction at centre fs (centre)
z from at casting speed vc in m min21
Number meniscus
of roller in m 0.50 0.65 0.80 0.95
9 4.12 0.086 ,0.01 ,0.01 ,0.01
11 5.31 0.68 0.049 ,0.01 ,0.01
13 6.50 1.00 0.34 0.031 ,0.01
*Bloom dimension is 2006240 mm. Values in ( ) of the last four columns represent the half-thickness of the mushy region with fs>0?25.
20 Ratio of Cmax(8)/Co plotted against casting speed for
experimental strands stirred with various modes of F-
EMS in comparison with non-stirred strands
maxima. The effect of electromagnetic stirring close to
the sump (F-EMS) was explored by using one or two
rotary stirrers installed at certain positions along two
strands of the machine.
It was confirmed that the shrinkage voids can form
with different morphologies and that there is a
characteristic distribution of carbon (and other ele-
ments) around the void. Nevertheless, the measured
values of the void volume scattered between y5 and
y10 cm3 m21, and a clear influence of casting para-
meters (casting speed, superheat, F-EMS) was not
discernable within the scatter. The segregation expressed
with the ratio of Cmax(8)/Co (Cmax(8)5average of the
eight highest carbon maxima on the 2 m long centreline,
Co5melt composition) increased with the casting speed.
Also, there appears to be an increase with the superheat.
A beneficial effect of F-EMS could not be detected.
The centre segregation of continuously cast ball
bearing steel 100Cr6 is pronounced unfortunately. The
centre contents of carbon (average of the eight highest
values in 2 m sample) may be as high as 2?3% and of
chromium as high as 3?3%, at the melt contents of
nominally 1?0% carbon and 1?5% chromium. Up to now
Influence of casting parameters on void volume and centre segregation in 100Cr6 blooms
Distance x(fs) in cm of contour with fs50.25 from surface
and half-thickness of mushy region 102x(fs50.25) at
casting speed vc in m min21
0.50 0.65 0.80 0.95
8.2(1.8) 6.7(3.3) 5.7(4.3) 5.1(4.9)
– 7.9(2.1) 6.6(3.4) 5.9(4.1)
– – 7.6(2.1) 6.7(3.3)
the only method to decrease these values during the
casting process appears to be the slow casting at low
superheat.
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