Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental

Principles and Equations

 Source of Aerodynamic Forces?

• Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only two sources

1. Pressure, p, distribution on surface
• Acts normal to surface
2. Shear stress, tw, (friction) on surface
• Acts tangentially to surface

• Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m2)
• Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force

“No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the
shape of the body, the only way nature has of communicating an
aerodynamic force to a solid object or surface is through the pressure and
shear stress distributions that exist on the surface.”

“The pressure and shear stress distributions are the two hands of nature
that reach out and grab the body, exerting a force on the body – the
aerodynamic force”
• six properties of the flow an engineer is usually
interested in:
– pressure p (lbf / ft2 or N/ m2)
– density r (slug/ft3 or kg/m3)
– three velocity components u, v, w (ft/sec or m/sec)
– temperature T (degrees K or degrees R)
• We need six equations for these six unknowns.
• One of them is algebraic.
– This is the equation of state: p =R T
• The other 5 equations are partial differential equations
(PDEs)
– PDEs are equations that contain partial derivatives
of properties of interest with respect to x, y, z or
time.
 VECTOR CALCULUS REVIEW (SECTION 2.2)

• Natural and convenient representation to explain motion of fluids in 3D space

• Expression of field quantities

• Position
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Vorticity
• Forces

• Directly transfer to scalar forms to solve problems

• Advantage of vector calculus/algebra:

• Definition and theorems are independent of coordinate system
• In scalar form expression are different between cartesian, cylindrical, spherical,
etc. coordinate systems
VECTOR CALCULUS REVIEW
 • Gradient Theorem
 adV   anˆdS
V S
– Vector equation involving a scalar
function, a
– Limits of integration such that
surface encloses the volume
– n points normal outward

   AdV   A  nˆdS • Divergence (Gauss’) Theorem

V S – Scalar equation

   A  nˆdS   A  dC
S C
• Stokes Theorem
– Direction of n is given by right
hand rule
 Lagrangian Description
• Lagrangian description of fluid flow tracks the
position and velocity of individual particles.
• Based upon Newton's laws of motion.
• Difficult to use for practical flow analysis.
– Fluids are composed of billions of molecules.
– Interaction between molecules hard to describe/model.
• However, useful for specialized applications
– Sprays, particles, bubble dynamics, rarefied gases.
– Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian methods.
• Named after Italian mathematician Joseph Louis
Lagrange (1736-1813).
 Eulerian Description
• Eulerian description of fluid flow: a flow domain or control volume is
defined by which fluid flows in and out.
• We define field variables which are functions of space and time.
– Pressure field, P=P(x,y,z,t)
 
– Velocity field, V  V  x, y, z , t 
   
V  u  x, y , z , t  i  v  x , y , z , t  j  w  x, y , z , t  k

– Acceleration field, a  a  x, y , z , t 
   
a  a x  x, y , z , t  i  a y  x , y , z , t  j  a z  x , y , z , t  k

– These (and other) field variables define the flow field.

• Well suited for formulation of initial boundary-value problems (PDE's).
• Named after Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783).
 Governing Equations
• Equation of State: p = RT
• We need to come up five additional equations linking the 6 properties.
• These five equations are PDEs and turn out to be:
– Conservation of Mass or Continuity
– Conservation of u- momentum
– Conservation of v-momentum
– Conservation of w-momentum
– Conservation of energy
• If we are dealing with low speed incompressible flows, we can drop one of
these equations (equation of state).
• If we are not interested in temperature distribution, heat transfer etc., we
can drop another equation (energy equation).
• We are left with 4 equations (conservation of mass, conservation of u, v,
and w momentum) and four unknowns (p, u , v, w)
 Conservation of Mass
Continuity Equation
mass can not be created or destroyed inside the control
volume.

Total mass within V =  dV

V
 d
Time rate of change of mass within the control volume V = 
dt V
dV

Rate at which mass enters the control voume through dS

 
= - V  ndS
Rate at which mass enters the control volume
 
through the entire surface S = -  V  ndS
S
The time rate of change of Mass within the control volume V =
Rate at which mass enters V through the boundary S

  
V
t
dV     V  n dS
S

  

V
t
dV  S
 V  n dS  0

Surface integral
Volume integral
 Divergence Theorem
• Let F be any three-dimensional vector, and is a
general function of (x, y, z, t).
• Then, divergence theorem applied to a control
volume V surrounded by a surface S states:

   
 F  ndS 
S
   FdV
V
Surface integral Volume integral as before
As before
 Conservation of Mass

  
Start with
Conservation of Mass:

V
t
dV   V  ndS  0
S

   
Apply Divergence theorem:
 F  ndS 
S
   FdV
V

 
We get
 dV      V  dV  0
V
t V

  
Or   t     V  dV  0
V
Consider volume integral.
It must hold for any arbitrarily shaped control
volume V, at any instance in time for all flows.
The only way this can be true is if the integrand is
zero.
Therefore:

 
   V  0
t
 Momentum Equation

Newton’s second Law:

F  ma  m
d v d mv

 
dt dt
Physical Principle: Force = time rate of change of momentum.

Note: F and  u are vectors, so the above identity has to hold for each component.
1. Body Forces:

Which types of forces act on a fluid? Gravity

Electromagnetic forces
Coriolis forces

2. Surface forces:
normal stresses (perpendicular to plane)
tangential forces (along the plane)
 Body Forces
Fixed control volume V
Assume f is the body force per unit mass
exerted on fluid inside V

The body force acting on a small volume dV

Total force on volume

 f  dV
V
z
Example, gravity f   0, 0,  g  g

y x
 Pressure contribution

Consider a small elementary surface

On this surface the pressure p acts, therefore

 pn ds   pd s
in the opposite direction of the outward unit
normal

  pd s
V=S
Therefore the total pressure force on V equals
 Viscous forces
The viscous forces are simply denoted by F visc. In Aerodynamics-D AE3-130 explicit
formulae for F viscwill be given.

We want to find an expression for F 

 
d mV
dt
F Consists of:
Body forces  f  dV
V

Pressure forces
  pd s
V=S

Viscous forces F visc

Therefore: F   f  dV   pd s  F visc

V V
We want to find an expression for F
 
d mV
dt
Question: How do we evaluate the rate of change of momentum in the
volume V?

Answer: 2 contributions: G and H

G = Net flow of momentum out of control volume across surface S.
H= Time rate of change of momentum due to unsteady fluctuations of flow
properties inside V

G: Recall that the mass flow across the elemental area ds is given by  V  d s 
Hence, the flow of momentum per second across ds is  V  d s  V
Integrating over the whole surface yields 
G   V  d s V 
V

Note that when G>0 momentum is flowing out of the control volume.
H: Time rate of change of momentum due to unstaedy phenomena in V.

Question: What is the total amount of momentum in V at time t.

Answer: Within a small volume element dV with velocity V and mass  dV

 dI    dV V
 I  t      dV  V
V

Therefore the time rate of change of momentum in the volume V is given by

I  t  
H   VdV
t t V
 Integral form of the momentum
equation
d  mV 
• Newton : F 
dt
•F 
 f  dV   pd s  F
V V
visc

• d  mV  
   V  d s V   VdV
dt V
t V

Therefore:


 f  dV   pd s  F visc    
V  d s V   VdV
t V
V V V
Body Pressure Viscous Momentum transport Rate of change of
forces forces forces across surface momentum in V
 Some Remarks concerning the
Momentum Equation
• The momentum equation is a vector equation. In fact we have three separate
equations in the x-direction, y-direction and z-direction.
• The integral equation is valid for unsteady, viscous, (in)compressible, three
dimensional flows.
• F visc will be treated separately
• The integral formulation only provides information over integrated quantities, so no
local values of density, pressure, temperature, etc, can be extracted.
Conversion to differential form
Recipe
Convert all surface integrals to volume integrals using the integral relations given in
section 2.2.11.

Interchange
t
and which
. is allowed since V is fixed in space.
Collect all integrands underneath one integral and require that the integrand must
vanish, since the integral holds for arbitrary volumes.
  pd s
The momentum equation contains the surface integral

Apply the gradient theorem    pd s     p dV

In order to rewrite the convective surface integral, we look at the x-component only

f  fx i  f y j  fz k
V  ui  v j  wk
p p p
p  i  j k
x y z
Take the x-component of the momentum equation

p 
 x
 t

 f x dV   dV  Fxvisc   V  d s u     u  dV
V V V V
Apply divergence theorem to remaining surface integral (Convective term)

  V  d s  u       uV  dV
Writing the viscous force as

Fxvisc   Fxvisc dV


  u  p
x-component:     uV     f x  Fxvisc
t x
   v p
y-component:     vV     f y  Fyvisc
t y
  w p
z-component:     wV     f z  Fzvisc
. t z
 Additional Remarks
     V  V   p   f  F
 V
visc
t
• These equations are called the Navier-Stokes equations. They consist of a system of
non-linear partial differential equations (PDE’s).
• The PDE connect the variables and the change in the variables locally.
• If the flow is stationary,  / t  0 inviscid Fvisc  0and there are no body forces we
obtain the so-called Stationary Euler equations

   p
x
  u     uv     uw   
2

y z x
   p
  vu     v     vw  
2

x y z y
   p
x
  wu  
y
  wv  
z
  z
 w 2
 
 Energy Equation
We have introduced now 5 unknowns, p,  , u , v, w and we have only 4
equations, namely the three components of the momentum equation and
the continuity equation.

We either have to add another equation, or remove one of the unknowns.

• If the flow is incompressible, then the density is constant, so we can
remove one unknown which closes the system
• For compressible flows, one cannot remove any unknowns, therefore one
has to add another equation. This will be the energy equation.

Physical Principle: Energy cannot be created, nor destroyed.

First Law of Thermodynamics: de   q   w

Increment in Work done on
internal energy Added heat the system
 Energy Equation.
Apply de   q   wto a control volume

Call
B1 : the amount of heat added to the
volume from the environment
B2 : the amount of work exerted on
the volume
B3 : rate of change of energy as it
flows through the control volume

“B1 = B2 + B3”
Determination of added heat: B1
• A small volume element dV receives from its environment
an amount of heat per unit time and unit mass:

q
So the total amount of heat added to dV per unit time is:

q  dV
Sources are: radiation, emission, combustion, condensation, etc.

• Through the surface  V heat is added to the volume by conduction

and mass diffusion. These are so-called viscous processes, denoted by

Q visc
So the total heat added to the system, B1, will be equal to
 
B1    q dV  Q visc
V
 Rate of work done on the volume,
•Work = F  d r
B2
Work d F dr
  d r  F   F V
dt dt dt

• On surface element d s a pressure force  pd s

acts, so the amount of work per unit time due to the
pressure will be  pd s  V
So the total pressure contribution to the rate of work
over the entire volume is given by    pd s V
V
• On dV a body force  f dV acts, therefore the rate
of work due to the body force on dV is  f dV  V
The total rate of work on V is given by   f dV V
V
 
• Viscous rate of work: W visc  B 2    pd s V    f dV V  W
V V
visc
 Determination of the rate of change
of energy, B3
•Energy in V consists of: internal energy, e per unit mass and
kinetic energy 1 V  V per unit mass, so the total energy per unit
2 1
mass is given by: e  V  V
2
 1 
At time t the amount of energy in dV is given by: E  t      e  V  V  dV
 2 
E  t  
V
 1 
So the instationary rate of change of energy
t
  
t V 
  e 
2
V  V  dV

• The rate of mass flowing through the surface carries a net amount of energy given by

    1 
V  d s  e  V  V 
V  2 


t 
 B3   



e 
1
2
V  V



dV  
  V  ds



e 1
2
V  V



V V
 Energy Equation
Thermal conduction, Work done by Work done by
mass diffusion pressure forces body forces
Volumetric Work done by
heating viscous forces
  

  q dV  Q visc  pd s V    f dV V  W visc 


V V
V


t 




e 
1
2
V  V



dV  
  V  d s



e 
1
2
V  V




V V

Transient fluctuations Net rate of energy outflow

This is the integral form of conservation of energy, valid for (in)compressible,

viscous/inviscid fluids, stationary and time dependent problems.

p
Introduction of the enthalpie : h e

1 p
Introduction of the total enthalpie : H  h  V V  E 
2 
Energy Equation in terms of H
  q dV     f V  dV  Q
  

visc  W visc 
V V



t V 
 EdV  
V
 HV  d s

1
E  e  V V Total energy
2

1 total enthalpy
H  h  V V
2
 Differential Formulation of Energy
Equation
• Divergence Theorem:  pV  d s      pV  dV
V V

  EV  d s       EV  dV
V V

   
• Results :   E      E V   q    pV   f V  Q visc  W ' visc
'

t
or
   
  E      H V   q   f V  Q visc  W ' visc
'

t
 Special Cases Energy Equation

If the flow is
 
• stationary 0 
t

 0     e  p  1 V  V  V  d s  0     HV  0
 
• inviscid Q visc  0, W visc
   2 
 
  V
• adiabatic q0 
• no body forces f 0 

  
   HV  0

  
  Hu     Hv     Hw  0
x y z

   H H H
H  u   H  v   H   w  u  v  w 0
x y z x y z
  
Continuity Equation = 0


H H H H
u v w  V H  0
x y z V

Conclusion
The change in H in the direction of the flow is zero (remember directional derivative),
therefore H does not change in the direction of the flow; for a stationary, inviscid,
adiabatic flow without body forces the total enthalpy is constant along streamlines!
Important Concepts in Aerodynamics
• Substantial, Convective, Local Derivative, section 2.9 & 2.10
• Pathlines, Streamlines and Streaklines, section 2.11
• Angular Velocity, Vorticity and Strain section 2.12
• Circulation section 2.13
• Stream Function section 2.14
• Velocity Potential
section 2.15
• Relationship between Stream Function
section 2.16
and Velocity Potential
 Substantial Derivative
When we consider a scalar quantity q we can either write this
quantity:
1. with respect to fixed points in space, X,
2. or with respect to a coordinate system that is moving with
the flow, x.
Obviously, x, will be a function of time t, so x(t)

In the first case, we have the following time derivative:

dq q
 X1, X 2 , X 3 , t  
dt t
In the second case we have

dq dx1 q dx2 q dx3 q q

dt
 x1  t  , x2  t  , x3  t  , t     
dt x1 dt x2 dt x3 t

q q q q
u v w 
x1 x2 x3 t
 Substantial Derivative
• So we have the new time derivative
Dq q q q q
u v w 
Dt x1 x2 x3 t
• This can be written more succinctly as
Dq q
  V  q
Dt t
• The new time derivative is called the substantial or material time derivative

D 
  V 
Dt t
 
Substantial Convective
Derivative Derivative
Local
Derivative
 Fundamental Equations in terms of the Substantial Derivative

• Conservation of Mass

D
   V  0
Dt

• Conservation of Momentum
DV
   p   f  Fvisc
Dt

• Conservation of Energy
D  e  V 2 / 2
   
  
   q    pV   f V  Q visc  W visc
Dt
• The total derivative operator d/dt is call the
material derivative and is often given special
notation, D/Dt.
D 

  V 
Dt t

• Advective acceleration is nonlinear: source of
many phenomenon and primary challenge in
solving fluid flow problems.
• Provides ``transformation'' between Lagrangian
and Eulerian frames.
• Other names for the material derivative include:
total, particle, Lagrangian, Eulerian, and
substantial derivative.
 Flow Visualization
• Flow visualization is the visual examination of flow-
field features.
• Important for both physical experiments and numerical
(CFD) solutions.
• Numerous methods
1. Streamlines and streamtubes
2. Pathlines
3. Streaklines
4. Timelines
5. Refractive techniques
6. Surface flow techniques
 Pathlines & Streamlines
• A pathline is the curve in space traced out by a particular particle in time
• A streamline is a curve in space which is locally tangent to the velocity vector

For steady flows pathlines and streamline coincide,

for unsteady flows these lines are generally different!
 Equation for a Streamline
Let ds be a small line segment along a streamline.
The two end points are (x, y, z) and (x  dx, y  dy, z  dz)
We can define a vector that connects these two end points.
   
d s  dx i  dy j  dz k

   
Let V  u i  v j  w k be the velocity vector.
Then, by definition of the streamline, the velocity

vector must be tangential to d s , both pointing
in the same direction.
 
V  ds  0
  
i j k
u v w 0
dx dy dz

  
(udy - vdx) i  wdx - udz  j  (udy - vdx)k  0
Each component of this vector must be zero.

udy - vdx  0 wdx - udz  0 udy - vdx  0

dx dy dz
 
u v w
Streamline
 Pathlines
• Pathlines are defined as the
path along which fluid
partilces travel.
• In unsteady flow, different
particles that start at the
same spatial location may
travel along different paths.
• This is like cars entering a
highway.
– They may enter at the same
entrance ramp.
– Their subsequent trajectory
(or path) differs from one
vehicle to the next.
 Equation for a Pathline
We integrate the velocity to find the path
dx
 u(x, y, z, t)
dt
dy
 v(x, y, z, t)
dt
dz
 w(x, y, z, t)
dt
This is what astronomers and scientists do to track stars, space shuttle, and satellites
 t
  
x  xstart  
tstart
Vdt
Streamlines are instantaneous images Pathlines are time-elapsed images
 Steady Flows
• In steady flows, properties will not change from one time
instance to the next.
• Particles that start from the same starting locations will follow
the same path, as new groups of particles are released from
the same starting locations.
– This is like cars traveling on their assigned lanes, without crisscrossing
or changing lanes.
– The lanes become pathlines.
– The velocity of the cars will be along the lanes , i.e. tangential to the
dotted lines that describe the boundaries of the lanes.
• In steady flows, streamlines and pathlines are one and the
same.
• Stream tubes areStreamtubes
streamlines that start
from a closed contour.
• Think of it as a bundle
of streamlines that form
a tube-like shape.
Streaklines
A Streakline is the
locus of fluid particles
that have passed
sequentially through a
prescribed point in the
flow.
Easy to generate in
experiments: dye in a
water flow, or smoke
in an airflow.
Comparisons
Kinematic Description
• In fluid mechanics, an element
may undergo four fundamental
types of motion.
a) Translation
b) Rotation
c) Linear strain
d) Shear strain
• Because fluids are in constant
motion, motion and deformation
is best described in terms of rates
a) velocity: rate of translation
b) angular velocity: rate of rotation
c) linear strain rate: rate of linear
strain
d) shear strain rate: rate of shear
strain
 Angular Velocity of the Fluid
• Like solid particles that can spin or rotate, fluid
elements (a collection of particles that are closely
packed) may spin also.
• The angular velocity is a vector.
– This is because the fluid element may spin about the x-
axis, y-axis, and z-axis simultaneously.
• Vorticity is twice the angular velocity.
• Vortcity is a vector, since angular velocity is a vector.
Vortex is a just collection of
spinning fluid elements

In the case of solids, we can
define the angular velocity
by drawing a line on the
solid and watching how
that line moves as the solid
rotates.
Not so with fluid elements
that not only rotate, but also
Undergo deformation with time.
Think of a jello (a very viscous
And dense fluid) as you throw it
Across the room.
The different faces of the jello
may rotate at different velocities

Or think of a smoke ring, which starts

deforming quickly when it encounters
Turbulent air.

Fluid-dynamicists therefore
measure the angular velocity of two
Perpendicular lines and average them
 Vorticity & Strain
• Different aspects of the movement of a
particle:
– The trajectory (already discussed)
– Orientation (translation and rotation)
– Deformation.

• Rotation and deformation are determined by the velocity field.

Consider a 2 dimensional square
• For general 3 dimensional flows the angular velocity is a vector given by

 w v 
 y  z 
 
1  u w 
   
2 z x
 
 v  u 
 x y 
 

 w v 
 y  z 
 
 u w 
Vorticity is defined as:   2        V
z x
 
 v  u 
 x y 
 
 1  v u    w v    u w   
    k     i     j
2  x y   y z   z x  
1 
 V
2
 Regions of High Vorticity
• In aerodynamics, we find high levels of
Vorticity if the fluid is moving at different
velocities relative to each other.
– One example is a jet. The particles inside a jet
move faster than those outside. The fluid
elements spin.
– Another example is boundary layer, a thin viscous
region close to the solid surface. The particles
close to the surface move slowly, while particles
above move more rapidly.
Jets have a lot of vorticity, especially near the
edges of the jets

These particles are spinning counter-clockwise

These particles are in the clockwise direction

Boundary Layers have Vorticity as well
Boundary layer over an Airfoil
 Irrotational Flow
• If   V  0 at every point in the flow, the flow is called rotational.

• If   V  0 at every point in the flow, the flow is called irrotational.

 C D
C
D
C
D C A
D B
A
B
A B
A
B

In irrotational flow, the fluid elements do not spin about, but maintain their upright orientation.

• What causes fluid particles to rotate? A

number of physical phenomena can. Here are
a few:
 Fluid particle
Viscosity causes spin

1. Viscous stresses can pull the fluid particles in different

direction. Consider a fluid particle right next to a solid
surface. The bottom side of the particle may want to
stick to the surface due to viscosity. The top side of
the particle may be dragged by the particles above in
the general direction of the flow. The result is a
rotation of the particle.
• Thus, boundary layers and viscous regions are
rotational, and filled with vorticity.
2. Velocity differences at the edge of a jet can cause the
top part of a fluid particle to move faster than the lower
part, or vice versa. Result: Rotation.

3. Shock waves can slow down the flow. The strength of

shock waves depends on the angle they make with the
flow. There is usually a curved "bow shock" ahead of a
blunt body. Even though the fluid particles ahead of the
shock may be uniform, different fluid particles may
impact the shock at different angles, and slowed down
differently behind the shock wave. Result: rotation.
4. Non-uniform body forces (example, forces exerted by a
spinning propeller on air particles) can cause different
fluid particles to be accelerated differently, causing a
non-uniform velocity field. Result: Rotation.
• Although most flows encountered in nature
are rotational, if we stay away from viscous
regions (boundary .layers), curved shock
waves or non-uniform body forces, in all other
regions the flow may be assumed to be
irrotational.
• Assuming the flow to be irrotational greatly
simplifies the mathematics, and the eventual
solution of the flow on the computer. We will
be invoking the irrotational flow assumption
soon.
 Irrotational Flow
• Irrotational flow is of practical use:
• Subsonic flow around airfoils
• Supersonic flow around slender bodies (no curved shock waves)
• Subsonic/Supersonic flow in nozzles, jets, wind tunnels, etc.

Note, that in many flows the flow outside the boundary layer may be assumed to
be irrotational, but inside the boundary layer the flow is rotational, since

u v
  rotation!
y x
 Time rate of strain
• Deformation rates

dk d 2 d1 v u
 xy      
dt dt dt x y

w v
 yz  
y z
u w
 xz  
z x
 Circulation
• Circulation is strongly connected to the notion of ‘lift’
• Frederick Lanchaster (1878-1946)
• Wilhelm Kutta (1867-1944)
• Nicolai Joukowski (1847-1921)

• Definition:


   V  d s
Remarks:
Circulation depends on the contour C chosen
It is customary to use a positive circulation in the clockwise direction
Connection between Circulation and Vorticity

• The circulation of a flow around a closed curve C is by definition:

 V ds
  

• Now using Stokes Theorem we get


 V  d s     V  d s
   
V
 Circulation and Vorticity
• Stokes Theorem applied to circulation yields the following result:

• The circulation around a contour C can also be obtained by integrating the vorticity
over the surface enclosed by this contour
• Remarks:
• If   V  0 everywhere (i.e. an irrotational flow) the circulation is zero for every
contour C.
• Conversely, if   0 for every imaginable contour C, then the vorticity must be zero
everywhere and therefore the flow will be irrotational.
• Suppose that the contour shrinks such that it encloses a very small surface over
which the vorticity is more or less constant, then the circulation is given by

d     V  d s
d
   V  n ds     V  n
ds
 Stream function
• Consider a two dimensional flow

• The definition of a streamline is given by

dy v

dx u
This equation constitutes a differential equation with solution   x, y   


in which  denotes the integration constant. Each different constant defines a

different streamline. Suppose that streamline A corresponds to the constant  1
and streamline B corresponds to  
2
 is called a stream function if    2   1 denotes the mass flow between
the streamlines A and B.
 Stream function
• Mass flow: V   n   2  1  


 V
n
d
n  0  V
dn
Remark: Differentiating the stream function in the direction perpendicular to the
streamline produces the mass flux

V   n   uy   v  x    
u 
 y
  
d  dx  dy    v dx   u dy  v  
x y x
 Stream function
 
u  , v  
y x
• If the streamfunction is given, the above formulae give a way to determine the
momentum per unit volume
• Note that differentiation of the stream function in the y-direction produces the
mass flux in the x-direction and vice versa.
• For an incompressible flow we can redefine the streamfunction by setting by
dividing by the constant density, in which case the above formulae produce the
velocity components.

1  
• In polar coordinates the above equation become  vr  ,  v  
r  r
• The stream function provides a very usefull tool; given the stream function we can
immediately determine the streamlines by setting const and we can determine
the velocity field
• Note that the velocity components obtained from te stream function identically
satisfy the stationary continuity equation.
 Velocity Potential
• The introduction of a velocity potential only makes sense for irrotational flows.

• Irrotational  V  0
• Vector identity
 
    0
• Therefore set

V  

  
Cartesian : u  , v , w
x y z
 1  
Cylindrical : vr = , v  , vz 
r r  z
 1  1 
Spherical : vr  , v  , v 
r r  r sin  
 Potential Function
• Remarks:
• If   x, y, z  is given, the velocity components follow immediately by differentiation,
so the potential function replace 3 unknowns u, v and w, by 1 unknown

• The velocity component in a particular direction is obtained by differentiating the

potential function in that particular direction.

• By introducing the potential function we identically satisfy the condition for

irrotational flow, i.e.   V  0

• By replacing the velocity components by the gradient of the potential function in

the continuity equation and momentum equation we obtain the so-called potential
equation. Irrotational flows satisfying this equation are called potential flows.
 Relation between the stream function and the potential
function

• Consider a two dimensional, incompressible flow

u v
• Continuity equation:  0
x y

• Streamlines   const.

• Equipotential lines   const.

We know that   V is orthogonal to the equipotential lines and oriented in

the direction of the flow; so are the streamlines, therefore equipotential lines are
orthogonal to the streamlines.

A mathematical proof of this assertion can be found in section 2.16.

 Proof orthogonality of streamlines and equipotential lines

• Note that is perpendicular to the streamlines and  is perpendicular to the

equipotential lines, in which

     
 x   v   x   u 
      ,        .
   u      v 
 y   y 
   

• so these gradients are perpendicular to eachother, and therefore the lines whose
normals they are, are perpendicular as well.