QUASI EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 41

 TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is a property of a system which
determines the degree of hotness
• Obviously, it is a relative term
• eg: A hot cup of coffee is at a higher temperature than a
block of ice. On the other hand, ice is hotter than liquid
hydrogen.
• Thermodynamic temperature scale is under
evolution. What we have now in empirical
scale

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 42

 Thermometric property

Thermometer Thermometric property

1. Constant volume gas Pressure (p)
2. Constant pressure gas Volume (V)
3. Alcohol or mercury-in-glass Length (L)
4. Electric resistance Resistance (R)
5. Thermocouple Electromotive force (E)
6. Radiation (pyrometer) Intensity of radiation (I or J)

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 43

 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
• Two systems are said to be equal in
temperature, when there is no change in their
respective observable properties when they
are brought together. In other words, “when
two systems are at the same temperature they
are in thermal equilibrium” (They will not
exchange heat)

• They need not be in thermodynamic equilibrium

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 44

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• When two bodies or systems are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, then they are in
thermal equilibrium
• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both
have the same temperature reading even if
they are not in contact
– Concept of temperature
• Temperature scales

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 45

 ENERGY

Energy ?
Temperature?
46
 FORMS OF ENERGY

• thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and

nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
• Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies.
• Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy

that a system possesses as a result
of its motion relative to some
reference frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result The macroscopic energy of an object
of its elevation in a gravitational changes with velocity and elevation.
field.
47
 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass
Mass flow rate
Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy
of a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass
48
 Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Sensible energy: The portion of the internal

energy of a system associated with the
kinetic energies of the molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy
associated with the phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal energy
associated with the atomic bonds in a
The internal energy of a molecule.
system is the sum of all
forms of the microscopic Nuclear energy: The tremendous amount
energies. of energy associated with the strong bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself.
The various forms of
microscopic energies Thermal = Sensible + Latent
that make up sensible Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
energy. 49
 MECHANICAL ENERGY
• The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by
an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal
turbine
– Kinetic, Potential, Flow

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 54

 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two systems Temperature
(or a system and its surroundings) difference is
the driving
by virtue of a temperature
force for heat
difference. transfer. The
larger the
temperature
difference, the
higher is the
rate of heat
transfer.

Energy can cross the boundaries

of a closed system in the form of
heat and work. During an adiabatic process, a system
exchanges no heat with its 56
surroundings.
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
– A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Work done per

unit mass

Power is the
Specifying the directions of
work done per
heat and work.
unit time (kW) 57
Heat vs. Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries
of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work
are boundary phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat
or work.
• Both are associated with a process, not
a state.
• Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end
Properties are point functions; but
states).
heat and work are path functions
(their magnitudes depend on the
Properties are point functions have path followed).
exact differentials (d ).
Path functions
have inexact
differentials ( )
58
 Electrical Work
Electrical work
N coulombs of
electrical charge

Electrical power

When potential difference and

current change with time

Electrical power in terms of resistance R,

current I, and potential difference V.
When potential difference and
current remain constant

59
 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
– there must be a force acting on the boundary.
– the boundary must move.

Work = Force Distance When force is not constant

If there is no movement,
no work is done.
The work done is proportional to the force
applied (F) and the distance traveled (s).
60
 Shaft Work

Shaft work is proportional to the

torque applied and the number of
revolutions of the shaft. 61
When the length of the spring changes by Spring Work
a differential amount dx under the influence of
a force F, the work done is Substituting and integrating yield

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is x1 and x2: the initial and the final
proportional to the force applied displacements

k: spring constant (kN/m)

Elongation of
a spring
under the
influence of
a force.

The
displacement of
a linear spring
doubles when
the force is
doubled. 62
 MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
• Conduction
– the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
– Fourier law
– Qcond = - K A (dT/dx) (W)
• Convection
– is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion.
– Newton’s law of cooling
– Qconv = h A ( Ts – Tf ) (W)
• Radiation
– is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves ( or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the
atoms or molecules.
– Stefan-Boltzmann law
– Q emit,max = ATs4
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 64
 IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
• All temperature changes need not be due to
heat
– Friction
• All heat interactions need not result in
temperature change
– Phase change condensation evaporation

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 65

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Joule’s experiment

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 72

 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• For any system undergoing a cyclic process, the algebraic
sum of net heat and work interactions between the
system and its surroundings is zero
Q W
cycle cycle

• i.e. QA1-2+QB2-1=WA1-2+WB2-1

• Alternate statement
– When a closed system undergoes a cycle the cyclic
integral of heat is equal to the cyclic integral of work
Q W
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 73
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• For a cyclic process

• W1-2 +W2-3 +W3-4 +W4-1
2
= Q1-2 + Q2-3 + Q3-4 + Q4-1
3

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 74

 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• For a non-cyclic process
– The heat and work interactions will not be equal
–Q-
• For 1A2C1, Q1-A-2 + Q2-C -1 =W1-A-2 + W2-C -1
• 1B2C1, Q1-B-2 + Q2-C -1 =W1-B-2 + W2-C -1

• Subtracting second equation from first, we get

• Q1-A-2 - W1-A -2
=Q1-B-2 - W1-B -2
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 75
 Total Energy
• For all adiabatic processes between two
specified states of a closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless of the
nature of the closed system and the details of
the process
• Net work depends on the change in a property
of the system called total energy E

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 76

 First Law for a Process
• For a system which does not have kinetic
energy and potential energy, total energy is
equal to internal energy. Then,
• Q-
• Since, E = KE + PE + EE + ME + U
W
• - = dU
• Or, = pdV+dU GAS

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 77

 First Law
• Let us reconsider the cycle 1-2 along path A and 2-1
along path B as shown in fig.
– Work done during the path A = Area under 1-A-2-3-4
– Work done during the path B = Area under 1-B-2-3-4
• Since these two areas are not equal, the net work
interaction is that shown by the shaded area.

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 78

 First Law
• The net area is 1A2B1.
• Therefore some work is derived by the cycle.
• First law compels that this is possible only when there
is also heat interaction between the system and the
surroundings.
• In other words, if you have to get work out, you must
give heat in.
• In the example shown the area under curve A < that
under B
• The cycle shown has negative work output or it will
receive
• work from the surroundings. Obviously, the net heat
interaction is also negative. This implies that this cycle
will heat the environment. (as per the sign convention)
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 79
 Summary
• If the magnitude of an entity related to the
system changes during a process and if this
depends only on the end states then the
entity is a property of the system.
• HEAT and WORK are not properties because
they depend on the path and end states
• HEAT and WORK are not properties because
their net change in a cycle is not zero
• First law for a cycle, process and an isolated
system
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 80
The specific heat at constant pressure of one kg
fluid undergoing a non-flow constant pressure
process is given by kJ/kg ° C

where T is in °C. The pressure during the process

is maintained at 2 bar and volume changes from
1 m3 to 1.8 m3 and temperature changes from
50°C to 450°C. Determine :
(i) Heat added (ii) Work done
(iii) Change in internal energy (iv) Change in
enthalpy.
[Ans. (i) 1076 kJ/kg ; (ii) 160 kJ/kg ; (iii) 916
kJ/kg ; (iv) 1076 kJ/kg]
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 92
Air at a pressure of 1 bar and 25°C is heated
at constant volume till the pressure is
doubled. It is then expanded isothermally to
the original pressure and cooled to the initial
condition at constant pressure. Show the
process on p-V diagrams and calculate the
work and heat interactions during the
processes.
w12=0; w23=118.564 kJ/kg; w31=-85.6kJ/kg;
Q12=213.96 kJ/kg; Q23=118.564; Q31=-299.49
kJ/kg
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 93
85 kJ of heat are supplied to a system at
constant volume. The system rejects 90 kJ of
heat at constant pressure and 20 kJ of work is
done on it. The system is brought to its original
state by adiabatic process.
Determine the adiabatic work. Determine also
the value of internal energy at all end states if
initial value is 100 kJ.
[Ans. W = 15 kJ ; U1 = 100 kJ, U2 = 185 kJ ; U3
= 115 kJ]

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 94

A closed system experiences a temperature
rise of 20°C when a certain process occurs.
The heat transferred in the process is 18 kJ.
The specific heat at constant volume for the
pure substance comprising the system is 1.2
kJ/kg°C, and the system contains 2 kg of this
substance. Determine the change in internal
energy and the work done.
[Ans. = 48 kJ ; W = – 30 kJ]

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 95

A fluid is contained in a cylinder by a spring-loaded,
frictionless piston so that the pressure in the fluid is
linear function of the volume (p = a + bV). The
internal energy of the fluid is given by the following
equation U = 34 + 3.15 pV
where U is in kJ, p in kPa and V in cubic metre. If the
fluid changes from an initial state of 170 kPa, 0.03
m3 to a final state of 400 kPa, 0.06 m3, with no work
other than that done on the piston, find the
direction and magnitude of the work and heat
transfer.
W12=10.35 kJ; Q12=69.85 kJ
10.35 kJ 69.85 kJ
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 96
A system consists of 0.3 m3 of air at 5 bar
and 150°C. The reversible adiabatic
expansion of air takes place until the
pressure reaches 1 bar. Then the enthalpy
of air is increased to 100 kJ by adding heat
at constant pressure. Determine (i) work
done and (ii) the index of expansion by
assuming that the process between the
same initial and final conditions is a single
polytropic process. 171 kJ 1.16
August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 97
A certain perfect gas is compressed
reversibly from 1 bar, 17°C to a pressure of
5 bar in a perfectly thermally insulated
cylinder, the final temperature being 77°C.
The work done on the gas during the
compression is 45 kJ/kg. Calculate cv, R
and the molecular weight of the gas.
1.132 ; 0.75 kJ/kg K ; 0.099 kJ/kg K ; 84

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 98

A gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston undergoes a cycle
composed of three processes.
First the gas expands at constant pressure with a heat
addition of 400 J and a work output of 10.0 J. Then it is
cooled at constant volume by a removal of 50.0 J of heat.
Finally, an adiabatic process restores the gas to its initial
state. Determine
(i) the work of the adiabatic process and
(ii) the stored energy of the gas at each of the other two
states if its stored energy in the initial state is assigned the
value of zero.
Sketch the cycle on the pressure – volume and
temperature – entropy diagrams.

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 99

 0.15 m3 of an ideal gas at a pressure of 15
bar and 550 K is expanded isothermally to 4
times the initial volume. It is then cooled to
290K at constant volume and then
compressed back polytropically to its initial
state. Calculate the net work done and heat
transferred during the cycle. 81.03 kJ.

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 100

0.05 kg of carbon dioxide (molecular weight 44), occupying
a volume of 0.03 m3 at 1.025 bar, is compressed reversibly
until the pressure is 6.15 bar. Calculate final temperature,
the work done on the CO2, the heat flow to or from the
cylinder walls,
(i) When the process is according to law pv1.4 = constant,
(ii) When the process is isothermal,
(iii) When the process takes place in a perfectly thermally
insulated cylinder.
Assume CO2 .
Ans. 270 C; 5.138 kJ ; 1.713 kJ ; 52.6 C; 5.51kJ ;
5.51 kJ ; 219 C; 5.25 kJ ; 0 kJ

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 101

A cylinder contains 0.5 m3 of a gas at 1 × 105 N/m2
and 90°C. The gas is compressed to a volume of
0.125 m3, the final pressure being 6 × 105 N/m2.
Determine :
(i) The mass of gas.
(ii) The value of index ‘n’ for compression.
(iii) The increase in internal energy of gas.
(iv) The heat received or rejected by the gas during
compression.
= 1.4, R = 294.2 Nm/kg°C).
[Ans. 0.468 kg ; 1.292 ; 62.7 kJ ; – 22.67 kJ]

August 2, 2016 MEE1003 Engineering Thermodynamics 102