List of Symbols

A Beam cross-sectional area

An Wave amplitude
B Analysis bandwidth (Section 5.4)
B Engine bore diameter (Section 14)
C Viscous damping (per unit length) (Section 3.2)
C Viscous damping (Section 4.3)
Ceq Equivalent damper (Section 5.2)
C1, C2, C3 Coefficients in solution for Timoshenko beam (Section 3.4)
C11, C22,
C23, C33 Kalker creep coefficients (Section 5.3)
C*pq Frequency-dependent creep coefficients (Section 5.3)
CH Constant of non-linear Hertzian contact stiffness (Section 10.2)
D Directivity factor (Section 6)
D Plate bending stiffness (Section 11.4)
Dn Modal constant (Section 5.2)
E Young’s modulus
E0 Plane strain elastic modulus (Section 5.3)
Ei Energy of subsystem i (Chapter 11)
F Force amplitude
F0 Normal force
FT Force transmitted to foundation (Chapter 13)
G Shear modulus
G Transfer function from force to velocity (Section 9.5)
H Contact filter (Section 5.4)
H1, H2 Transfer functions from velocity or force to force (Section 9.5)
H0, H1 Hankel functions (Section 6)
I Second moment of area of beam
[I] Identity matrix
I Sound intensity (Section 6)
Im Imaginary part
Jn Bessel function
K Stiffness
Kb Weighting for vibration (Chapter 12)
KH Hertzian contact spring stiffness (Section 5.2)
KT Static stiffness of track (Section 3.2)
L Length of sleeper (Section 3.7), beam (Section 4.4)
494 RAILWAY NOISE AND VIBRATION

L Length of finite line source (Section 6.6)

LAeq Equivalent A-weighted sound level
Lp Sound pressure level
LW Sound power level
L1, L2 Bridge lengths either side of excitation point (Section 11.3)
M Mass
M Mach number (Chapter 8)
N Speed exponent (Section 2.2)
N Fresnel number (Section 7.5)
N Normal force (Section 9.4)
Ncyl Number of cylinders (Section 14)
P Perimeter length of rail (Section 6.4) or plate (Section 11.4)
R Curve radius (Chapter 9)
Re Real part
Re Reynolds number (Chapter 8)
Res Residue in complex integration
R0 Combination of wheel and rail radii of curvature (Section 5.3)
Rf Field incidence sound reduction index (Chapter 14)
Rr Rail radius (¼0)
RrT Rail radius (transverse profile)
Rw Wheel radius
RwT Wheel radius (transverse profile)
S Surface area
Sv Spectral density of wheel velocity (Section 4)
St Strouhal number (Chapter 8)
T Analysis time
T60 Reverberation time
TF Force transmissibility (Chapter 13)
Tmn Term in equations for rotating wheel (Section 4.5)
U Vibration displacement amplitude
U Vibration displacement in wavenumber domain
U Flow velocity (Chapter 8)
V Train speed
W Sound power
W0 Sound power per unit length
Wb, Wd,
Wk, Wm Weighting functions for vibration (Chapter 12)
Wdiss Dissipated power (Chapter 11)
Win Input power (Chapter 11)
Wrad Radiated power (Chapter 11)
Y Mobility (velocity/force)
a Semi-axis length of contact patch in rolling direction
ai Coefficients of rational polynomial model for track (Section 10.2)
b Semi-axis length of contact patch in transverse direction
b Bogie wheelbase (Chapter 9)
 List of Symbols 495

bj Coefficients of rational polynomial model for track (Section 10.2)

c Size of contact patch ¼ (ab)1/2
c0 Speed of sound in air
cg Group velocity
cL Longitudinal wave speed
c0 L Longitudinal wave speed in a plate
cR Rayleigh wave speed
d Distance between sleepers (Chapter 3)
d Distance between two monopoles (Section 6.1)
d Horizontal distance between source and receiver (Section 6.6)
d Wheel flat depth (Section 10.3)
d Rail joint dip (Section 10.4)
d Term in equations for rotating wheel (Section 4.5)
e Euler’s number (base of natural logarithm)
f Frequency
fc Critical frequency (Section 6)
fr Ring frequency (Section 4)
f2 Dynamic component of lateral force (Section 9)
g Aspect ratio of contact patch (¼a/b)
h Height
h Plate thickness (Section 6)
h Rail joint step height (Section 10.4)
h Thickness of resilient
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi layer (Section 11.3)
i Imaginary unit ( 1)
k Wavenumber
kB Wavenumber in free beam
ke Wavenumber of evanescent wave
kp Wavenumber of propagating wave
l Flow width (Chapter 8)
l0 Wheel flat length (Section 10.3)
m Number of nodal circles in wheel mode
m0 Mass per unit length
m00 Mass per unit area
mn Modal mass of nth normal mode (Chapter 4)
n Number of nodal diameters in wheel mode (Chapter 4)
n Index in modal summation
n Speed exponent (Chapter 8)
n Modal density (Chapter 11)
p Sound pressure
p Normal pressure in contact zone (Chapter 5)
r Radial coordinate (in cylindrical polar coordinates, Chapter 4; in
spherical polar coordinates, Chapter 6)
r Roughness amplitude
s Stiffness per unit length
t Time
496 RAILWAY NOISE AND VIBRATION

u Vibration displacement
v Vibration velocity
w Numerical distance (Section 6.6)
w Rail joint gap width (Section 10.4)
x Coordinate in direction along the track
y Coordinate perpendicular to the track
z Coordinate vertically downwards
zn Normal specific acoustic impedance (Section 6.6)
z0 n Non-dimensional normal specific acoustic impedance
(Section 6.6)
Gi Normalized creep (Section 5.3)
D Track decay rate
D Relative frequency bandwidth (Section 6.6)
Df Modal frequency bandwidth (Chapter 4)
Du Modal frequency bandwidth (Section 5.2)
Li Ratio of bridge to rail displacement amplitude in wave i
(Section 11.3)
J Ratio of rotation to displacement amplitude for beam
(Section 3.4)
J mn Term in equations for rotating wheel (Section 4.5)
U Rotational speed of wheel
U Rotational speed of engine (Chapter 14)
a Receptance
a Correlation parameter in contact filter (Section 5.4)
a Adhesion coefficient (Section 9)
a Rail joint dip angle (Section 10.4)
a Ratio of wavenumber to wavenumber at critical frequency
(Section 11.4)
a Geometric spreading factor (Chapter 13)
b Wavenumber of static beam deflection (Section 5.7)
b Non-dimensional factor (Section 9.4)
b Exponent representing damping losses (Chapter 13)
g Propagation coefficient (Section 3.5)
g1, g2 Creepages (Section 5.3)
d Kronecker’s delta
d Reduction factor for creepages (Section 5.3)
d Path length difference (Section 7.5)
vt Differential operator, d/dt (Section 10.2)
3 Increment in wavenumber pole (Section 3.2, Section 4.4)
3 Increment in frequency (Section 5.2)
3jk Term in equations for rotating wheel (Section 4.5)
zn Damping ratio of nth normal mode (Section 4)
h Damping loss factor
hij Coupling loss factor (Chapter 11)
q Angular coordinate (in cylindrical polar coordinates, Section 4)
 List of Symbols 497

q Parameter used in describing contact (Section 5.3)

q Angular coordinate (in spherical polar coordinates, Section 6)
k Timoshenko shear coefficient
l Wavelength
l Amount that friction coefficient falls at large sliding velocity
(Chapter 9)
l First Lamé constant (Chapter 12)
m Coefficient of friction (Chapter 5, Chapter 9)
m Viscosity (Chapter 8)
m Second Lamé constant (Chapter 12)
md Dynamic coefficient of friction
ms Static coefficient of friction
n Poisson’s ratio
x Coordinate for moving excitation (Section 3.2)
x Non-dimensional parameters used to determine contact patch
deflection (Section 5.3)
r Density (of structure)
r0 Density of air
s Radiation ratio (Chapter 6, Chapter 11)
s1, s2 Non-dimensional parameters used to determine contact patch
dimensions (Section 5.3)
se Flow resistivity (Section 6.6)
s Ratio of sleeper to rail displacement (Section 3.3)
f Rotation of Timoshenko beam cross-section (Section 3.4)
f Azimuthal angular coordinate (in spherical polar coordinates,
Section 6)
c Ratio of transverse to normal contact stiffness (Section 5.3)
j Angular coordinate (in spherical polar coordinates, Section 6)
j Yaw angle of wheelset (Section 9.5)
jn Modal amplitude of nth normal mode (Section 4)
u Circular frequency
u0 Cut-on frequency of beam on elastic foundation (Section 3.2)
un Natural frequency of nth normal mode (Section 4)
uT Cut-on frequency of higher order wave in Timoshenko beam
(Section 3.4)
u3 Spin creepage (Chapter 5)

Subscripts
b Ballast (Chapter 3)
b Bridge (Chapter 11)
c Contact (spring)
f Bridge girder flange (Chapter 11)
p Rail pad
r Rail
498 RAILWAY NOISE AND VIBRATION

s Sleeper
w Wheel
w Bridge girder web (Chapter 11)
1,2,3 Directions x, y and z

Abbreviations
BR British Railways, national railway company until 1996
BEM Boundary Element Method
BS British Standards Organization
CAA Computational Aeroacoustics
CEN European Standards Organization
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
DI Directivity Index
DIN German Standards Organization
DNS Direct Numerical Simulation (CFD method)
DB German Railways
DMU Diesel Multiple Unit
DPRS Discrete point reacting springs (contact model, Chapter 5)
EMU Electric Multiple Unit
ERRI European Rail Research Institute (former research arm of UIC)
ETR500 Italian high speed train
FEM Finite Element Method
FRF Frequency Response Function (receptance, mobility or
accelerance)
HPF High Positive Friction (friction modifier)
HST High Speed Train
ICE Inter City Express (German high speed train)
ICES-STV Research project in the Netherlands (Quieter Train Traffic)
IL Insertion Loss
ISO International Standards Organization
JR Japanese Railways
K-blocks Composite brake blocks
KB German standard weighting for vibration
LCF Low Coefficient of Friction (friction modifier)
LES Large Eddy Simulation (CFD method)
LL-blocks Composite brake blocks that have same friction characteristics as
cast-iron blocks
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer (displacement
transducer)
MONA French research project on roughness in the 1990s (Chapter 7)
NR Noise Rating
NS Netherlands Railways
OFWHAT Optimized Freight Wheels and Track (research project)
 List of Symbols 499

ORE Organization for Research and Experiment of UIC (later became

ERRI)
ppv Peak particle velocity
PSIL Preferred Speech Interference Level
PSE Paris-Sud Est (TGV route)
RANS Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (CFD method)
RC Room Criteria
r.m.s. Root mean square
RFF French infrastructure authority
RONA French research project on wheels in the 1990s (Chapter 7)
RTRI Railway Technical Research Institute (Japan)
SBB Swiss Federal Railways
SEL Sound Exposure Level
SNCF French National Railways
TBL Turbulent Boundary Layer
TEL Transit Exposure Level (Appendix A)
TGV Train à Grande Vitesse (French high speed train)
TSI Technical Specifications for Interoperability
TWINS Track-Wheel Interaction Noise Software
VDV Vibration Dose Value (see Chapter 12)
VONA French research project on track in the 1990s (Chapter 7)
UIC International Union of Railways