Turbulent Flows and Need for

modelling
Dr. S.Vengadesan
Professor, Department of Applied Mechanics,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 36

https://sites.google.com/site/vengadesiitmam/
 Content
• Introduction to Turbulent Flows
• Deriving governing equations
• Reynolds stresses, modelling strategy
• Introduction to Standard models and explanation
 Introduction

• Most of the flows encountered in engineering applications are turbulent in nature.

Flow through turbine, flow past buildings, flow in channels, jets etc.,.
• At low Re, flows are laminar, whereas at high enough Re, it becomes turbulent.
• Flows in completely laminar regime only can be described by the NS or any other equivalent
equations derived from it.
• In some simplified situation with some assumptions, it can be solved analytically also.
• Otherwise, it can be solved numerically without further necessity in the treatment of equations.
• Whereas, for turbulent flows, because of its nature, needs modification in equations, to be applied
to practical engineering flows.
 What is Turbulent Flow
• Unsteady, irregular (non-periodic) motion in which transported quantities (mass, momentum,
scalar species) fluctuate in time and space – Three-dimensional.
• Good mixing of mass / momentum / energy

• Fluid properties and velocity exhibit random variations

• Statistical averaging results in accountable, turbulence related transport mechanisms.
• This characteristic allows for turbulence modeling.

• Contains a wide range of turbulent eddy sizes (spectrum)

• Length, velocity and time exhibit range of values.
• The size/velocity of large eddies is on the order of the mean flow.
• Large eddies derive energy from the mean flow.
• Energy is transferred from larger eddies to smaller eddies – Energy cascading process.
• In the smallest eddies, turbulent energy is converted to internal energy by viscous dissipation.
 Energy Cascade Process

Figure from book, Turbulence, Davidson, Oxford University Press, First Indian Edition, 2007
 What is Turbulent Flow

Fully-Developed Turbulent Pipe

uix, t 
Flow Velocity Profile
ui x, t  ui x, t 

Velocity signal in a jet

 What is Turbulent Flow
Turbulent jets at two different Re

5000 50000
Figure from book, Turbulent Flows, S.Pope, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
 What is Turbulent Flow
Influence of Re on smallest scales

Figure from book, First course in Turbulence,

Tennekes & Lumley, MIT Press, 1972.
 Is the flow turbulent ?
• Flows can be characterized by the Reynolds Number, Re

External Flows U L
where Re L 
Re x  500,000 along a surface 
L  x, d , d h , etc.
Re d  20,000 around an obstacle Other factors such as free-stream turbulence,
surface conditions, and disturbances may
Internal Flows – Flow through a circular cause transition to turbulence at lower
cross-section pipe Reynolds numbers

Re d h  2,300
 RANS approach – Time averaging
• Time averaging is usually used to extract the mean flow properties from the instantaneous ones.
• The instantaneous velocity, ui is split into average and fluctuating components.

uix, t 
ui x, t  ui x, t 

Fully-Developed
Turbulent Pipe Flow
Velocity Profile

ui x, t   ui x, t   uix, t 

Instantaneous Time-averaged Fluctuating

component component component
 some information about Tensors & notation
• Subscript “i” and “j” takes the value of 1, 2, and 3 corresponding to x-, y- and z- direction in
Cartesian coordinate system.
• If the subscript is repeating in a particular term, then it is summation. Otherwise for each
value, it is single term. For ex. uiui means {u1u1+ u2u2+ u3u3}
uiuj means {u1u1, u1u2, u1u3 ; u2u1, u2u2, u2u3 ; u3u1, u3u2, u3u3 } – Nine individual
components.
• u1 refers to x-component velocity – u; u2 refers to y-component velocity – v;
u3 refers to z-component velocity – w
ij is called Kronec ker Delta
1 0 0
 1, if i  j 0 1 0

 0, if i  j 0 0 1
 some information about rules of averaging
• Average of average is average itself. uu
• Average of fluctuation is zero. u'  0
• Average on the product of two fluctuation is not zero. u ' v '  0
• Average on the product of one averaged quantity and one fluctuating quantity is zero. uv '  0
• Average on the product of one averaged quantity & one instantaneous quantity is product of
two average quantity. uv  uv
• Average on the spatial derivative is same as spatial derivative on the average. That means,
they are commutative. f  f

x x
 Continuity Equation
ui u v w
0   0
xi x y z
Substitute the decomposition of variable (u i  u i' ) into each term of the above equation

u i  (u i  u i' )
0  0
x i x i
ui ui
0; (1) 0; ( 2) Mean continuity equation
xi xi
ui'
(1)  ( 2)  0 Continuity equation based on fluctuating variables
xi
u ' v ' w'
  0
x y z
 Momentum Equation
ui Continuity Equation
0
xi
ui ui 1 p  2 ui
uj   NS Equations
t x j  xi x j x j

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
+ 𝑢 + 𝑣 +𝑤 = − + 𝜈( 2 + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
+ 𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 = − + 𝜈( 2 + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝 𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕2 𝑤 𝜕2 𝑤
+𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 = − + 𝜈( 2 + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
 Momentum Equation
ui
0
xi
ui ui 1 p  2 ui
uj  
t x j  xi x j x j

Substitute the decomposition of variable (u i  u i' ) into each term of the above equation
u u

x x
u i  u i'  u j  u 'j   u i u j  u i' u 'j

ui ui  (ui' u 'j ) 1 p  2 ui

uj   
t x j x j  xi x j x j
action of velocity fluctuations on the mean flow
 Reynolds Stresses
ui ui 1 p 1   ui  These equations are called
uj      ui' u 'j  Reynolds Averaged Navier-
t x j  xi  x j  x 
 j  Stokes Equation - RANS
 u 2  u v   u w 
   
 x  y  z 
  These terms are additional and
Rij  uiu j
  u v  v 2  v w   referred as Reynolds stresses.
   
 x  y  z 
 
  u w  vw  w 2 
     x xy xz   u  2 u v u w  
 x y z     
   xy y yz     u v  v 2  vw  
   2 
 xz yz z   u w   vw  w  
 

Du i p  ( ij ) lam  ( ij ) turb
    
Dt xi x j x j
Task of turbulence modeling is to model these terms. Rij  uiu j
 Equation for Turbulent Flows
 u u  (u ) v  (u ) w  (u )  p  u  2 u v  u w 
       u  
2    
 x z 
 t x y z  x  y 

  v u  (v ) v  (v ) w  (v )  p  u v   v  2  v w 
       v  
2    
 x z 
 t x y z  y  y 

  w u  ( w) v  ( w) w  ( w)  p  u w  v w  w 2 
       w   
2
  
 
 t x y z  z  x y z 

u  v  w
  0
x y z  u  2
 x xy xz   u v u w  

 
 xy y yz     u v  v 2  vw  
   2 
 xz yz z   u w   vw  w 
 

Dui p  ( ij ) lam  ( ij ) turb

    
Dt xi x j x j
 Interaction between mean flow and turbulent fluctuations
ui ui 1 p  2 ui  (ui' u 'j )
uj   
t x j  xi x j x j x j

 
  ui u j  

1 
 p ij        ui u j 
' '

 x j 

  x j xi  

I II III
I Mean pressure stress
II Mean viscous stress tensor
III Reynolds stress tensor
ui u j
 u u ' '
  
x j xi
i j

In fully developed turbulence, at large Re, role of viscous stress is negligible when compared
with Reynolds stress.
 Closure problem
• In original continuity & NS equations, there are 4 variables – one each velocity component
and one pressure term.
• There are four equations – three momentum and one continuity equation. Hence condition
that no. of variables equal to no. of equations is satisfied.
• In equation for turbulent flow, there are six additional stresses – Six Reynolds stresses. But,
no. of equations is still four. Hence the condition that no. of variables equal to no. of
equations is not satisfied. This results in well known problem called “closure problem”.
• Way to solve closure problem - Either one has to get additional equations or replace suitably
unknown variables in terms of known variable.
• In turbulent flow, deriving any additional equations for fluctuating quantities or correlations
between them, only results in more unknowns. The closure problem remains.
• The alternative is to replace suitably unknown variables in terms of known variable. This
procedure is followed Turbulence modelling.
 Equation for turbulent fluctuations
ui ui 1 p  2 ui
uj   Instantaneous NS equation
t x j  xi x j x j
Decomposition applied
 (ui  ui' )  (ui  ui' ) 1 ( p  p' )  2 (ui  ui' )
 (u j  u j )
'
 
t x j  xi x j x j

Subtract Mean equation from Instantaneous equation, then apply averaging, results in equation for
fluctuating quantity.

ui' ui' ' ui ' ui

'
' ui
'
1 p'  2ui'
uj uj uj uj  
t x j x j x j x j  xi x j x j

Equation for fluctuating quantity

 Equation for turbulent stresses
ui' ui' u  (u ' '
u  u ' '
u ) 1 p '  2 '
ui
 uk  u k' i
 i k i k
 
t xk xk xk  xi xk xk

Multiply above eqn. with uj’ and the eqn. below with ui’ and then take average

u 'j u 'j u j  (u 'j u k'  u 'j u k' ) 1 p '  2u 'j

 uk  u k'   
t xk xk xk  x j xk xk

 (ui' u 'j )  (ui' u 'j ) u j ui

 uk  u u ' '
 u 'j u k'
t xk xk xk
i k

 (ui' u 'j u k' ) 1 

 ' p ' p ' 
 
  2 '
uj  2ui' 

  uj    ui  uj
' ' '
ui 
xk  x j xi   xk xk xk xk 
 
Transport equation for TKE is obtained by contraction

k
 ii
2

2

1 '2
u1  u2'2  u3'2 
k k U i   k 1 ' ' ' 
U j   ij     ui u j u j  p u j 
' '

t x j x j x j 
 x j 2 

I II III IV V (1) V(2) V(3)
I – Unsteady term ; II – Convection term
III – Production term ; V(1) – Molecular Diffusion term;
V(2) – Turbulent transport term ; IV – Dissipation ui' ui'
V(3) – Pressure diffusion term ;  
xk xk
Eddy Viscosity Models – Boussinesq Eddy viscosity concept
• Turbulence is characterized by an isotropic eddy viscosity (or in general, eddy diffusivity) which
enhances mixing between various constituents of the flow.

• Eddy viscosity ~ density x eddy length scale x eddy velocity scale.

• The length, velocity and time scales of the eddies are related. If any two are given, the third can
be found.

• Eddy viscosity (μt) is defined for turbulent flow, plays role same as fluid viscosity in laminar flow.

• Kinematic or dynamic viscosity is fluid dependent, whereas the eddy viscosity is flow
dependent. That means, for the same fluid, depending on flow conditions, spatially as well as
temporally, the eddy viscosity varies.
Eddy Viscosity Models – Boussinesq Eddy viscosity concept
Starting point – Boussinesq eddy viscosity approximation.
It can be used to predict properties without prior knowledge of turbulent structure.
Turbulent length scale – l (m); Turbulent kinetic energy – k (m2/s2);
Turbulent dissipation rate – ε (m2/s3); Specific dissipation rate – ω (1/s);
Turbulent eddy viscosity – μt (kg/ms)
Turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation rate and specific dissipation rate are related to eddy
viscosity on the basis of dimensional arguments. T   k /  ; T   k 2 / 

They are mutually related on the basis of dimensional arguments. l  k 1/2  ;    k

Transport equation (PDE) separately for turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation rate and specific
dissipation rate are derived. Once solved, respective variable are obtained.
Then the turbulent eddy viscosity is calculated. This is then used to replace the unknown
Reynolds stress term based on Boussinesq assumption.  u u j  2
ui u j   ij   T 
' '
 i
  k ij
 
 x j xi  3
Depending on how these relationship are set up, different turbulence models are arrived at.
 Turbulence modelling - overview
• Boussinesq (1877) – Eddy viscosity based approach

• RANS
- Solve time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations
- All turbulent length scales are modeled in RANS
- Various different models are available
- This is the most widely used approach for calculating industrial flows
Algebraic (Zero-equation) Models
One-Equation models
Two-Equation models
Second-order Closure models

• Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)

• Theoretically, all turbulent (and laminar / transition) flows can be simulated by numerically
solving the full Navier-Stokes equations
• Resolves the whole spectrum of scales. No modeling is required
• But the cost is too prohibitive! Not practical for industrial flows
 Turbulence modelling - overview

• Large Eddy Simulation (LES)

• Solves the spatially averaged N-S equations
• Large eddies are directly resolved, but eddies smaller than the mesh are modeled
• Less expensive than DNS, but the amount of computational resources and efforts are still too
large for most practical applications

• Hybrid approach – combining RANS and LES appropriately. In some literature, it is also referred as
Detached Eddy Simulation (DES).
 Equation for turbulent stresses
ui' ui' u  (u ' '
u  u ' '
u ) 1 p '  2 '
ui
 uk  u k' i
 i k i k
 
t xk xk xk  xi xk xk

Multiply above eqn. with uj’ and the eqn. below with ui’ and then average

u 'j u 'j u j  (u 'j u k'  u 'j u k' ) 1 p '  2u 'j

 uk  u k'   
t xk xk xk  x j xk xk

 (ui' u 'j )  (ui' u 'j ) u j ui

 uk  u u ' '
 u 'j u k'
t xk xk xk
i k

 (ui' u 'j u k' ) 1 

 ' p ' p ' 
 
  2 '
uj  2ui' 

  uj    ui  uj
' ' '
ui 
xk  x j xi   xk xk xk xk 
 
Transport Equation for turbulent kinetic energy (TKE)
 (ui' u 'j )  (ui' u 'j ) u j ui
 uk  u u' '
 u 'j u k'
t xk xk xk
i k

 (ui' u 'j u k' ) 1 

 ' p '  p ' 
 
  2 '
u  2 '
ui 

   i
u  u '
    i
u ' j
 u '

xk  x
j
x i   x x
j
xk xk 
j
 k k

Transport equation for TKE is obtained by contraction – trace – isotropic part
 ii 1 '2
k
2
'2
 '2

2
 u 1  u2  u3 
k k U i   k 1 ' ' ' 
U j   ij     ui u j u j  p u j 
' '

t x j x j x j 
 x j 2 

I II III IV V (1) V(2) V(3)
I – Unsteady term ; II – Convection term
III – Production term ; V(1) – Molecular Diffusion term;
V(2) – Turbulent transport term ; IV – Dissipation rate 
V(3) – Pressure diffusion term ;
 Modelling the transport Equation for TKE
k k U i   k 1 ' ' ' 
U j   ij     ui u j u j  p u j 
' '

t x j x j x j 
 x j 2 

Turbulent transport is represented by gradient-diffusion

u j
' '
T
x j
Pressure diffusion term and turbulent transport are combined as
V(3) – Pressure diffusion term ; 1 ' ' '  k
ui u j u j  p 'u 'j   T
2  k x j 3
2
k
Dissipation term based on dimensional background   C
l
k k U i    t  k 
Finally, U j   ij      
t x j x j x j 
  k  x j 

 u i u j  2
u u   ij
' '
T     k ij
i j  x xi  3
 j 
 Two equation models
Starting point – Boussinesq eddy viscosity approximation.
It can be used to predict properties without prior knowledge of turbulent structure.
Turbulent length scale – l (m); Turbulent kinetic energy – k (m2/s2);
Turbulent dissipation rate – ε (m2/s3); Specific dissipation rate – ω (1/s);
Turbulent eddy viscosity – μt (kg/ms)
Turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation rate and specific dissipation rate are related to eddy
viscosity on the basis of dimensional arguments. T   k /  ; T   k 2 / 
They are mutually related on the basis of dimensional arguments. l  k 1/2  ;    k
Transport equation (PDE) separately for turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation rate and specific
dissipation rate are derived. Once solved, respective variable are obtained.
Then the turbulent eddy viscosity is calculated. This is then used to replace the unknown
Reynolds stress term based on Boussinesq assumption.
 u i u j  2
ui' u 'j   ij   T     k ij
 x xi  3
 j 
 Standard k-ε models
Launder & Spalding - Standard k-ε model (1972)

T   k 2 / 
k k U i   k 
 Uj   ij        T /  k  
t x j x j x j 
  x j 

   U i 2    
 Uj  C 1  ij  C 2       /    
t x j x j x j  x j
T
k k  

C 1  1.44, C 2  1.92, C  0.09,  k  1.0,    1.3
 Standard k-ω models
Wilcox (1998), k-ω model T   k / 
k k U i   k 
 Uj   ij      T 
   k  
* *

t x j x j 
 x j x j 

   U i    
 Uj    ij         T  
2

t x j k x j x j 
 x j 

 13 / 25,   o f ,    o* f  , *

 o  9 /125,  o*  9 /100,   1/ 2,  *  1/ 2
1  70  ij  jk Ski 1 k 
f  ;   ;  
1  80     3 x j x j
* 3
o

1 k  0

f *  1  680  k2    * k and l  k 1/ 2 / 
1  400  2 k  0
 k
 Two equation models
These equations along with constants given are referred Standard turbulence model.
In some literature, they are also referred as high Re model.
Here Re refers to local Reynolds number, defined based on local length / velocity scale.
Constants used in these equations are obtained based on experimental data on
standard canonical problems - Jet, Wake, Mixing layer & boundary layer and standard
benchmark problems.
It is also to be noted that turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation rate and specific
dissipation rate are related to each other.
T   k /  ; T   k 2 /    k
 Turbulence near the wall
• By scaling the variables near the wall the velocity profile data takes on a predictable form
(transitioning from linear to logarithmic behavior)

Linear
Logarithmic

yu
Non-dimensionalized wall normal distance y 

uτ- shear velocity
 u
Non-dimensionalized velocity u 
u

Scaling the non-dimensional velocity and non-dimensional distance from the wall results in a predictable
boundary layer profile for a wide range of flows.
Since near wall conditions are often predictable, functions can be used to determine the near wall profiles.
These functions are called wall functions.
 Turbulence Near the Wall
• By scaling the variables near the wall the velocity profile data takes on a predictable form (transitioning
from linear to logarithmic behavior)

Scaling the non-dimensional velocity and

non-dimensional distance from the wall
results in a predictable boundary layer
profile for a wide range of flows Linear
Logarithmic

• Since near wall conditions are often predictable, functions can be used to determine the near wall profiles
rather than using a fine mesh to actually resolve the profile
• These functions are called wall functions

22 February 2019 35
 Turbulence near the wall
• y+ is the non-dimensional distance from the wall
• It is used to measure the distance of the first node away from the wall

y
u
Boundary layer

y+

• Wall functions are only valid within specific y+ values

• If y+ is too high, then the first computational node is outside the boundary layer and wall functions
will be imposed too far into the domain. Near wall physics is not captured / predicted / not
accounted properly.
• If y+ is too low, then the first computational node will lie in the laminar (viscous) part of the
boundary layer where wall functions are not valid.
 Turbulence near the wall
• Fewer nodes are needed normal to the wall when wall functions are used

y y
u u

Wall functions used to resolve boundary Wall functions not used to resolve
layer boundary layer
Boundary layer
 Estimating y+
• It is useful to estimate y+ before obtaining a solution
• Saves time!

• Use the following formula based on flow over a flat plate:

Dy  L y  74 Re L13 /14
 Dy is the actual distance between the wall and first node
• L is a flow length scale
• y+ is the desired y+ value
• ReL is the Reynolds Number based on the length scale L
 Inlet Turbulence conditions
• Unless turbulence is being directly simulated, it is accounted for by modeling the transport of
turbulence properties, for example k and ε.

• Similar to mass and momentum, turbulence variables require boundary condition

specifications.
• Several options exist for the specification of turbulence quantities at inlets.

• Unless you have absolutely no idea of the turbulence levels in your simulation (in which case,
you can use the Medium (Intensity = 5%) option), you should use well chosen values of
turbulence intensities and length scales.
• Nominal turbulence intensities range from 1% to 5% but will depend on your specific application

• The default turbulence intensity value of 0.037 (that is, 3.7%) is sufficient for nominal
turbulence through a circular inlet, and is a good estimate in the absence of experimental
data.