Requirements for effective control

• We wish to achieve full flow-field control: e.g. successful

reduction in drag will cause/be caused by the appropriate
changes in the velocity field of the boundary layer.
• However, there is the overriding pragmatic requirement
that all sensing and actuation is performed in a wall (e.g.
beneath a boundary layer, jet nozzle).
• This places significant limitations on what can be achieved
– for example, is drag reduction possible with wall control
alone?
• It is sensible to develop a controller using DNS, at low
Reynolds number – would the same controller work at the
‘high’ Reynolds numbers of the laboratory and the even
higher ones occurring under practical applications?
• What are the requirements for sensing and actuation at
‘high’ Reynolds numbers?
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 1

Why feedback control?

"
y ( s ) = y (t )e # st dt
!
∆ 0 ∆
u(s)
u(s) + y(s) + + y(s)
K P K P
- +
+

Transfer function G(s)=y(s)/u(s)

K(P + ")
Open loop: G(s)=K(P+∆) Closed loop: G(s) =
1+ K(P + ")
Good tracking requires G(s)=1.
Open loop: K=1/(P+∆) Closed loop: K>>1
Feedback control can give good performance in spite of system
uncertainty. !
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 2

1
 Fundamental concepts: stability

!" vg > 0 0 > vg > 0

vg =
!k

• Most shear layers are convectively unstable: eg boundary layers, mixing

layers.
• Several separated flows have a “pocket” of absolute instability which, at
sufficiently high Re can lead to a global instability – e.g. vortex
shedding/Kármán vortex street
• Group velocity, v g , speed at which changes in the shape of the wave packet
propagate
• Absolute instability: group velocity of any one perturbation has both positive
and negative values such Sensors
that disturbance grows
& Actuators: Lecture 7-8 in time at any x-location 3

Fundamental concepts: receptivity

• “Receptivity” points in flow particularly susceptible to

forcing, i.e. from which disturbances will amplify.
• Typically these are points at which there are large
gradients in the base flow and where a given perturbation
provides maximum relative perturbation.
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 4

2
 Nonlinear disturbance equations
• The evolution equation for disturbance ui , p! growing about a
basic state U i , p (variables for the base flow):
!ui !u !U i !p$ 1 2 !u
= "U j i " u j " + # ui " u j i
!t !x j !x j !xi Re !x j (5.1)
• Define disturbance energy: E = 1 u u dV
V
2
i i !
V
• A solution to the Navier-Stokes equations is stable to
perturbations if its energy satisfies: E (t )
Lim V !0
t !" EV (0)
• There are other definitions of stability which depend
on the initial perturbation energy.
• Neglect of nonlinear term in (5.1) and assumption of
parallel base flow leads to Orr-Sommerfeld equation
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 5

The Reynolds-Orr equation

!ui
• Using the disturbance equation, evaluate ui
!t
• Integration over volume V for localised disturbance:
dEV !U i 1 !ui !ui
= " uiui
# dV " dV #
dt !x j Re !x j !x j
V V
• This is the Reynolds-Orr equation, the evolution equation for
the energy of a disturbance.
• Simplify for a parallel base flow: U i = U ( y )!1i
dEV ' 1 $
= ( &uvU )( y ) (
! D #dV
dt % Re "
V
• Two terms on RHS describe, respectively, the exchange of
energy with the base flow and energy dissipation due to
viscous effects – both originate from linear terms in 5.1
• 1 dEV is independent of the size of the initial disturbance.
EV dt Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 6

3
 Linear control
Navier-Stokes equations are inherently
nonlinear
BUT, the instantaneous growth-rate of a finite-
amplitude disturbance is given by mechanisms
that appear in the linear disturbance equations.
This is a consequence of the conservative nature
of the nonlinear terms in the Navier-Stokes
(momentum) equations in a closed or periodic
domain.
Therefore linear controller can be used to
stabilise nonlinear flow about a stable state in
closed or periodic domain
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 7

Linear control
Observability
A linear system is observable if it is possible to
determine its state through measurements of
input y(t) and output u(t)

y (t ) u (t )
P

K
Controllability
A property of both actuator system and the plant
state that determines whether all the state modes
can be arbitrarily influenced by the actuators.
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 8

4
Key concepts: observability & controllability I
• The following figure shows the first 25 eigenvectors of the
Orr-Sommerfeld/Squire operator linearized about (a), the
laminar flow profile and (b), the mean turbulent flow
profile for channel flow.
• Real and imaginary components of w (blue) and v (red)
plotted as a function of y (wall-normal).
• The laminar flow case, most of the modes are observable
in the middle of the channel only – they have little support
near the wall and are more-or-less unobservable with wall
sensors and therefore uncontrollable with wall actuators.
• For turbulent flow case, larger fraction of unobservable,
and uncontrollable modes. Situation becomes worse as Re
increases.

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 9

Key concepts: observability & controllability II

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 10

5
 Actuator requirements
Scaling of forces:
surface tension L1
electrostatic, pressure, biological L2
magnetic* L3
gravitational L4 (on earth L3!)
• Thermal devices unattractive: much of the energy is wasted by forced
convection
• Surface tension most attractive: largest force for a MEMS device
• Most MEMS devices use L2: often pressure scales with area available
– as in natural muscle
• Other requirements are deflection and speed of response –
frequencies usually rise with miniaturisation
• An actuator of length, d, operating in a flow with velocity U will
have a perceived frequency of U/d. How does this compare with the
frequencies of the smallest scales of motion?
*depends on current density
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 11

Sensor & Actuator: size, d, & speed

• Size
– At best, we want d " ! but dissipation spectrum peaks at about 10η
so d " 10# should be good enough
• Speed 1
– distinguish smallest turbulence (Kolmogorov) timescale, # = (" ! )2
!– From eddy of size 10η being convected at speed U≈10u
– It this this which determines required bandwidth
3
– Note " # u l where u and l are velocity and length scales for
the energy-containing turbulence
• Bandwidth=
timescaleof e " ceddies lu 3

! ! = $ Re 4
timescaleof smallest scalestoberesolved 10# 10u
• Compare
1
timescaleof e " ceddies lu & ul ) 2 1

!
= 1 %( + = Re 2
Kolmogorov timescale (# $) ' # *
2

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 12

6
 Sensing
• Sensing involves measurement of wall pressure and/or
wall shear stress: in general, wall shear is a minimum
requirement for a controller to be effective.
• You will have already been introduced to thermal
anemometry techniques for measuring surface friction.
These are non-linear. Conventional wall–pressure
sensors are usually linear.
• It is easier to obtain accurate measurements of wall
pressure than wall shear stress:
2
pw 10 (lab)
!
" w2 20 (flight)

• We require robust transducers, preferably with a linear

response.
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 13

“Hot tube” wall shear sensors

• Small, hollow so that thermal mass is a
very small, but large surface area (a)
• Thermal inertia therefore small, so could
be used without the thermal
compensation required for conventional
hot wires
• Frequency response is O(103) Hz
• Small heat loss to substrate
• (b) shows bi-layer membrane (300 nm b
per layer), fabricated from SiN and SiO2.
• When released from substrate, membrane
rolls up because of differential stress in
the layers.
• Diameter of rolled-up sensor 50-60 µm
• Length-to-diameter ratio determines
directional sensitivity
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 14

7
 A linear, direct measurement of ! w
Schober et al. (2004)

• Si surface fence with 10 µm

slot at the base
• Si is stiff – high natural
frequency, low sensitivity
• Slot increases sensitivity with
high stress concentrations at
corners
• A pair of orthogonal
piezoresistors placed at
corners
• These provide 4 resistances
for a Wheatstone bridge
circuit
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 15

A linear, direct measurement of ! w

Schober et al. (2004)
• Near-linear calibration
• Two constants A and B
• First-order term comes from
the wall equation dp/dx=dτ
/dy
• Second-order term comes
from inertial effects near the
wall – is therefore a
Reynolds-number effect
2
"p* = A# *w + B (# *w )

* "pH 2 * # w H 2
"p = , #w =
$% 2 $% 2

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 16

8
 A linear, direct measurement of ! w

• Works best in separated

flows – large changes in ! w
• Temporal resolution up to
about 1kHz, extendable up to
3 kHz by using a transfer
function
• Difficulties for small
changes about zero mean ! w

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 17

Pressure sensors
• These usually involve a flexible diaphragm causing a
resistance or capacitance change. Use of Si is popular
because it is consistent with conventional bulk
micromachining processes. Temperature sensitivity can be a
problem.
Resistive Capacitive
•Often use SiN for structural •C changes non-linearly with
membrane with polysilicon displacement, pressure
piezoresistors
•Virtually no power
•Miniaturisation: resistors consumption
shorter, so R goes down and
•Sensitivity about 10X that of
power consumption goes up,
resistive
heat
•More or less linear
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 18

9
 Resistive transducer function:
Silicon-nitride pressure sensor
• Wafer holding nine sensors, 100–400 µm square.
• SiN diaphragm with four Pt resistance strain gauges, two for reference.
• Not robust
• This design has poor sensitivity

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 19

Capacitive transducer function

•Transducer function is based on a variable capacitor
• Parallel conductive plates have a capacitance inversely proportional
to separation
• Transducer designed with a flexible top electrode over air gap
• Changes in pressure affect electrode separation and so capacitance

e0 e r 1 e r 2 A
C=
er1 h2 + er 2 h1

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 20

10
 Transducer Structure
• Transducer design
• Curved cavity provides greater sensitivity
• Base electrode and dielectric mounted onto a substrate
• Conductive top membrane

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 21

A novel material for pressure sensors and

actuators: Electro-Active Polymers (EAP)
Repeatable and predictable motion: fatigue, hysteresis….
Stable mechanical properties for use on aircraft
• Working temperature range: -650 C to 2400C (CF19-2186 Nusil Corp.)
• Low moisture adsorption
• Withstand sunlight, ice etc…
• In long term, probably need moisture-proof polymer coating –
protection of electrodes
Large in-plane strains: 68 – 380%
Low energy consumption: electromechanical efficiency ~ 80%
Frequency response O(1) kHz
Difficulties:
– viscoelastic: long, entangled polymer chains
– hyperelastic
– prestrain. Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 22

11
Electroactive Polymer: Principle of operation
EAP sandwiched between electrodes V2
P = ! r ! o E 2 = ! o! r
Charge on opposite electrodes attracts z2
V: volts; z: m
Electrostatic force (Maxwell stress) 
ε0: Permittivity of
induced strain
free space, F/m
Constant volume: negative strain in z εr: relative permittivity
direction causes positive radial strain

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 23

EAP as pressure sensor

Especially useful in order to provide integration of
actuating/sensing surface in single monolith
Maxwell equation also describes the generation of voltage in
response to the application of pressure: contraction works against
the applied electrostatic field and raises the voltage of the charge
thus generating electrical energy
Multiple layers for increased sensitivity? Delamination is a problem

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 24

24

12
 Measuring Capacitance
•Biasing Method
– Bias the capacitor with a voltage
– Measure change in stored charge as capacitance changes
•Voltage Method
– Charge the capacitor through a resistor
– Measure the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 25

Biasing Method
•Bias the capacitor with a fixed voltage
•Change in capacitance causes a current flow through the resistor
•Voltage amplified by op-amp
•Problems with miniaturisation
•Only measures change in C

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 26

13
 Time Constant Method
•Charge a variable capacitor through a resistor
•The voltage across the capacitor is given by,
R
V&out RC + Vout = Vin

•The output voltage is therefore given by

(
Vout = Vin 1 ! e ! t / RC ) t
1
Vin = iR + id"
C !0
di
RC + i (" ) = 0
d"

at" = 0, Vout = 0
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 27

Absolute Transducer

•The capacitor is charges through R

•When V- becomes greater that V+, output Vo switches
1
•Frequency of oscillator is given by f 0 !
1.39 RC
•As C increases, f0 decreases

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 28

14
 Recorded Output

•Edge detection using digital counter

•Counter value sampled at 30KHz

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 29

EAP as an actuator

D ≈ 2.5cm, z = 40 – 100 µm, 10-150

V/µm thickness
O(1) mW [equivalent SMA O(1) W]
Variable values of pre-strain,
frequency and voltage to
characterise behaviour
Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 30
Graphite electrodes

15
 EAP: principle of operation
Clamped edges cause out-of-plane buckling: simple mechanical bias
gives depression – “dimple”
Need for compliant electrodes
Need to be able to predict deflection for given excitation – nature of
electro-mechanical coupling presently unknown

elastomer Pressure, P
D

expansion forces reaction forces

substrate

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 31

Summary
• Disturbances grow from a linear energy source term and are
dissipated a linear dissipation term. Hence only linear
mechanisms are directly responsible for changes in total
disturbance energy.
• The question of observability and controllability of modes
at the wall remains open.
• Sensors: need for linear transducers, especially to measure
wall shear stress.
• Capacitance-based pressure transducers inherently more
accurate.
• Electrostatic actuators are fast, efficient and some types
(e.g. EAP) offer large deflections.

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 32

16
 References
Bar-Cohen, Y. Electroactive Polymer (EAP) Actuators as Artificial Muscles. SPIE
Press Monograph, 2004.
Bell, D. J., Lu, T. J., Fleck, N. A. and Spearing, S. M. MEMS actuators and sensors:
observations on their performance and selection for purpose. J. Micromech.
Microeng. 15, S153-S164, 2005.
Bewley, T. R. and Protas, B. Skin friction and pressure: the “footprints” of turbulence.
Physica D 196, 28-44, 2004.
Gad-el-Hak, M. The MEMS Handbook. CRC Press, 2002.
Kim, J. Control of turbulent boundary layers. Phys. Fluids 15, 1093-1105, 2003.
Kim, J. and Bewley, T. R. A linear systems approach to control theory. Annu. Rev.
Fluid Mech. 39, 383-417, 2007.
Löfdahl,L., Kälvesten, E. and Stemme, G. Small silicon pressure transducers for
space-time correlation measurements in a flat plate boundary layer. J. Fluid Engng.
118, 457-463, 1996.
Schober, M., Obermeier, E., Pirskawetz, S. and Fernholz, H.-H. A MEMS skin-
friction sensor for time-resolved measurements in separated flows. Expts. Fluids 36,
593-599, 2004.

Sensors & Actuators: Lecture 7-8 33

17