SCADA Systems 2015 PDF

titolo: SCADA Systems
Antonio Lorusso
SCADA Systems
Course
idJob: 1159731
idJob: 1159731
SCADA (System Control And Data Acquisition)

Course
September 2015
This document contains Booz Allen Hamilton Inc. proprietary and or client
confidential
Developed business
byinformation.
Antonio Lorusso
1 SCADA Experience in Process Control

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Table of Contents
Section Slide No.

Overview……………………………………… 3
Architecture………………………….............. 20
SCADA System Functional Components…. 97
SCADA System Structural Components….. 227
SCADA System Evolution…………………... 300
SCADA for Electric Systems……………….. 310
Acronyms……………………………………. 325

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OVERVIEW

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OVERVIEW
What is a SCADA System?
We can start from the acronym meaning. SCADA:
Supervisory
Control
And
Data
Acquisition
Data Acquisition, Supervisory and Control. But of WHAT?
Any PROCESS, mainly in an industrial context, that we want to

“MONITOR”, “CONTROL” and make it “EFFICIENT”

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OVERVIEW
History
The SCADA concept born in the ‘60 years together with

electronic technologies that have allowed the remote
transmission of data. The first SCADA were based on Racks of
remote acquisition (RTU: Remote Terminal Unit) connected,
through communication lines, to a Control Center where data
were collected, memorized and showed to the operators
through big Synoptic Panels. This state of art was going on
until the beginning of the ’80 years when the explosion of the
digital technologies with big potentialities and low cost has led
to a revolution in the SCADA architecture.

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
How to characterize a SCADA System?
By various elements like:
• Geographical Distribution of the System to be controlled
• Control Intelligence (Distributed or Centralized)
• Human Operator and System Interaction Degree
• Reaction Time to a Controlled Process Event

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
Sample of Processes requiring SCADA System
• Traffic Control (Airplane, Railway, Automobile, …)

• Fluids Control (Hydro Plant, Pipeline, Waste Water Plants)
• Electric Energy Transmission and Distribution Networks
• Environmental Remote Sensing
• Factory Production Lines
• Utility Company Multi-Services (Example in next slide)

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
SCADA: Definitions
• Data Acquisition
• Supervisory
• Control

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
SCADA: Data Acquisition
• Role of support to the supervisory and control functions. It’s not

possible to perform these functions without acquiring data from
the process under control
• Means: Data Exchange between Process and System
• No decision making between the supervisory and control

function and the controlled process

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
SCADA: Supervisory
• Make possible to observe the status evolution of the controlled

process
• This function includes:

! visualization of the actual status of the process under
control
! handling of the historical information
! handling of exceptional statuses with respect to the normal
! represents the goal of a SCADA system

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
SCADA: Control
• System Capability to make decision relevant to the status

evolution of the controlled process
• It’s concentrated in the processing system that, performed

appropriate procedures, uses data acquisition to output and
change the value of appropriate status parameters of the
controlled process

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
SCADA Vs DCS
SCADA Systems has been always considered as system with

control functions concentrated in the processing subsystem and
physically and technologically distinct from the acquisition
functions. The DCS systems are characterized by data
acquisition structures of high capacity of processing such that
have realized functions of acquisition and control physically and
technologically contiguous. With the progress of the computer
technologies and the communication infrastructures the
distinction between DCS and SCADA is becoming outmoded and
the two system typologies will be included in the same category.

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
SCADA: The Controlled Process
• The analysis of the controlled process produces information

that influence the system project both from technological and
organizational point of view
• Elements to determine main characteristics of a control system:
! Real Time
! High Reliability
! High Availability
! Human-Machine Interactions
! Geographical Dimension

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
The Controlled Process: Realtime
• The “Real Time” term refers to the capability of the SCADA

system to react to the controlled process with delay negligible
with respect to the evolution of the process itself
• Limits to the SCADA performances reside into the technology:
! computing system capability

! complex communication system of big dimension
(geographical network)

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
The Controlled Process: High Reliability
• A Control System is a mosaic of components and each of them

is characterized by a reliability degree
• In realizing a control system it’s necessary to consider the
reliability of each component
• For components provided by third parties, it’s necessary to
evaluate the reliability declared by the Producers
• In realizing components ex-novo it’s necessary to proceed with
adequate instruments of analysis and development
• The limit of 100% of reliability is the target of the most of the
controlled processes

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
The Controlled Process: High Availability
• Availability is the percentage of time for which the system

operation must be assured. Expressed also as complementary
value of the time percentage in which the system was stopped
for malfunctions, maintenances, updating, or other.
• availability can refer to the entire system or to critical parts of it
• a process can have availability needs for security reasons or

service continuity

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
The Controlled Process: Human-Machine Interaction
• Supervisory and Control Systems always require interactions

between operators and the controlled process. This
interactions, in English terms, are identify with the acronym
HMI: “Human-Machine Interface”
• The HMI can realize many interactions degrees:
! simple observation of functions and processes

! execution of procedures handled by the operators like
command issuing to the process

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OVERVIEW (cnt.)
The Controlled Process: Geographical Dimension
• Geographical Dimension of a SCADA System it’s defined by the

allocation of the data acquisition apparatuses and the
elaboration system. These can be allocated inside a building, in
few buildings or distributed over large area (cities, regional,
national and international territories)
• All these characteristics determine more complexity in

developing the control system due to the criticality introduced
both by the communication infrastructures and human-machine
interface subsystem

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ARCHITECTURE

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ARCHITECTURE
A SCADA System can be compared to an human body where, for

example, the nerves of the fingers are able to get information
from the environment around and transmit it to the brain who
then takes the proper actions.
The nerves of the fingers in a SCADA system can be assimilated

to the apparatuses of acquisition data that transmit information
to the computing subsystem that, in turn, take decisions and
react to the external environment represented by the controlled
process

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System
Data Transmission / Acquisition System
Data Acquisition and Trasmission Structures
Architectural Schema of a SCADA System

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Apparatuses: Operation
• Represent the mean by which the SCADA System

communicates with the world around
• To do this it needs to establish a common communication
language that allows the information exchange
• Sometime the communication actors are not able to establish a
common language. In this case it’s necessary to use a translator
• The role of the Acquisition Apparatus is similar to a translator
• In SCADA systems the translation consists in transforming
information relevant to physical values (e.g. temperature,
pressure, currents, volts…...) in coded electrical information

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Apparatuses: Information Handled
• The information type that the Data Acquisition apparatuses

handles can be classified through different criteria:
! Information Direction: information that the apparatuses

transmit or receive
! Information Quality: nature of the information
! Electric characteristics of the involved information

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Classification due to information direction
With reference to the information direction, a data acquisition

apparatus is able to handle two distinct information typologies:
• INPUT Information: that the apparatus receive from the

external world
• OUTPUT Information: that the apparatus transmit to the

external world

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Classification due to information quality
• Information coming from the external world mainly comes from

sensors and transducers able to interpret physical
phenomena
• Similarly Information outgoing to the external world mainly

arrive to it by means of actuators and organs that perform
reverse function respect to the sensors

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Classification due to info quality (cnt.)
A first classification based on the information quality is:
• Information of DIGITAL type

• Information of ANALOG type
• Information of IMPULSIVE type
• Information of COMPLEX type

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Information Handled: Information of DIGITAL type
• It’s able to give a status representation through a series of

digital statuses well identified and distinct. As an example an
“engine” can assume only two statuses of operation (“moving
engine” and “stopped engine”, called physical statuses of
device)
• In this case the classic digital information represents only two
distinct operation statuses
• This information can be easy represented through the
”presence” / “absence” of voltage to the input of a port on the
data acquisition apparatus

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of DIGITAL type (cnt.)
• The voltage presence is associated to the logical status “ON”

which correspond to the physical status “moving engine”
• The voltage absence is associated to the logical status “OFF”

which correspond to the physical status “stopped engine” )
• Sometimes it’s necessary to represent a device physical status

through several logical statuses and this to assure a certain
control of information congruency

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Suppose a logical status “OFF” corresponding to a voltage

absence on the input of the port on data acquisition apparatus.
This voltage absence doesn’t provide any information on the
status of the physical link with the transduction device (an
electrical cable interrupted could induce to think a stopped
engine, while it’s moving
• In this case it’s possible to introduce a simple control on the
congruency status of information by using two ports connected
to two distinct information that, combined, provide also a
diagnostic status

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Take the classic engine, consider the information that indicate

the “moving engine” status and another indicating the
“stopped engine” status. Combining the two information, we
obtain two permissible statuses (e.g.: permissible are “moving
engine” and at the same time “engine not stopped” while not
permissible statuses are “moving engine” and at the same
time “stopped engine”)
• The information to be considered is still the operation status of
the engine but it is represented by four logical statuses instead
of two.

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Digital Information are available both in input and output to the

Data Acquisition Apparatus
• Digital information that refers to the input of the apparatus

from the external field, that are inputs also for the SCADA
system, are named “Tele Signals” (TS) or Digital Inputs (DI)
• Digital information that refers to the output to the external

field, that are output also for the SCADA system, are named
TeleCommands (TC) or Digital Outputs (DO)

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of ANALOG type
• Analog Information gives a device representation by means of

values that varies in a continuous manner within a certain time
interval
• In these cases the SCADA system must interpreter a physical
device that is not represented by distinct physical states and
the digital representation is no more usable
• Think about, for example, to the need to represented a
“temperature” that assume values that cannot be represented
by logical statuses like “ON” and “OFF”. In this case we talk of
analogical values

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of ANALOG type (cnt.)
• A device called “Transducer” is in charge to traduce information

from physical value to an information manageable by an
acquisition data apparatus (very often continuous values of
voltage or current are involved that are proportional to the
values of the physical external machine to control)
• Obviously the characteristics of the measure to be handled
must be compatible with those of the acquisition port (having in
input a measure represented by a voltage (e.g. 0-10mV) it cannot
be interpreted in an acquisition port that expects current values
(e.g. 4-20 mA)

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Once connected to the acquisition port, the measure must be

converted from analogical signal to his logical representation to
be handled by the SCADA System
• This can be performed by a “ANALOG to DIGITAL CONVERTER

(A/D)”
• The goal of this device is to convert in a “number” the measure

value on a data acquisition device port

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• As an example, if we want represent an input information that

can assume values in the electrical field 0-10 mV with a number
that can assume values between 0 and 10, we can realize a “A/D
converter” that to each increase of the input value of 10% of the
entire possible interval, increases of 10% of its numeric
representation
• So to an input of 0 mV corresponds a numeric value of 0, to an
input of 1 a numeric value of 1, to an input of 2 mV a numeric
value of 2, and so on until to a numeric value of 10 that
correspond to an input of 10 mV

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Just with this simple example, we can note a limit to the A/D
conversion if we represent a continuous measure with an
interval of entire numbers
• In fact how the A/D converter reacts to an input measure of 1,5
mV, it will gives a numeric value of 1 or 2?
• Of course the problem would be solved by having a numeric
scale 0-100 instead of 0-10, to an input measure of 1,5 mV, we
will have a numeric value of 15.
• It’s clear more large is the numeric interval used to represent
the input measure, more precise will be the conversion

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• More big will be the numeric interval to represent the measure

more precise will result the representation that the SCADA
system will give of the physical reality
• The classification that normally is done for the precision of the
A/D converters is based on the extension of the variation of the
numeric representation
• This characteristic is expressed in the corresponding number of
bits used by the A/D converter to represent the analog measure
in input, they can be of 8, 12, 16, 24 or more bits of conversion.
More bits, more precision

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Another characteristic that classify an A/D converter is the

“conversion time”, it means the time that the converter employs
to provide an information of the measure in input as precise as
possible
• It’s important to chose a converter with a conversion time
related to the type of the physical phenomena under control, to
the tolerance of the reading and to the reading frequency, taking
into account also the cost
• Performance and costs are to take into account in projecting a
SCADA system

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• Analog Information are available both in input and output to the

Data Acquisition Apparatus
• Analog information that refers to the input of the apparatus

from the external field, that are inputs also for the SCADA
system, are named “Tele Measure” (TM) or Analog Inputs (AI)
• Analog information that refers to the output to the external

field, that are output also for the SCADA system, are named
Tele Regulation (TR) or Analog Outputs (AO)

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Information Handled: Information of IMPULSIVE type
• Sometime information that allows a SCADA system to interact

with the external world is not interpretable in a instantaneous
manner, but it’s necessary to know the trend in time of this
information to be able to provide a correct representation. An
example can be an Energy Counter. In this case, to obtain the
energy value, the SCADA system must count the pulse number
issued in a predefined time interval
• In this case the data acquisition apparatuses have particular
input registers to accumulate pulses at regular time intervals to
compute the energy value

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of IMPULSIVE type (cnt.)
• As for input values we can have corresponding Pulse Outputs

that are used, for example, to move engines step-by-step. In this
case the pulse information in the command direction is not a
simple Digital Output (DO or Tele Command) but a pulse series
forwarded to the physical process by the apparatus through a
Digital Output

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of COMPLEX type
• Sometimes the interaction between the SCADA System and

the external world is not possible through simple information
like those seen above
• It can happen that the SCADA must interface complex device to
obtain information. An example is given by the Electric Energy
Counters that provide a very wide series of information (e.g.
voltage, current, powers, instantaneous cosfi, average values,
etc…)
• Handle all this information with an equivalent outputs by the
Energy Counter to the SCADA is technically not convenient

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of COMPLEX type (cnt.)
• So the manufacturers provided an interface to the counters that

is able to establish a communication with the external device
through a communication protocol (available protocols are
ModBus, CANbus, ProfiBus, until the new generation protocols)
• To establish this communication the peripheral device must be
configured with some specific parameters relevant to the
protocol
• This configuration can be made directly on the peripheral
device or issued by the SCADA system at its startup time

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Information of COMPLEX type (cnt.)
• As an example if we want interface a device with a

communication protocol ModBus ASCII in a serial port RS232, it
will be necessary to define the transmission speed, data bit
number, stop bit number, parity control, number of the ModBus
slave, type and address of registers to be read, etc…
• So, in these cases we can talk of complex type of information

very different to the information seen so far

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Classification due Electric Characteristics
• We talk of electric characteristic for information in input and

output from a data acquisition apparatus inside a certain field
• Information exchanged with the SCADA system will be carried
through a telecommunication network that we will treat in the
following
• Each information treated to be interpreted by a Data Acquisition
Apparatus must be represented with an electric signal. The field
devices are in charge to convert the physical entity into an
equivalent electric representation

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Information Handled: Classification due Electric Chars. (cnt.)
• As an example the temperature of an object is converted in the

corresponding electric signal using a thermocouple or a
resistance variable with the temperature (resistance NTC or
PTC)
• Generally we can say that since it’s necessary to make a data
exchange between field apparatuses and data acquisition
apparatuses, it’s necessary to define a common language
among them
• Standards was introduced to allow the interfaceability among
the apparatuses to which all the manufacturers align itself

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• For information of digital type in Input, electric characteristics

are:
! signals at 24 V in continuous current

! signals at 24 V in alternating current
! signals at 110 V in continuous current

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• For information of digital type in Output, electric characteristics:
! commands at 24 V in continuous current

! commands at 24 V in alternating current
! commands at 220 V in alternating current
! commands with relay exit

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• It’s important to consider the output typology
! pulse output (it’s “Closed” and remain in this state for a

certain interval time and then return in the previous state
“Open”)
! bistable state, it assume the stable in time state of

“Open” or “Closed”

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• For information of analog type in input, the electric

characteristics are:
! In Volt measure

" (+/- 10mV, +/- 250mV, +/- 500mV, +/- 1V, +/- 2.5V, +/- 5V,
" 1…5V, +/- 10V)
! In Current measure

" (+/- 10mA, +/- 3.2mA, +/- 20mA, 0…20mA, 4…20mA)

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! Resistance Measure
" (150Hm, 300Hm, 600Hm)
! Measure from Thermocouple

" (type B, E, N, J, K, L, N, R, S, T, U)
! Measure from Thermo Resistance

" (Pt100, Pt200, Pt500, Pt1000, Ni100, Ni120, Ni200, Ni500,
Ni1000, Cu10)

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
• For information of analog type in Output, the electric

characteristics are:
! Regulations in Volt (0…10V, +/- 10V, 1…5V)
! Regulations in Current (4..20mA, +/- 20mA, 0…20mA)

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Structures: Building Technology
So far Data Acquisition Apparatus usually called RTU (Remote

Terminal Unit) has been treated as a Black Box inside which it’s
not allow to see what there is. We have just treated the
interaction between this Box and its external world.
The opening of this Box to describe its internal contents is not

the scope of our discussion here. But it’s anyway appropriate to
briefly introduce the technology that a generic data acquisition
apparatus utilizes to handle information passing through it.

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Structures: Building Technology (cnt.)
Actually the simplest way for an apparatus to handle information

is to treat information of digital type.
Heart of a data acquisition apparatus is a device that works

with digital logic (often a microprocessor) able to execute
operation on the treated data (computing, data memorizing,
algorithm execution, etc…).
Data acquisition apparatus works on information converted in

bits.

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
This conversion is executed by its Input/Output (I/O) section. The

conversion of analog information in digital type is executed by
the specific converter: Analog to Digital (A/D) in input and Digital
to Analog (D/A) in output.
Adopting the Digital Electronics introduces advantages like

building simplifying, configuration handling and programming
that results the most important one.

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Normally a RTU has a modular structure and can be assembled

according to the specific plant needs. The RTU components are:
! A chassis in standard format 19” with connectors on the

backplane to insert the function board
! A power supply module, usually on the first space on left
! A CPU module with all the necessary communication ports
(they can also be on separate modules)

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! I/O boards specialized:
• Digital Inputs (modularity 8/16/32 inputs or more)

• Digital Outputs (modularity 4/8/16 outputs or more)
• Analog Inputs (modularity 4/8/16 specialized for signals in
voltage, current, thermocouple, thermo resistance)
In the following slide, example of RTU in each of its building

parts.

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I/O Terminals
Single I/O Card

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Power Supply I/O Boards

CPU
Chassis in standard Format 19” containing the needed cards

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
It’s possible to expand the RTU bus on more than one chassis
realizing, in this way, racks containing a high number of the I/O
boards as reported in the following slide.
It’s also possible to synchronize the RTU internal time with the
GPS signal, solving in this way the problem of the
synchronization of the remote stations.

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Redundant RTU in Rack

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Structures: Evolution of the RTU
So far we discussed of data acquisition apparatus like

information translator in order to allow data exchange between
field devices and SCADA system.
With the technology evolution the data acquisition apparatus

has been equipped with growing computing capability
comparable with that of the central computer.

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Structures: Evolution of the RTU (cnt.)
This evolution implies:
! Growing Computing Capability

! Common Functions Integration easy programmable
! Interface and Communication Protocols Standard
! Interfacing Capability with other field apparatuses
The most important evolution regards the RTU Programming and

the network handling.

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Data Acquisition Structures. Evolution of the RTU: Programming
The possibility to realize in the RTU programs to execute

sequences, compute complex variables, validation logics,
functionality controls, etc… implies vantages in the SCADA
system like:
! minimize the software load on the machines of the Control

Centre
! increase of the total availability
! reduction of the traffic on the communication network
! increase in system performances

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Data Acquisition Structures. Evolution of the RTU: Programming

(cnt.)
The last generation RTU contains the programming standard IEC

61131-3 who born to formalize the programming modes of PLC.
The standard is constituted by a common part and by the
specifics of programming languages. The common part defines
the usable data type (boolean, integer, real, string, etc…). The
programs are written using one of the languages defined by the
standard and utilize “Function” or “Function Block” that
represent the elementary pieces of the standard programming.

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Data Acquisition Structures. Evolution of the RTU: Network

Handling
The capability of the last generation RTU to be programmable,

together with the possibility to support various communication
lines, makes possible to realize RTU networks. The intelligent
RTU becomes a real data concentrator able to locally compute
information and to handle the communication with the Centre.
To minimize the traffic, the RTU issues only the varied data, a
status change for DI, a variation to the value bigger than a data
band for the AI. This filter type is named report by exception.

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Protocols and Communication Technologies
A SCADA implementation implies interface definition:
! between controlled process and interaction devices system-

process (sensors and actuators)
! between devices and acquisition apparatuses
! between acquisition apparatuses and elaboration system
! between elaboration system and data handling system
! between data handling system and information
representation

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Protocols and Communication Technologies: SPEED
Considering data exchange between acquisition apparatuses

and control system, it’s necessary to take into account the
dynamic characteristics of the process under control in order to
realize a communication channel enough fast to allow the entire
process of acquisition, transmission, computing, command
execution can happen in reasonable time to make effective the
control actions on the controlled process itself.

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Protocols and Communication Technologies: SECURITY
The security handling and the information integrity must be take

adequately into account both from the point of view of the
communication between supervisory system and peripheral
apparatuses, that convey the controlled process information
and, consequently, the actions issued by the system to the
process, and of the communication between the control system
and external systems that can influence the entire system
behavior and, as a consequence, the controlled process.

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Protocols and Communication Technologies: RELIABILITY
The data communication must use protocols that assure

services to handle transmission error and transmission media
able to guarantee error rate very low.
Services of Error Correction must be so reliable as higher result

the error rate.

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Protocols and Communication Technologies: AVAILABILITY
If SCADA system implements a process control it needs of a

continuous updating of the process status that is under control.
At the same time it needs of the immediate availability of a

communication channel in case an actuation of a control action
should be necessary on the controlled process.
Generally it makes use of the principle of redundancy of the

devices along the entire communication channel.

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Communication Protocol Types
In general terms a communication protocol is a set of rules and

behaviors that two apparatuses must follow to exchange
information. The International Standard Organization (ISO)
recognized, starting from the ’70 years, the need of standardized
method to define Communication Protocols and started the
project Open System Interconnection (OSI) with the purpose to
define a Reference Model to develop protocols oriented to the
interconnection of Open Systems. The OSI model is based on an
architecture at 7 levels, or layers, represented as a vertical stack,
in which each level is resting on the one below (see next slide).

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Level Structure of the OSI Model

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ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types (cnt.)
The higher level (Application Layer) interface with the final user
of the communication service, while the the lower level (Physical
Layer) is that of the physical connection that realized the signals
transfer (from twisted pair to radio link). The user data are
exchanged from an user to another through the various levels.
Each level is responsible for a well defined set of functions that

contribute to the entire communication process (like the
fragmentation / reassembly of data blocks, or the sorting of data
packets on more possible paths).

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Communication Protocol Types (cnt.)
Big boost in the communication protocols evolution is given by

the electric world in which the International Scientific
Community is particularly active. In the following slides we
mention to the protocols that, today, are employed in different
levels of communication:
! between RTU and Control Center

! between Control Centers
! between SCADA and Intelligent Substations
! between SCADA and Company Information System

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types: RTU !" Control Center
The protocol standardization for this communication level is

prior with respect to the performance aspects. It’s frequent that
a SCADA must acquire data from RTU’s of different suppliers
and it’s fundamental to use open protocols. The standard for the
communication at this level exist and divided in two groups:
! standard IEC (from CEI-Cenelec)
! industrial open standards
The first are of the standard family IEC 60870, specifics for
Systems and Apparatuses of Telecontrol and includes 5
standards 60870-5. The second one include Modbus and DNP.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types. RTU !" Control Center:

IEC-60870-5-101
A communication protocol define how happens the data
transmission, the spoken language, but not what is exchanged.
The interoperability can be reached only if it’s defined both
syntax and semantics of the transmitted messages from an
apparatus. This definition, sometime called 8th level, is the
purpose of the so called Companion Standard specific for
apparatus typology. So each apparatus is represented with a
profile that define univocally which data characterize it. The
IEC-60870-5-101 is a Companion Standard specific for Control
System and RTU interfaces.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)

IEC-60870-5-101 (cnt.)
The IEC-60870-5-101 is a Companion Standard specific for

Control System and RTU interfaces that allows exchange of
packets of structured data called ASDU – Application Service
Data Unit that represents an RTU profile. The 101 exchanges:
! different data typology with time stamp DI, DO, AI, AO, Pulses
! report by exception of DI
! synchronization signals
! secure command (select before operate)
! objects containing data quality indicator

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types. RTU !" Control Center: IEC-

60870-5-104
The 104 “Network Access for IEC-60870-5-101 using Standard

Transport Profiles” combines the positive results of
interoperability obtained with the standard 60870-5-101 with the
widespread TCP/IP protocols in the majority of transmission
network, first one Internet. The IEC-60870-5-104 specify the
transmission mode of the ASDU defined by the 5-101 for the
RTU, by the 5-102 for the energy measures and by the 5-103 for
the protection relays, on a digital network that utilizes TCP/IP as
levels of transport and network.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)

Modbus
Modbus was developed in 1979 by Modicon as an alternative to

the traditional cabling for PLC. It’s become a standard de facto
and it’s utilized by PLC, numerical controls, HMI terminals,
measure instruments, etc… It’s available in different version:
! Modbus: is an industrial comm. bus of Master/Slave type
! Modbus Plus: is a local industrial network of type Client/
Server
! Modbus TCP/IP-Ethernet: is an local heterogeneous industrial
network

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)

DNP3
The DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol) has been defined at the

end of the ‘80 years by the FE Harris as protocol for
communication between Control Center and RTU. From 1993
DNP3 becomes public and its develops handled by the DNP User
Group. The main advantage of the DNP3 protocol is in its
easiness, in its usability in SCADA non electric, in the high
number of existing applications. DNP complies to the specifics
of IEC-60870-5 norm and in last analysis it can considered today
obsolete.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types. Control Center !" Control

Center
Communication among remote systems is based only on

Internet protocols: TCP and IP. This guarantees the possibility to
transfer data among remote networks (SCADA) in a secure and
efficient way but leaves open the semantic problem, i.e. what
exchange. An high level language definition started in USA in the
‘90 years by IEEE and EPRI who defined an Utility
Communication Architecture (UCA) and the ICCP (Inter Control
Center Communication) specification then merged at level IEC in
the norm IEC 61850 that seems today the winning project.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types. SCADA!" Intelligent

Substation
The Intelligent Substations are characterized by the extensive

use of IED (Intelligent Electronic Devices) for the functions of
control, measuring, protection, signaling. The IED simplify the
hardware structure of a electric substation, by reducing the
conventional cabling because all the logics of lock, dragging,
security, can be realized via software. The SCADA interface with
an Intelligent Substation so requires to realize a a data exchange
at serial level, through any communication protocol that defines
beside the ISO/OSI levels also the user level.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types. SCADA!" Intelligent

Substation: The IEC 61850 model
The purpose of the IEC 61850 family standard is to define a

communication system integrated with the IED in substations of
any dimension and voltages. The communication services
provided by IEC 61850 allow to support all the functions needed
to an electric system: measuring, supervisory, command,
control. It’s constituted by (see next slide):
! a process bus to connect field devices (TA, TV, breakers,…)

! a station bus to connect devices with supervisory units

idJob: 1159731
Intelligent Substation Structure with IEC 61850 model

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Communication Protocol Types: SCADA and Company

Information System (e.g. Electric Company)
The SCADA must transfer to the Company Information System a

series of information related to exercise, maintenance, sales
energies, etc…Using the techniques OLE (Object Linking and
Embedding) specific of the Window environment, it has been
defined an interface standard of type Client-Server called OPC
(OLE for Process Control). Use OPC offers these advantages:
! HW producers: use OPC to integrate their products in SW
applications
! SW developers: they must not write specific drivers

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System
With this paragraph the SCADA Architecture presentation is

completed. Figure in next slide represents a SCADA System as
characterized by tree fundamental elements:
! Data Handling
! Computing Processing
! Information Availability

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: SCADA Processing System Architecture

Human-Machine Relational
Interface Data
Base

Communication
Interface Data Access
Interface
Data Archiving Infrastructure
for
Operator Command communication
Processing with
Data Real Time concurrent
Processing Data Base systems
Alarms and Events
Processing
Automatic Commands
Data Processing
Processing
Communication
Interface with the
acquisition data
apparatuses
Infrastructure of field communication

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: Data Handling
Data Handling represents the main element of all the activities in

a SCADA system. The supervisory system receives data
representative of the exercise state of the controlled process
coming from the peripheral apparatuses. On the basis of the
convention adopted for the data exchanged with the Field, the
system operates a processing to uniform the received
information in a predefined format considered as reference of
system internal information. To similar treatment is submit all the
information from the system to the peripheral units as control
actions to the controlled process.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: Data Handling (cnt.)
This internal information is commonly named Runtime Database

that becomes the information source for all the automatic
processes inside the system and for the information
representation used by the operators to handle the process. In
any case it simply contains a representation of the actual
exercise status of the controlled process.
This kind of data handling characterizes the main functionality of
supervisory and control but it doesn’t allow to cumulate
knowhow regarding the evolution of the controlled process for
which characteristics of a Relational Data Base are needed.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: Computing Processing
The amount of exchanged data and the process complexity make

impossible a direct analysis by the operators and suggests to
realize computing procedures to generate aggregated
information representing the evolution quality of the controlled
process. Implementation of computing process responds to
needs as:
! Generation of synthetic representation of the process state
! Generation of reports representing abnormalities in the

process state evolution

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: Computing Processing (cnt.)
! Interpretation of the operator commands and automatic

execution of the punctual controls
! Production of aggregated information (budget and final data)

representative of the evolution trend of the controlled
process
! Automatic procedures of control

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: Information Availability
A control system containing the two elements presented above

is characterize by autonomy end operative effectiveness but it
presents itself like a system accessible just through the internal
interaction (the HMI) that is part of the SCADA itself. Instead
there is a trend to realize systems able to develop tools and
methods of data analysis with the objective to make available
aggregates information of sheet and budget type.
To realize this type of functionalities it’s necessary to exit from
the SCADA system and share its data with the external world.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHITECTURE (cnt.)
Processing System: Information Availability (cnt.)
The proposed solution really adequate is the Relational Data

Base that make available access tools, handling and analysis of
the contained information, finally by systems that autonomously
implements all the functionality that responds to the concept:
“INFORMATION SHARING”

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SCADA System Functional Components

idJob: 1159731
DATA PROCESSING

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing
Information handled by a SCADA system are various and can be

acquired with various characteristics. In the previous paragraphs
we saw as the data acquisition apparatuses provide to uniform
this information in order to allow the control system to work with
a restrict data typologies.
The involved information allows to represent the controlled
process with a predefined number of data type. The processing
that the system performs on every data type is typical of that
data and it’s not connected to the specific physical entity that
data represents.

idJob: 1159731
SCADA System Functional Components (cnt.)
Data Processing (cnt.)
This generalization is possible because the SCADA functions

are independent by the characteristics of the controlled process.
In this sense, the SCADA systems have the characteristics of
General Purpose Systems that have the scope of provide, to the
operators and to the controlled processes, information that they
are able to interpret and handle.
This vision is typical in the products that the software market
proposes as SCADA Systems Developing Platform realized to
provide, to which realizes control system, a base system
complete of all the most common functions.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Data Types
A SCADA System is able to interact with the controlled process

through its representation based on the following data type:
! data of “discrete” type
! data of “analog” type
! data of “alphanumeric string” type

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Types: Data of “Discrete” type
Typical example is a 1 bit Digital Input (DI) that can only assume
the logical state “ON” or “OFF”.
In some cases these states can assume more that two value so
it’s possible to have two, tree, four bits.
As an example we can consider the state of an electric breaker

that being represented by two “switch”, one of “closure” and
one of “opening”, it can assume the following values:

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Types: Data of “Discrete” type (cnt.)
! 01: the end switch contact of opening “Open” and the end
switch contact of closure “Close” indicate that the
breaker is in position of “CLOSE”
! 10: the end switch contact of opening “Close” and the end
switch contact of closure “Open” indicate that the
breaker is in position of “OPEN”

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Types: Data of “Discrete” type (cnt.)
! 00: the end switch contact of opening “Open” and the

end switch contact of closure “Open” indicate that the
breaker is in an intermediate position (probably a
maneuver is in progress)
! 11: the end switch contact of opening “Close” and the

end switch contact of closure “Close” indicate that the
breaker is a incongruent position (probably a
malfunction exists in the breaker or in its contacts)

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Types: Data of “Analog” type
Information normally represented through an integer or real

value belongs to this category.
For example a temperature value read by a thermocouple can be
translate in an analog information that indicate a measuring
interval from 0 to 200 degree.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Types: Data of “String” type
All the information representing as a set of characters

corresponding to a message to be interpreted directly by the
system operator belongs to this category.
As an example, in some cases rather than say “execute

operation: 13” where 13 indicate the operation code to be
executed, it’s preferable a message like: “Execute operation:
open the bypass valve”.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Runtime Database
It contains all the data handled by the SCADA system. The

Runtime Database has as main characteristic to allow the access
to his data with the maximum speed. This characteristic is
necessary to allow computing compatible with the needs of the
controlled process. Another characteristic of this Database is its
concurrent access by several process. The memory area of this
Database, as limits due to the software infrastructures, has
normally dimension limits. The technological evolution,
fortunately, has reduced this limitation, even if its organization
remain a critical point.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Runtime Database (cnt.)
For each point handled by the SCADA system, two distinct

information class must be identified:
! Dynamic information: they vary in the normal processing
! Static information: they doesn’t vary during processing
The first one concern the values associated to the variables. The
second one define the variable characteristics (they change only
after configuration operations).

idJob: 1159731
Inevitable information in this database:
! Data Identification (ID)

! Time Stamp related to the last acquisition from the “field”
! Current Value
! Quality Codes
The Data Identification is a system internal code that allows to

univocally identify the treated data. Normally it’s a numeric code
imposed by the system and all its components refer to it.

idJob: 1159731
The Time Stamp related to the last acquisition from the “field” is
the information of the instant, in terms of system time, of the last
variation of the data value. In case of commands, the Time
Stamp refers to the last circumstance in which the command has
been issued. The Time Stamp is associated to the data directly
from the central system, but in the new SCADA generation, this
information is directly generated by the RTU. This implies a
better information quality since the data variation time will result
more precise and this is very important in system handling.

idJob: 1159731
The Current Value represent the value that the variable assume
in that precise instant. This value corresponds to the last value
acquired from the “field”.
The Quality Codes are attributes to complete the data and
provides information on the value quality. As an example we
consider an analog value that, as for its definition, must be
contained within an interval of permissible variation. If the value
from field should be result out of this interval, the use of a
corresponding code could give a better information on data.

idJob: 1159731
The main Quality Codes normally used in a SCADA system are:
! Out of Scan: the data value is not currently acquired

! Out of Range: the data value is out of the possible value
interval
! Manual Value: the data value has be manually imposed
! Invalid: the data value results to be not valid

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Data Configuration
Another information set exists to define and handle each single

data. This information are indicated as Configuration Information
Each Data inside a SCADA system is subject to the following
operations:
! Acquisition
! Conversion in Engineering Units
! Alarm Checking

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Acquisition Process
The acquisition process concerns the data acquisition from the

RTU - Remote Terminal Unit. For each data to be acquired is to
be defined:
! Acquisition Channel
! Data Identification within the Acquisition Channel
! Characteristics of Data to be acquired

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Acquisition Process (cnt.)
The Acquisition Channel defines to which RTU the data is

associated. In the channel definition, all the information to allow
the data exchange between the central system and the peripheral
apparatus will be specified. For example for a serial
communication point-to-point, it will be specified which
communication serial port to be utilized (e.g.: com1, com2, etc…)
the data exchange speed (e.g.: 9600 baud), the parity, the data bit
number, etc… These information are specific of the
communication channel utilized and of the communication
protocol utilized (e.g.: Modbus)

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Acquisition Process (cnt.)
The Data Identification within the Acquisition Channel is the

identification that allows to identify univocally the data within the
information flow. For example in the Modbus protocol the data is
recognized with a particular register address in which it’s
contained, being the register-terminal mapping defined by the
apparatus. The Characteristics of Data to be acquired define the
data typology to be acquired. To acquire each of these data type,
rules are defined that the SCADA system has to be follow. For
example the differences made for analog data between an
integer value and a floating point one.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Conversion in EU
To each information handled by a SCADA system applies a

series of conversions values from the field to the central system.
This conversion assumes different characteristics in case of
measures or signals. In case of signal, the conversion is very
simple and it consists in associating to each logical value the
corresponding physical one. In case of measure conversion the
process is a little bit more complex. In this case the centre
acquires the measure through conventional units called Raw
Unit or Raw Data. It represents the data value inside an interval
defined by the acquisition apparatus.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Conversion in EU (cnt.)
As an example an analog measure can be represented with an

integer value at two bytes with sign; so the variation interval of
the measure is represented in the numeric interval
from -32768 to +32767
It is unthinkable to propose to an operator this kind of value, it

doesn’t give information neither on the measure type nor on the
value assumed by the measure itself.

idJob: 1159731
So in this case we have to proceed to a conversion in

Engineering Units (EU). To be able to proceed to this
conversion it’s necessary to know:
! Engineering unit
! Conversion function

idJob: 1159731
The Engineering Unit is simply the measure unit utilized by the

transducer instrument used in the field. This unit will be proper
of the physical entity (E.g.: “Celsius Degrees” for a Temperature
value, “Bar” for a Pressure value, “Meter” for a Water Level
value)
The Conversion Function defines the algorithm to be utilized to

convert the Raw Data into the value that expresses the measure
in its Engineering Unit.

idJob: 1159731
Practically it corresponds to the algorithm complementary to

that utilized in the acquisition phase of the data. Normally the
algorithms applied in the conversion are:
! Linear Conversion: (e.g.: y = )
! Quadratic Conversion: (e.g.: y = )
! Inverted Quadratic Conversion: (e.g.: y = )

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Alarm Checking
A Data acquired from a peripheral device can assume a set of

values that can represented normal or anomalous conditions of
operation. In case of anomalous condition, the system must
advise the operator through an alarm information that allows him
to return the system to the normal condition.
The alarm conditions are only associated to signals and
measures. The alarm condition is not referred to commands that
the operator issues.
Different handling exists between information of “Signal” type
and those of “Measure” type.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Data Configuration: Alarm Checking (cnt.)
A “Signal” refers to logical states. The alarm defined for a

“Signal” is simply the association of each single logical state to
a condition of normal operation or to an anomaly. For example
for an electric breaker the “Open” or “Closed” positions
represent a normal operation. But the position “Incongruent” is
securely a malfunction condition. The intermediate position must
have a particular analysis. The position is “Valid” if it remains for
a time comparable with the maneuver time of the breaker,
otherwise it indicates a malfunction and in this case it needs to
add computing to take into account the time in that position.

idJob: 1159731
There are several alarm types that can be generated for the
measures, the more common are:
! Alarm for “Out of Limit” condition
! Alarm of “Deviation”
! Alarm for “Speed of Variation” (ROC = Rate Of Change)

idJob: 1159731
Alarm for Out of Limit condition is generated when the value of

the acquired measure exceeds a certain reference value defined
as “Limit”. Normally 2 “Higher” limit values and 2 “Lower” limit
values are defined. In this way it’s defined a band of normal
operation around the “data”. A low band of “Attention” and an
higher band of “Danger” condition. Data needed to generate
these alarms are simply the 4 Limit Values that define the
observation bands.
Alarm of Deviation is generated when a measure value differs
from that set of a percentage.

idJob: 1159731
This alarm will be generated both for variations that tend to

increase the measure value above the ”set point”, and for
variations that tend to decrease the measure
value. Normally it’s possible to associate two “thresholds” of
variation: the minimum variation and the maximum variation in
order to define an “attention” limit and a “danger” one.
Alarm for Speed of Variation is an alarm that is generated when a
data value undergoes a variation in time greater than a
predefined limit. Think, for example, to a process filling a
container with a liquid by ensuring a certain flow velocity.

idJob: 1159731
In this case it’s possible to set the system in order to generate

an alarm corresponding to variations too sudden of the liquid
within the container. The necessary information to define the
“ROC” limit are
! the maximum value of admitted limit variation in

Engineering Units or the percentage value
! the minimum time in which it can happen

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Control Actions
As said more times a SCADA system realizes two main

functions: Supervisory and Control of an observed Process.
The Supervisory consists in the representation of the evolution
of the Process status and it’s realized by means of tools that
allows both a clear and immediate perception of the actual state
of the process and the process state in particular moments
through a post mortem analysis
The Control consists in realizing functions that allow the SCADA
system to interact with the Process in order to influence its
evolution.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Control Actions (cnt.)
We now concentrate our attention to the “Control” of a SCADA

system that contains inside the tools that allow the operators to
interpret the state information and to build a representation of
the Process in order to define adequate strategy of control.
The interaction between operator and system happen through
the Human-Machine Interface and its state information and
control actions characterized by several levels of complexity.
The operator interaction can vary from a simple command to
open/close a breaker or start/stop an engine to a complex
sequence of coordinated and timed actions.

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The experience teaches that, where possible, the operator

intervention should be avoid. This isn’t a prejudice in the
individuals that work in the industrial automation world but the
previous consideration comes from the experience made by
means of research tools that show how in the emergency
situation to implement a control action, the firmness and skill of
the operators result under pressure from decision-making
responsibility. It’s enough to think how much stress caused in
the operators the tragedy of the Cernobyl during the minutes
before the reactor explosion (26 April 1986)

idJob: 1159731
All these considerations led to think that in all the cases where
the SCADA system is able to interpret a status in terms of
actions to be taken, choices to be taken, commands to issue it’s
better to realize algorithms for the automatic execution of control
actions and free the operator from the burden of the intervention.
This choice allows to leave the operator time and serenity to
dedicate himself to the supervisory activity and studies in deep
the know-how of the process characteristics. From this the
consideration that it’s fundamental to involve the specific
operators in the analysis of a new SCADA system development.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Control Actions: Use of Automatic Actions
The Process Control depends substantially by the Process

Evolution, i.e. it depends by the quickness of the Process status
changes.
In case the controlled process follows slow evolutions with
respect to the reaction capacity of the system and operators, the
realization of automatic actions is a choice of opportunity.
In case the controlled process follows fast evolutions, realization
of automatic actions becomes a forced choice, the unique way to
realize control.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Control Actions: Automatic Actions Examples
As an example of Automatic Actions we propose examples of

algorithms based on fundamental methods of automatic control,
they are:
! Proportional Action (P)

! Proportional-Derivative Action (PD)
! Proportional-Derivative-Integrative Action (PID)

idJob: 1159731

(cnt.)
As an example we consider to realize a control mechanism of a

an automobile speed able to leave to the driver the only
responsibility to choice the desired speed. This mechanism will
only do the following operations
! Measure the value of the actual speed

! Compare the actual speed with the desired one
! Determine the new injection level in case of difference
between the two values

idJob: 1159731

(cnt.)
Control Controlled
Algorithm Process
Sensor
V = Actual Speed
Vd = Desired Speed
E = Error
I = Injection Value
Speed Control Block Diagram

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(cnt.)
To realize this control mechanism the most simple algorithm

foresees a control said proportional (P)
I=K*E
where I = the injection level
E = difference between desired and actual speed
K = is a constant characterizing the engine supply intensity
with respect to the difference between desired
and actual speed

idJob: 1159731

(cnt.)
It’s possible to add to the proportional component a component

able to take into account how the exit (actual speed measured by
the sensor) varies in time. The variation measure of an element
is given by its time derivative like in the following formula said:
proportional-derivative or (PD)

idJob: 1159731

(cnt.)
Example of derivative component of a control variable produced by a PD Controller

idJob: 1159731

(cnt.)
After having introduced the derivative component in order to

allow the controller to respond properly to great variation in
exit, we can ask if it’s possible to realize a controller able to
maintain memory of the “history” of the system evolution to
have a control that in the long term can reduce the error to zero.
The formula used in this case is said
proportional-derivative-integrative or (PID)

idJob: 1159731

(cnt.)
Example of Trend of a control variable produced by a PID Controller

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Online Calculations
A SCADA System utilizes as primary information data acquired

and processed as so far described. This information are needed
to have an image of the process under control but they are not
enough to completely understand the current state of
functioning of the process itself. The primary data can describe
faithfully a part of the process but to have a global information it
could be necessary evaluate more parameters, possibly making
correlations among the various parameters to determine if the
process is really under control.

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing: Online Calculations (cnt.)
These operation will be the result of the operators experience

and defined during the system project phase. In some complex
SCADA systems there is also the possibility to define a set of
data to be computed whose algorithm can be defined and
modified online by the operator while using the system.
Generally the information that a SCADA system has to generated
can be subdivided in the following groups:
! Information of aggregated type
! Information of logical type
! Information of statistic type

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Online Calculations: Info of aggregated type
These type of information derive their value from the values of

primary data or from other aggregated information. For example
in a plant of electric production composed by several
generators, it could be helpful to have in a unique data the sum
of all the electric powers taken from the generators. Mathematic
operations and functions are needed to generate aggregated
data like:
! Elementary operations (sum, difference, multiplication, etc..)
! Exponentiations
! Square Root operation

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Online Calculations: Information of logical type
The logical information in a SCADA system correspond to those

data of digital type that condensate in a series of logical data the
state evaluation of a set of primary data or other computed data.
The most utilized logical operators are:
! Logical Operator (AND)

! Logical Operator (OR)
! Logical Operator (NOT)

idJob: 1159731
Data Processing. Online Calculations: Info of statistic type
Statistic Information that a SCADA system can generate starting

from primary or computed data constitute an information set that
allow to obtain indications on the temporal evolution of a data
value. The statistic computations are characterized by the
application of a function within the time dominium. Compute:
! Medium Value
! Derivative or Integral Value
! Distribution
! Transition number in a determined logical state
! Time in a determined logical state

idJob: 1159731
HUMAN – MACHINE INTERFACE

idJob: 1159731
Human – Machine Interface (HMI) : Characteristics
All what projected to realize an “HMI” takes into account that the
user of this SCADA component is a “Human Person” with its
needs. The SCADA system is only a means to allow the operator
to handle and control a process. Responsibility of an “HMI” is to
facilitate the human operator activities: more easy and intuitive
will be the interaction with the SCADA system better the result
will be. This will create a sense of confidence in the human
operator such that, in critical situations, they can trust in the
responses the HMI will provide.

idJob: 1159731
Human – Machine Interface (HMI) : Functions
Main function of the HMI, as said, is to handle the interactions

between the SCADA system and the human operators. The
information exchanged are:
! Data Presentation
! Human Operator Command Handling

idJob: 1159731
HMI. Functions: Data Presentation
The data presentation function allows the operator to be

informed about the state of the controlled process by visualizing
information series (acquired and computed). The HMI is realized
through one or more Operator Station. An Operator Station is
normally equipped with 1 to 4 monitor, a keyboard, a pointing
device (mouse, trackball, touch screen, …) and auxiliary
communication devices like phones and radios. In a Control
Room more operator stations are allocated, each of them
finalized to different activities. The information presentation on
the monitors is realized through Graphic Video Pages

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HMI. Functions: Data Presentation (cnt.)
The Monitor screen is divided infixed areas containing system

general information and/or information specific to a particular
Video Page. The following graphic sample depicts a typical
Video Page.

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Example of Video Page and its division in areas

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HMI. Functions: Data Presentation (cnt.)
The data presentation function allows the operator to be

informed about the state of the controlled process by visualizing
information series (acquired and computed). The visualization of
this information can be realized in the following way:
! Schematic Representation
! Tabular Representation
! Diagrams

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HMI. Functions. Data Presentation: Schematic Representation
The HMI must allow an operator in a Control Room to have a

“View” on the process status. This representation can be
developed by utilizing different technical that evolved, during the
years, also due to the progress in computing power of the
employed machine. Initially it was utilized a wall “Mimic Board”
representing the process in all its main parts. In this case
symbolic representations was utilized to depict the various
states. For example, close to a device symbol, a lamp was used
to represent a engine status (lit if engine running, off if engine
stop).

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The computer gave a fundamental contribution to the HMI

evolution. It allowed to utilize more video pages to represent the
process under control and to associate to each one different
information by allowing to divide the process in various sections
and so to have more detailed representations. It has been
possible to subdivide the process in plant pages in order to have
details for each plant and so on even to the single device with all
its state and measures.

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The HMI new generation allow more schematic and tabular

images in a single video at the same time. Moreover it can be
performed operations of “Zooming” and “Navigation” of a single
video page with modification of the dynamic information
represented. In the following are shown example of this kind of
representations.

idJob: 1159731
HMI. Functions. Data Presentation: Schematic Repres. (cnt.)
Examples:
! Static and dynamic symbols used in a schematic page
! Schematic Video Page for a Transformation Cabinet
! Three Level of Electric Transmission Network Schematic

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Static and dynamic symbols used in a schematic page

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Example of Schematic Video Page for a Transformation Cabinet

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Example of Level 2 Schematic of an Electric Transmissione Network

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HMI. Functions. Data Presentation: Tabular Representation
This representation allows to insert in a table related information

set. It’s useful to put in correlation different values, acquired in
different points in the plant. This kind of representation is
different with respect to the schematic one, because it’s oriented
to expert operator having a detailed know-how of the plant and
they are able to observe a subset of value to have an idea of the
functioning state of the plant. With the respect to the previous
schematic representation, it’s lost the capability to associate an
item value to the relevant acquisition point. On other hand the
process can be controlled through a data set in the same page.

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HMI. Functions. Data Presentation: Tabular Representation (cnt.)
Examples:
! Station Tele Measurements Display
! Methane Tele Measurements Display

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Example of Station Tele Measurements Display

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Example of Methane Tele Measurements Display

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HMI. Functions. Data Presentation: Diagram
The capability of representing information in timing diagrams

proper of an HMI of a SCADA systems is one of the
functionalities more appreciated by the operators. To have the
possibility to insert in a graph “Time-Value” a significant data
series giving a representation of the functioning state of the
controlled process allows to have information both on the
current state and on the evolution allowing to have an idea of the
process immediate future. In the following slides examples of
timing diagrams are given.

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Example of a Single Time-Vaue Diagram

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Example of a 4 Time-Vaue Diagram

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HMI. Functions: Operator Command Handling
A fundamental part of the SCADA systems is represented by the

possibility to issue “Commands”. The command issuing
operation is a critical moment for the operator since it requires
the determination of a control procedure to be adopted, the
execution of a conditioning action of the process under control
and the verification of the expected effects. All the phases of the
command procedure are important to obtain the positive results
and the HMI interface must provide support to each of them.

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HMI. Functions. Command Handling: When issue Command
We already said about the responsibility that invest the operator

when called to execute commands and his stress. So in all the
cases in which the SCADA system is able to suggest decision to
the operator, this should be done. Each time the operator is in
progress to issue a command, the system should request a
confirmation. For all the commands that forecast operation
sequences, the system should provide to execute them
automatically leaving the operator to give the “Start” of the
command execution.

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HMI. Functions. Command Handling: When issue Command

(cnt.)
As general issuing it’s possible to say that the aid the system
gives to the operator is fundamental to increase the level of
quality and security in conducting the handling of the controlled
process. For example by proposing to the operator a questions
sequence corresponding to actions to issue to the process, the
system would leave to the operator the only responsibility to
select, when necessary, an option among the possible shown as
alternative to a choice.

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HMI. Functions. Command Handling: Command Activation
The Command issuing is activated by the operator by acting on

objects of graphic representation that recall in mind the devices
that the operator should manipulate in the reality if he should
operate directly on the device itself. The used graphic symbols
are generally “Push Buttons”, “Animated Knobs”, that give the
effect, also with animation simulating pressure and motion, of
the command activation. Since the command activation is an
operation potentially dangerous for the controlled process, the
SCADA system must be projected to avoid unwanted commands.

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HMI. Functions. Command Handling: Command Activation (cnt.)
To do this, generally, two distinct techniques are used:
! Subdivide the task of the operator on their roles

! Request of confirmation of the operator at the moment of
the command activation
The first techniques is realized at the SCADA system

“Configuration” level. It’s defined a set of “Operative Roles” that
are assigned to the operators to define which operations they
can perform and which operation are forbidden to them.

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HMI. Functions. Command Handling: Command Activation (cnt.)
Each time a command is required by an operator, the system

controls if the operator has the requirements to issue it. If the
control gives positive answer, the system proceeds to ask
confirmation to physically issue the command. Normally this
technique of double control seems to be enough to exclude
unwanted commands. In case of additional security, it’s possible
provide in the system more complex procedures as, for example,
the request to the operator of an “Identification Password” that
can also have validity limited in time.

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HMI. Functions. Command Handling: Command Execution

Verification
To the command issuing it must follow an answer by the SCADA

system that shows if the command has given the desired effects.
Remember that a command on the device on field generates
immediately information perceived by the operator senses like
rumors and movements. When a command is issued from a
control room, it’s not possible to have perception of the real
execution of the command issued. In this case it’s a good
practice that the SCADA system shows to the operator at least
two states:

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Verification (cnt.)
! The system received the command and it’s proceeding to

its execution
! The result of the command execution
Each time the operator executes a command, the SCADA system

must show that it has taken in charge it with signals like
“Command in Progress” or “Command Failed” with a
modification of the graphic symbol utilized in its schematic
representation.

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Verification (cnt.)
To represent a command execution, it’s strongly recommended

to use a symbolic or lighted convention that provides a better
indication with respect to a written report that could result less
clear or generic. Think, for example, to the need for an operator
to issue several commands in a sequence. Having a graphic
representation of the status of each single issued command, is
the best and immediate way to have the current state of the
executed commands. The following slide contains an example of
an operation sequence to issue a command.

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Human – Machine Interface (HMI) : HMI Evolution
To day the most of the SCADA Systems is realized with operator

console including Video, Keyboard and Pointing Device (Mouse
or Track-ball) that are the minimum set enough to allow an
operator to carry out its tasks. To this architecture we can find a
Mimic Board realized with techniques like mosaic board or with
video walls that reply the same video pages visible in the
system. In some cases it’s not required a continue presence of
the operator in the Control Room because the process is not so
important or it’s needed to have more access points to the
SCADA information.

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Human – Machine Interface (HMI) : HMI Evolution (cnt.)
In this cases in addition to the usual Graphics Video they are

used other interfaces used by the operators that do not reside in
a Control Room. The technology evolution, specially in the
telecommunication, allow to have on the screen of a Mobile
Terminal, that information that allow to have under control the
process. Now operators having mobile terminals can verify any
anomalies directly from the SCADA system. Adopting multimedia
also in the SCADA systems allow to have no more, or not only,
schematic representations of the plants, but also realistic
representation of the plant real forms.

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Example of a Mimic Board in a Control Room

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Example of a Modern Control Room

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Example of new Media of a Modern SCADA System

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EVENTS AND ALARMS

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Events and Alarms
One of a SCADA system tasks is to alert, in the shortest possible

time, an operator about an anomalous condition on the process
under control. In this way the operator will be able to promptly
act on the process in order to avoid situation dangerous for the
process, the environment and people. Information from the
SCADA systems must be treated in different way. Some of these
are simple data submitted to the operator, others must be treated
with particular timing and care. In this last case we talk of Events
and Alarms

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Events and Alarms: Differences between Events and Alarms
Both alarms and events are conditions of the process under

control functioning or of its components. These conditions
require particular computing by the SCADA System. Both of
these refer, generally, to anomalous conditions that requires a
reaction handled automatically by the SCADA system or by the
operator to carry back the process to a controlled situation. Also
if alarms and events could seem the same thing, in the reality it’s
not. An “Event” indicates the occurrence of a particular
condition, an “Alarm” indicates the state of a system
component.

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Events and Alarms: Differences between Events and Alarms (cnt.)
In the section Data Processing we saw that functioning limits

can be associated to a measure, these limits define a functioning
normal zone and other zones in which the measure assumes
values of attention or danger. If the value of a measure, initially
in a normal state, should vary up to transit in the high attention
band, the system should signal this anomalous condition. The
new condition will cause both the emission of an alarm signal
and of an event one. The “alarm” because the measure value is
located in an attention band while the “event” is because the
value has changed the working band.

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Events and Alarms: Differences between Events and Alarms (cnt.)
Summarizing the event indicates the moment in which the

measure value transit from a band to another. The alarm is a
condition associated to each band (excluding the normal one):
it’s generated when the measure assumes the value that takes it
in a band and remains for all the time its value remain within that
band.
The figure in the following slide depicts the explained concepts.

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Example of Limit Bands for Tele Measure Limit Check

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Events and Alarms: Processing
The particular nature of events and alarms information requires

a particular processing. Each time an event or alarm is
generated, the operator is called to acknowledge it.
Acknowledge an event or an alarm means to take into account
its report and so the potential situation of danger for the process
under control. To facilitate the operator to have immediate
information on events and alarms currently active, the SCADA
system utilizes a “List” in which introduces a row each time an
event or alarm is generated in the system. When the anomalous
condition disappears, the system signals return to normal one.

idJob: 1159731
Events and Alarms: Processing (cnt.)
If the operator had already acknowledged, the associated event

or alarm is deleted from the relevant list, otherwise it remains
until it is not acknowledged, this because a SCADA system
should never allow the automatic deletion from the list until it’s
not acknowledged. The Alarm/Event List must be always
available to the operator to have information on the critical
situations of the system. Normally in the SCADA system each
page available to the operator reports, in a specific area of all
video pages, the last alarms/events active in the system.

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In the SCADA systems that allow to have a representation on

more video pages, normally the operators have always
visualized the alarm page. Who realizes the SCADA system
normally provides to “Highlight” alarm conditions with particular
representation (e.g. the value flashes) or to automatically recall
to the operator view the video page containing the active events/
alarms list. The following slides contain examples of Events and
Alarms Lists.

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Events List Example

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Alarms List Example

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Another operation that the system apply on the events/alarms

information is to associate a “Time” label. Each time an event
/alarm is generated, is acknowledged or is cancelled, the system
associate to the information the time instant in which it
happened. To have the possibility to order “by time” the alarms
generated the system allow to rebuild chronologically the
history of the events that allows to understand the evolution of
the controlled process.

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In the following other functions the SCADA system provides to

facilitate the operations of events/alarms processing:
! Association of a Category
! Association of a Priority
! Association of a Rule of Dynamic Disabling
! Association of Operator Permissions
This operations have the purpose to allow a smart handling of

alarms in terms of classification and processing by operators.

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Category
The possibility to associate one or more “Categories” to an

event/alarm allows to catalog this information in order to group
them by type. So it’s possible to subdivide events and alarms by
operator competence and visualize them only on the operator
location associated to its handling. In some SCADA system the
“Category” is substituted with the alarm/event “Level” in order
to realize hierarchical tree. In this case it should be possible to
realize alarm/event selection with respect to their aggregations.

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Category (cnt.)
In this way it’s possible, for example, to define a “First level

alarm” to a plant, a “Second level” to the devices of that plant
and so on. So the simple visualization of the first level alarms
could contain alarm information in a specific plant. By
navigating in the next levels then it could know the specific
alarm.

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Priority
The priority associated to an alarm/event allow to give it a

classification on the basis of its importance. There are alarm
conditions that require immediate intervention, others consider
them tolerable in short time, others again requiring not urgent
interventions. Often to different degree of priority, different
presentation modes are associated. For example:
! for Low Priority alarms/events it could be enough just to

archive them for;

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Priority (cnt.)
! for Medium Priority in addition to the archiving, the alarms/

events are inserted into the active alarms/events list in view
to the operators;
! for Maximum Priority in addition to what made for the

previous alarm levels the system proceeds to activate
acoustic or visual signals (e.g. Speedy Lights) to recall the
operator attention.

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Dynamic Disabling
Think about a SCADA system that handles an extensive set of

information coming from a process. It’s possible that certain
situations bring the SCADA to generate a lot of alarms/events.
For example, the opening of a breaker in input to an electric
cabinet, for intervention of a protection, causes the immediate
stop of all the plants derived from that cabinet. In this case the
operator will receive both a series of alarms from the plants
stopped and the alarm related to the electric protection. In this
case it could be difficult to discriminate which event has
generated the problem.

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Dynamic Disabling (cnt.)
If the generation of alarms relevant to the stopped plants could

be disabled in case of intervention of the electric protection, the
operator could have to handle just one event to remedy to
restore the normal condition. This practice is known as “Alarm
Overriding”. More modern SCADA systems use advanced
techniques to discriminate “Primary Events” and “Secondary”
one. In this systems the operator is driven by the SCADA system
in solving the problem by avoiding him to know what it’s happen
in detail.

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Events and Alarms. Processing: Operator Permissions
Alarms and events represent information that signal need of

reaction in order to avoid possible situation of danger. Since the
reaction to “Event / Alarm” must guarantee return to a situation
of normality, the skill required by the operators is specific in
relation with the type of alarm/event happen. For medium and
great dimension systems the operators are subdivided by
responsibility and know-how. Process variable alarms are
reserved to control room operators while those diagnostic are
reserved to system operators. So each operator is represented
by a “Profile” on the basis of alarm “Category” and “Priority”.

idJob: 1159731
ARCHIVING

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Archiving
The activity of a SCADA system involves the processing of the

data representative of the statuses of the process in its evolution
and the exercise conditions of the infrastructures representing
the control system (Sensors, Actuators, Data Acquisition
Devices, Communication Systems, Processing Systems). The
activities of supervisory and control use the Runtime Database
containing data relevant to the moment in which they are
observed. Once those data becomes not actual, they are not lost
but saved in archives called “Historical Archive” with reason and
modes described in the following.

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Archiving: Why Archive Data
The reason to realize a Database of Historical Data are many and

different among them. There are reason that we find in many
systems and others that are valid just in specific cases. The
following slides contain the presentation of some of the reasons
for historical archiving of the information processed in the
control systems.

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Archiving. Why Archive Data: Process Study
First important reason to equipped supervisory and control

system with structures of data archiving is that the availability of
historical series allows to realize analysis of the information
conducting to know the evolution of the process under control.
This last is, in many cases, the purpose of the supervisory
system. An example is given by the “Environmental Remote
Sensing” systems: the archiving data analysis allows to know
the evolution of particular physical phenomena and put it in
relation with the evolution of other parameters recordable,
allowing a global know-how otherwise not reachable.

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Archiving. Why Archive Data: Historical Documentation
The data archiving can be a choice to save memory of what

happens to the process in its evolution. It can be considered
useful to assure the data availability for purposes not well
defined during the project phase but that, the experience teach,
first or after appear. A frequent case of archiving for historical
documentation is that imposed by “standards”, “regulations”,
“lows”. All the systems that implement supervisory and control
on processes of public interest are examples of this type of
archiving need. Environmental Remote Sensing systems realized
and handled by public entities have the need of data archiving.

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Archiving. Why Archive Data: Historical Documentation (cnt.)
Another example of data archiving due to specific standards is

the the activity of the control system for the air traffic through
the complex radar systems installed in the airports. The
preservation of the air traffic history as the archiving of
environmental data utilized to compute parameter values on
which determine political choices, represent, finally, the
guarantee of proper activities of the structures responsible of
that data and represent the guarantee that the proper activities
can be verified, exactly, by consulting the historical data
archived.

Archiving. Why Archive Data: Statistic and Accountant Interest
The Control System activity is often connected to the process
automation developed in the industry world in which the
controlled processes correspond to the physical phenomena
that realize the industrial commitment. In modern production
environments this characteristic is used not only as tool to
observe the production activity but also as observation point
accessible to the management sectors of the company. The
complex of data treated by the control system becomes a basis
on which it’s possible to build a precious information in terms
technical and of management.
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Archiving. Why Archive Data: Statistic and Account Interest (cnt.)
Examples of data archiving for statistics and administrative-

management purposes can be found inside the industrial
production world. This kind of system is able to provide a data
set fundamental in the analysis of the production activity line
like: number of produced peaces, time and causes of production
interruptions. The simple observation of this data is able to
provide important analysis elements, analysis that becomes
really effective if beside the actual data, the historical data are
available. It’s obvious that the historical data archiving becomes
an element to evaluate the quality of a “Control System”.

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Archiving. Methods and Technologies
The realization of the historical archive of a SCADA system

involves the solution of some problems that arise to the system
designer when it’s to decide how organize the data, how to
represent it, which tools utilize. Some questions and possible
solutions are treated in following topics:
! Archiving Organization and Modes
! Tools

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Archiving. Methods and Technologies: Archiving Organization

and Modes
A first important step for realizing an historical data archive is to

determine an adequate data organization. This consists in the
model by which data belonging to different sections of the data
bank are in relationship between them. So it’s considered as
objective of the modeling process a data bank of “Relational”
type. The peculiarity of an historical archive, containing data
relevant to the activities of a SCADA system, resides in two main
elements: “Time reference” of each information element and the
“Size” of the involved data.

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and Modes (cnt.)
The Time reference suggests to archive, on periodic basis, all

the “Row” data processed by the system, with a time cycle able
to intercept all the process variations occurred over time. This
method fights with the constraint imposed by the historical
archives, i.e. the amount of data. As a compromise the archive
project defines a data set as a subsystem of the runtime data
base and a new set build on the basis of on line computation that
produces aggregated measures like averages Hourly, Daily,
Weekly.

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and Modes (cnt.)
Another technique to avoid the data archive size is to archive all

the “runtime“ data in particular time windows. System
malfunctions, Abnormal evolutions of the under control process,
Study of particular exercise statuses, represent needs to which
the project usually responds with procedures that save, into
historical archive, complete set of data treated by the system
in a time interval including that abnormal or particular condition
time. The archive activation can be controlled by operators or by
automatic procedures connected to that particular conditions.

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Archiving. Methods and Technologies: Tools
We said that data structure is based on the Relational Database

whose handling systems are said RDBMS ( Relational DataBase
Management System). The availability of information in data
banks handled by RDBMS has an important meaning from the
interoperability point of view. This why this handling systems of
data banks perform the double function of Managers, dealing of
organization, integrity, and so on, and Provider of data
interrogation mechanisms by means of a language defined as a
consolidated standard, the known Structured Query Language or
SQL.

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Archiving. Methods and Technologies: Tools (cnt.)
Elegance and power of the SQL language guarantee the

maximum accessibility possible to the data base without
compromising the transaction effectiveness, also when the data
structures are very complex. The language characteristics
defined as standard both by the ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) and by the software market that qualify it as
communication protocol for systems interoperability widespread
and stable.

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The software tools to obtain data based on interrogation via SQL

language are consolidated and can be grouped in two
categories:
! Open Systems of Connectivity
! API ( Application Program Interface) specific of RDBMS and

of the programming language

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To the first category belongs the software commonly classified

as “Drivers”, i.e. intermediate interposed between RDBMS and
application software. This translates the “Query” coming from
the application software in commands understandable to the
RDBMS and the “Query results” in forms understandable to the
application software. The most important and used driver is the
ODBC (Open DataBase Connectivity). The API are software
libraries made available by producers of RDBMS software in the
main programming languages used to develop application
software (C, C++, …)

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DATA ANALYSIS

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Data Analysis
Here we will discuss an aspect that during the years had such an
evolution to make it protagonist of a significant boost to the
integration among concurrent control systems and, more
significant thing, between control system and support structures
to the decisions.
The Data Analysis has been the natural evolution of systems that
progressively have become producers of data fundamental to
understand processes subject of supervisory and control.

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Data Analysis: Historical Trends

An analysis tool considered, rightly, as integral part of a
supervisory and control system is the “Historical Trend”. It’s a
tool of graphic processing that allows to represent into a
Cartesian Diagram the evolution of an observed measure with
respect to another measure acquired by the system or, as
commonly happen, with respect to the time. Normally the
Historical Trend is integrated in the HMI interface and made
available as tool available for the operators. The Historical Trend
has the objective to make available a graphical tool to
investigate on measurements behavior in a time interval
belonging to the past.

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Data Analysis: Diagrams and Printouts
Normally in a platform of SCADA system development there are

accessories that have the purpose to make available
representation tools of historical data in the form of diagram and
printouts. The technological evolution allows to formalize the
need that today can be formulated in terms of integration
between control system and systems of data analysis. These
tools represent this kind of SCADA evolution.

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Data Analysis: Specific Tools of Analysis
As evidenced in previous slides, the management and research

environments are characterized by method, instruments and
technologies that have followed a development completely
different and independent by that of the SCADA system. An
objective of a designer of SCADA systems, or better of platforms
of SCADA system, must be to know the requests coming from
the external environment and the answer with adequate
solutions. If the responsibilities of the control system and the
data analysis are different, the possible solution is a careful
definition of the interaction interface between the two activities.

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Data Analysis: Specific Tools of Analysis (cnt.)
An example of system with a data supply finalized to analysis

realized with specific tools is given by the already seen
Environmental Remote Sensing System. These systems have the
task to acquire data relevant to physical variables and make it
available to analysis environment. In this case the acquisition
and control system beside to acquire data like value, quality
codes, acquisition time, must be able to acquire also the
geographical coordinates of the sensor that has acquired the
data. This to be able to represent the data in a geographic
contest to provide to the specific representation system.

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SCADA System Structural Components

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SCADA System Structural Components
Control Center
The Heart of a SCADA is constituted by the equipments that

realize the Control Center that includes the Control Room and
the terminations of the telecommunication system (N.o.A.: the
Control Room is also the unique part that usually is visited by
Managers and Politicians). The task of the Control Center is to
collect the plant data, process them and present them to the
operator that in the last analysis is the responsible of the Plant
Conduction. Beyond the specific functions developed, the
fundamental characteristics of a Control Center are:

idJob: 1159731
SCADA System Structural Components (cnt)
Control Center (cnt.)
! Reliability (and Availability): considering that the Control

Center is called to a continuous functioning, the reliability is
defined as percentage ratio between time in which the system
is functioning and the total time of observing. The availability
is instead defined as system capability to function when it’s
called to do it. Usually it’s required values higher to the 99,9%,
to obtain them it’s necessary to have system duplication and
redundant structures
! Response Time: defined as time that elapses between the
moment in which a function is requested and that in which the

idJob: 1159731
SCADA System Structural Components (cnt.)
the output is available. Different Response Time could be

defined:
• acquisition and visualization time of a variable from the field
• time of a command issuing
• updating time of a Video Page
The System response time depends by a series of factors: the
load of computer and of the transmission system, the used
architecture, the data base handling, the operating system…

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The measure of the response time requires, then, the

definition of the conditions around the entire system
! Easiness of System Maintenance and Developing: both the

hardware and software. If the hardware is, today,
standardized and then easily maintainable, the software can
be, conversely, widely customized, a little standardized, and
unlikely maintainable and upgradable

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Hardware Architecture
The SCADA utilizes today electronic standardized platforms

based on Personal Computers. The migration of the Information
Technologies (IT) developed for the Office Automation or the
Entertainment in the Industrial Automation represent a non
modified trend that has advantages both for the Supplier and the
User. This kind of system is also called “Open System”. The
table in the next slide summarizes some of the benefits coming
by adopting an Open System as platform.

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Hardware Architecture (cnt.)

Builder User
Reduction in Development Costs Reduction of the global costs
High Availability Easy Upgrading
Performance Growth Integration with IT
System Integration Talk with other SCADA
Technological Transfer
Indipendency by the HW Supplier
Peripherals Availability
HMI Quality

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An Open System is characterized by four fundamental

requirements:
! Portability of the Operating System and Software Applications
from a machine to another
! Interoperability as capability to transfer information between
different machines
! Scalability defined as capability to transfer SW applications
among computers of different scale and capability to
expansion of the system
! Connectivity through Telecommunication Networks

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From the User point of view an Open System allows to maintain

functioning the Software also if the machines are replaced, the
System can be upgraded and enhanced, and it’s open to the
communication with similar systems.
The architecture of the Control Room Network must be defined
taking into account:
! Number and Frequency of Updating of the Plant Information

! HMI Needs
! Application Software Packets

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Typical Structures of Control Room Network are presented in the

following slides. Power, Speed, Memory Dimensions, etc… of the
machines of the Control Room Network will evolve with the
evolution of the PC.
The fundamental characteristic of a “Small” system is the

absence of redundancies: the failure of a component cause the
function loose. The availability of a “Small” system cannot
exceed the 98%

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A Medium System presents:
! A redundant Interface with the Communication System (FEP)

! Handling of HMI with technique Client/Server, with multiple
presentation machines and Redundant Server
! Possibility to handle remote HMI units
! Handling of Printers through Printer Server
The Control Room Network is single in this kind of systems and

represents a possible critical issues.

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A “Large” System presents a Redundant Network with particular

attentions to the cable drawing up to avoid common possible
damages. Beside that in this configuration appear network
apparatuses (HUB or SWITH), dedicated machine to advanced
functions and to the Historical Archive and also an Internet
Interface.

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The Ethernet Network
The use of Ethernet as network of Control Room is due to the

fact that Ethernet represents the “Standard de Facto” on which
rely all the communication networks at company level. The
Ethernet use in so extensive areas takes to different positive
consequences:
! Installation and handling reduced costs because:
• extensive availability of network components at low cost
(due to the enormous utilization)
• there is a huge number of technicians that operate on
Ethernet, in particular using TCP/IP

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The Ethernet Network (cnt.)
! Using Ethernet TCP (Transmission Communication Protocol) /

IP (Internet Protocol) solves the problem to interface with the
Office Automation without additional devices need
! Ethernet TCP/IP allows to access and share data on remote
systems using the Internet Infrastructures
! Ethernet standards and technologies are continuously
updates and enhanced
The doubts on the Ethernet use are been removed thanks to
network speed increase from 10 to 100Mbit/s and the 1 Gbit/s is
already available.

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Software Architecture
The Software Architecture of a SCADA has as engine the Real

Time Data Base where the Plant Data are contained and updated.
The majority of the SCADA systems are today based on Data
Base Object Oriented: i.e. the stored data are grouped in objects
that can be addressed by name (Tag). The objects are, for
example: Analog or Digital Points, Counters, Computed Values,
Remote Terminal Units… Each object contains both the real time
value and the parameters that identified it: measure units, range,
limits,…

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Software Architecture (cnt.)
The real-time handling of Database is accomplished by an

application called, generically, RTDBMS (Real Time Data Base
Management System) that receives data from from a FEP (Front
End Processor) in a format independent by the real source form.
In other words, the FEP handles the RTU (Remote Terminal

Unit) interrogations, cyclically or on demand, and prepares data
for the RTDBMS that maintain the Data Base updated. Each
application can access to the Data Base information through a
request to the Data Base Server.

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The Data Base internal structure is hidden to the user that of an

object see only some attributes and the so said member
functions. For example, an analog variable may present the
following attributes:
! Point Name
! Point Description
! Actual Value and Measure Status
! Alarm Thresholds
The following slide provides an example of SCADA SW Structure.

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The Data Base access by a SCADA internal function happens

through specific rules, generically called Database Application
Programming Interface (DAPI). Through the DAPI a software
application can require a data or function. The interface to the
external world usually happens through the universal SQL
already met during this course.
The generic structure of a Data Base Request through the SQL is
SELECT FROM T1,T2…Tn F1,F2,…Fn WHERE C1,C2,…Cn

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Where:
T1,T2…Tn: The Tables from which extract the data fields
F1,F2,…Fn: Required Fields of the Structures (Tables)
C1,C2,…Cn: Research Conditions to be respected
Example:
SELECT FROM AI Value, QC, Timestamp WHERE Ai.Tag=Engine1
Temperature

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Architettura Software (cnt.)
Meaning:
1) Extract from which data structures: From Table “AI”
2) What: Fields “Value”, “QC (Codici di Qualità)”, “Timestamp”
3) With condition: Entry Name in the Table AI (AI.Tag) is equal to
“Engine1 Temperature”
It results clear the power of this language that allow with a

unique command string more or less complex to obtain all the
required information through the entire Data Base

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Software Architectures (cnt.)
The Database and the applicative functions can reside on a

unique machine or distributed on several one. A scalable and
flexible SCADA allow to optimize the SW and HW structures. As
for the hardware, the software may be retailed on the application:
! A SCADA with few I/O may put together FEP and Database
in a unique machine
! A SCADA with many I/O may put together HMI and Database
in a unique machine, maintaining the FEP separated
! A big SCADA may have a dedicated machine for Database
and several FEP each for different transmission channels

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Software Architectures: The Operating System (OS)
The “OS” represents the conjunction ring between the Hardware

and the Application Software. The actual trend is to utilize for
SCADA and, generally, industrial automation systems, standard
“OS” as, for example Windows. This choice offers advantages
in terms of:
! HW availability at reasonable costs

! Easy integration in the IT environment
! Wide Availability of expert people
! Continuous Upgrade

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Software Architectures: The Operating System (OS) (cnt.)
An OS is called Real Time (RTOS) when the result speed

depends not only by the correct execution of the calculation but
also by the time in which the result is produced. The real time
application are often subdivided in two categories:
! Hard Real Time: it must guarantee the answer to a specific
event within a time window specified in a predictable manner
and independent by other operations. This means that a hard
-RTOS must have a latency time measurable and known. The
typical response time of an hard-RTOS is of the order of
microseconds.

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! Soft Real Time: it must offer response times suitable to the

function to be developed, without guarantee on the latency
time. The standard OS usually respond to this second
category. The typical response time of a soft-RTOS is of the
order of milliseconds.
The real time applications must react to external events within a

specified time depending by the specific application. To obtain
this result the core of an OS (Kernel) must handle the Interrupts
on the basis of a priority scale to order the various tasks.

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The Kernel handles the execution of the application programs or

tasks. In the multi-task systems, several tasks may be
contemporary active. To each task is assigned a “Priority Class”.
In execution, each task is subdivided in Thread (elementary units
executable separately) and each of them inherits the priority
proper of the task. The OS defines a “quid” of execution time,
after which, are researched eventual applications with equal or
greater priority.
The possible choice among OS are, today three and are
discussed in the next slides.

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Microsoft Windows: is an general purpose OS that can have

response times very rapid but not deterministic. Windows is
suitable to a SCADA from little to medium-great dimension, but it
could result not suitable for big dimension SCADA.
Unix: born in 1969 at the Bell Laboratories for the Digital

machines, then utilized by numerous builder. It is the first OS
really multi-tasks and multi-user. Unix is suitable to manage
networks and large dimension systems, well supported and
known to the programmers around the world.

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Linux: is a PC version of Unix, direct competitor of Windows,

then not suitable for application hard real-time. The key points of
Linux, that make it a real alternative to Window, are:
! Flexibility: because available many source programs

! Reliability: because developed by thousands of programmers
around the world that guarantee its accurate debugging
! Cheapness: because Linux is an open system, the initial cost
is reduced and no licenses or royalties provided

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SCADA System Security

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SCADA System Security
System Security
The SCADA system model presented contains structural

elements that can be subject to security problems. With
reference to the figure at slide 90, it’s possible to locate the
sensible elements as in the following:
! Interface of Data Access

! Interface of Communication with the Remote Terminal Units
! Human-Machine Interface
! Technological infrastructures that realize the System

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SCADA System Security (cnt.)
System Security: Communication Channels
The channel communication analysis is important in case where

the communications use public infrastructures. In this case the
data traffic is conveyed by communication channels accessible
also by entities that do not belong to the control system. For this
reason it’s important to realize communications with protection
mechanisms, i.e. encrypting algorithms applied to data flow.
Examples of these tools to realize encrypted communication
channels are the SSL – Secure Socket Layer and TLS –
Transport Layer Security.

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System Security: Communication Channels (cnt.)
This protocols allow to establish authenticated connection and

encrypted transmissions with the method of the double keys
(public and private) reducing considerably the risk of unwanted
interactions between controlled system and entities foreign to it.
The two mentioned protocols represent the answer to the
security problems arisen with the Ethernet use (usually realized
in TCP/IP technology). In Control System with large geographical
dimensions, it results impossible to realize a private network, so
the public resources become the only possible solution. The
responsibility of the security is up to the Network Provider.

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System Security: Tools of System Interaction
In this section, we talk of the Interaction Tools between the

operators and the control system. The elements that characterize
the HMI interface as “Secure” can be of two categories:
accessibility to the system functionalities and their ambiguity.
The accessibility Handling to the system functionalities consists,
first of all, in determining “Who” can utilized a session of the
HMI subsystem, “How” he is authorized to do it, and, if possible,
“When” the system can allow him to do it.

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System Security: Tools of System Interaction (cnt.)
The access control is founded on principles of Authentication

and Authorization and commonly it’s the system based on the
couple “User Name” and “Password” realized in all the systems
qualified as “Secure”. This method only solves the problem to
determine “Who” can access the system. Also if this in many
cases can be enough, it’s interesting to consider the possibility
to control also “How” and “When”. These access rules requires
also superstructures to realize during the HMI software
development. This selection mechanism can be realized only as
element internal to the HMI application software.

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System Security: Infrastructures
The Technological Infrastructures Security is a problem that

involves reflections at various levels of analysis. It’s possible to
handle the problem in terms of :
! Intrusions protection
! Failure events
The Intrusions protection, problem common to all the electronic

and information system must be handled in organizational terms
like monitoring , architectural barriers to regulate the accesses.

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System Security: Infrastructures (cnt.)
We have a different approach in case of protection as realization

of systems with level of immunity from failure events. The
technological contribution to the Disaster Recovery, is based on
concepts of components redundancy, both hardware and
software, of the control system and of availability of procedures
and tools of “Recovery” of the functionalities no more available
by system crash events. The redundancy consists in realizing
mechanisms that make the infrastructure interchangeable
among them in transparent way to the functionalities.

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SCADA System: Required Tools and Skills

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SCADA System: Required Tools and Skills
Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System
What reported in the following is the result of experience in

projecting and realizing of SCADA system that doesn’t refer to
specialized texts because there is no “Literature” about this
argument. This text itself is an answer to the evident missing of
literature dedicated to the SCADA system world. This implies the
total missing of experienced and documented methods of
projecting. In the following some fundamental aspects of a
SCADA system project are described, aspects that can be
considered as a references for a project construction but they
cannot substitute the personal experience of SCADA designers.

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SCADA System: Required Tools and Skills (cnt.)
Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System (cnt.)
The last consideration must take to reflect on possibility that

prepackaged products, i.e. simply to adapt to specific needs, are
able to guarantee to realize an efficient SCADA system. The
experience takes to say that to realize a SCADA systems is
better a good Tailor able to realize a tailored suit that fits the
physical characteristics, instead to buy a dress packet, even if of
quality, hoping that it fits perfectly to the body. This need must
be evaluated, above all, in the cases in which the process to be
controlled is an important one.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: Requirements

Definition
An essential activity for a correct project of a SCADA system Is

to define all the “System Requirements” that represent the
requests to which the system has to satisfy. They constitute the
agreement between the SCADA System committee and who
realizes it. In this phase it’s very important to use a common
language and personnel able to mediate between the Customer
requests and who is in charge to realize the SCADA. In the
following slides some main aspects to be define as basic
requirements.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System. Requirements

Definition: Definition of Point to be controlled
The first thing in the requirements definition is number and

typology of points to be controlled. The definition of points to be
acquired and the execution modes of commands execution is
specific matter of the process experts. Another important figure
necessary to define the I/O points is the electric designer. In fact
the I/O points are handled by data acquisition devices able to
interact with the system through electric signals. The I/O points
definition is fundamental to understand how to have the process
under control and to have an idea on the system dimension.

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Definition: Functional Definition
Once defined I/O points, it’s fundamental to obtain by the

“Customer” how the system to realize must operate. The
functions to be defined are certainly Automatic Procedures,
Automation Logics, Interactions between System and Operators,
etc… This information allows the designer to define typology of
the Peripheral Apparatuses and the Central System as far as it
concerns Hardware Configuration, Software, Resources,
Operating System, etc… To this project phase must take part:
process expert, operators, recipients of the summary data.

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Definition: Definition of Data Transmission Mode
We already discuss on the transmission modes in relation with

the communication vector. Here we define data transmission in
relation with the Distance, Amount of Data, Data Availability as
acquisition period and time extension. The definition of these
characteristic can be made by the system provider, in some
cases it’s necessary the Customer presence (i.e. it may be
problems in the cable laying and impose the use of radio vector).
In any case the Customer must be adequately informed on the
choices in order to be transparent on what is to be realized.

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Definition: Definition of Data to be Archived
It’s important to determine the information set to be archived in

order to allow to maintain the process history. The choice of the
information to be archived is most important because it’s depend
the choice of the archiving system and the resources needed.
We saw that a Relational Data Base becomes the forced choice
to realize an engine to archive and then research data.

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Definition: Definition of Data to be Archived (cnt.)
To correctly dimension an archive system it should define what

to do with the archived data first:
! To have a summary of the system functioning?
! To recreate offline scenarios to allow study of events?
! To legal purposes?

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Definition: Definition of Data to be Archived (cnt.)
Each of the previous questions takes to different solutions. It’s

important that the customer explicit the final need of the data
archiving. To do this the interested figures could be:
! System Operators
! Management Sector of the Industry propreitary of the

process

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Definition: Definition of Critical Points
It’s one of the most important part in defining phase of system

requirements. The system criticalities define the capabilities that
the SCADA system must have and cannot disregard from the
controlled process. For example if it’s to be realized a SCADA in
a petrochemical environment, it’s necessary to provide security
measures that are not necessary in other contexts. It’s a specific
characteristic of each controlled process to define the
criticalities, but the arguments to take in consideration are
common to all the system to realize.

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SCADA System: Required Tools and Skills cnt.)

Definition: Definition of Critical Points (cnt.)
Generally the critical aspects to keep in consideration in defining

requirements can be summarized in the following:
! Intrinsic Security (MTBF, SO)

! Redundancy
! Availability
! Operator Permissions

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Definition: Interoperability with External Systems
The SCADA system more often is seen as a component of a

more complex system that from a single industrial process could
interest the function of management and definition of business
strategies. For this reason the definition of interoperability with
other systems is a fundamental part for the success of a SCADA
system. This interoperability can be developed in two way:
! Using proprietary systems integrated with each other

! Adopting systems that use standard interfaces

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: Requirements

Definition: Interoperability with External Systems (cnt.)
In the first case there is the possibility to use the easiness of

integration of products thought to interact. Using this solution
there is certainly an advantage in terms of realization simplicity
and speed, but it involves dependence on a single supplier. So
it’s better to use products that have standard interfaces and
integrate products of different suppliers. Standards can be
defined based to what the market reveals as standard (so called
standard de facto) or because Institute in charge for its definition
have created them (standard de iure).

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Definition: Interoperability with External Systems (cnt.)
In any case, the adherence to standard, possibly “Open”, by the

providers is guarantee to choice a more efficient product with
respect to a “Closed” one. On the basis of these considerations
it’s possible to say that it’s always better to project products
more possible “Open”. The interoperability need is of interest of
all a company sectors because the information that can be
extract from a SCADA system could be utilized profitably in
many areas of a company.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: System Architecture

Definition
Once defined all the system requirements, it’s possible to pass

to the real projecting phase. With system architecture is
intended the components set that constituted the system already
discussed through this course. This is the real phase of
projecting the SCADA system where competence, experience,
but also the designer fantasy find rash and determine the
solution to all the system requirements. It’s a good practice to
involve the Customer in first phases of definition of the system
architecture and it’s suggested by the experience.

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Definition (cnt.)
This will avoid, at the end of the project, the complaints of the
Customer who asks to add a little function forgotten as
requirement that he doesn’t image that it can lead to a revision of
the entire system architecture. Certainly the Customer
implication is time consuming and has its cost but how many
discussions, disputes, retaliations could be saved! The SCADA
world is a particular one that takes care of a matter we can
consider “Young”, with a no long history to consider that all
problems are clear and for them a clear solution already exists.

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Definition (cnt.)
There is no specific method to by utilized for the projecting

phase. As basic concepts it’s better to start by a meticulous
definition of the requirements. The experience teaches to realize
the system for single steps and building a such architecture to
see in more short time possible how the final system will be.
This will suggest the Customer that what the Supplier say is also
a practical result and, on the other end, offer to the Supplier a
direct reply of the correctness of the project choices adopted.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: System Verification

Phase
The classic methods to realize a computer system contemplate

that the phase of requirements definition is followed by the
projecting phase to which the realization phase will follow. Only
at the end of this phase it will proceed to the system “Test” (at
the Customer presence). This method, called “Waterfall”
because each phase begin only when the previous one is
completed, foresees the system to be verified at the presence of
the Customer by means of “Acceptance Test Procedures”. They
are procedures to verify the respect of the system requirements.

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Phase (cnt.)
This procedures constitute the contractual limit of system

supply. Very important to proceed with the tests is the
“Environment” in which it’s developed the test itself. The best
way to proceed is to verify the system functioning in an
environment more possible similar to the real one. To do this it
should consider the SCADA system as a “Black Box” and insert
it in a context more possible representative of the physical
reality in which it will operate.

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Phase (cnt.)
This can be made by realizing process “Simulators”,

communication infrastructures and what else out of the Black
Box. By adopting Simulators with known functioning allows to
have indications on the SCADA system reactions also in
boundary conditions. In fact it’s possible to realize Simulators
able to create “Heavy Load” conditions and verify the system
behavior. The Simulators provide indications clear and
reproducible of the system behaviors.

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Phase (cnt.)
The system test reproducibility is fundamental to verify the

system reaction to a determined test procedure. It’s fundamental
that the system subjected to the same actions reacts in the same
manner. If not, its behavior could not be defined deterministic
and in that case it should be considered unacceptable.
The test procedures are substantially executed in two
distinct phases, one at the Provider site and another one when
the system is installed at the Customer site.

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Phase (cnt.)
The two phases are called respectively:
! Factory Acceptance Test (FAT)

! Site Acceptance Test (SAT)
The only difference between the two phases is that in the first
phase the system is in the environment in which it was
developed, in second one it will be in the environment in which it
will normally operate.

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Phase (cnt.)
Both the two phases are realized at the presence of the

Customer and Supplier and produce formal evidences of the
execution results. Each time a test procedure execution does not
provide satisfactory results for system malfunctions, these must
be corrected. On the basis of the malfunction entity, the single
test or the entire acceptance test phase must be suspended to
wait the necessary correction. After each correction it must
proceed to reply the test procedure execution that caused error
until all the expected results will be considered acceptable.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: System Installation

Phase
Once the minimum needed functions for system using have been
realized and tested with the Customer, it’s possible to proceed
with the installation phase. One of the most important operation
in this phase is the “Field Verification” to implement for next
steps. First of all we proceed to install the peripheral
apparatuses and, for each of them, verify that there is
correspondence, at the acquired information level, between what
has been projected and what realized in field.

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Phase (cnt.)
Have the security that a data from/to field is exactly what we

aspect is fundamental to assure the system functioning (think if
what can happen if a command issuing to a process equipment
corresponds, in reality, to command another one). At the end of
the field verification, we proceed with the phase of connection of
the peripheral apparatuses with the central system. In this phase
control is concentrated on the telecommunications that allow the
interaction between central system and peripheral one. It’s better
to verify all the functions with a peripheral apparatus at a time.

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Phase (cnt.)
To allow tests execution without the risk to issue commands, it’s

useful to utilize mechanisms realized with the scope to avoid
that the commands issued reach the real field organs. In this
case we talk of so called “Test in White” whose scope is to verify
that data exchange between central system and peripheral units
happen correctly. Once execute this phase, we are sure that each
data handled by the system and each command issued will
correspond with the desired one. At this point, last activity will
be to put in service the system and verify that everything is ok.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: System Put In

Service Phase
The system put in service phase is the real system activation

and its use for normal daily operations. In some cases this phase
could begin with the installation one, in which it’s possible that
some system components could be available before of the entire
system. In some case it’s required a so called “System
Availability Demonstration” to verify its capability to function
“With Continuity”. This time period is defined as “Amount of
Hours” in which the system has to function as requested and
each maintaining intervention or updating must be justified.

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Service Phase (cnt.)
It’s possible to identify two types of problems that required the

Supplier intervention: problems of “Locking” and “Not locking”
type. To the first type belong all that serious problems that
doesn’t allow the system use until a definitive correction is not
performed. The demonstration period is suspended until the
problem is not solved. Usually a maximum time is established to
solve the problem, elapsed this time, the suspension becomes
interruption. In this case the availability demonstration period
restarts to the beginning.

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In case the problem is solved in the fixed maximum time, the

system restarts to be utilized without taking into account the
elapsed time. In case of not blocking problems, this doesn’t
require a suspension of the availability demonstration period,
but simply to trace the arise problem. The availability
demonstration period is very important for both the Supplier and
the Customer. For the Customer to have assurance of the
system correct functioning in all its parts, for the Supplier to
have the first overall judgment on its Product value.

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The particular nature of this phase suggests to the Supplier to

have a Work Group that knows the system in details. It’s a good
practice to not loose the system know-how. The experience says
that the maintenance interventions, corrections, updating
realized on the system verify in the first part of its operative life.
Very important in this phase are those professional figures that
have the global vision of the system, of its architecture and its
functionalities. The success of a system resides in the Supplier
capabilities to offer rapid solutions to the Customer requests.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: System Maintenance

Phase
The System Maintenance is the activity that guarantees the

system optimal functioning. This by means of the problems
resolution, evolution of the implemented functions and the
introduction of new one. In this phase that take place during the
entire system life, the Customer can utilize the Supplier support.
Usually the Supplier support is requested when the realized
system dimension inhibits a maintenance realized with the
Customer capabilities. The suggestion to the Customer is to
create an internal structure able to operate on the system.

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Tools and Skill to project a SCADA System: System Maintenance

Phase (cnt.)
The system functions improvement, introduction of new

functions, the observation and improvement of the system
performances are activities of the maintenance phase. For
SCADA systems of big dimensions it’s a good practice to
prepare a twin system with the same functions except for the
interaction with the controlled process that is substituted by a
simulation subsystem. This system normally is inserted into the
procedures of “Disaster Recovery” to support the eventual loss
of the functions in the On Line System.

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SCADA Systems Evolution

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SCADA Systems Evolution
The SCADA system follow Transformation Lines that evolve it

through an integration with the similar systems, with the
management systems and decision maker systems. At the same
time the use of new technologies allow to define architectures
that realize new functionalities until the possibility to formulate a
new definition of the SCADA systems that consider the acronym
really representative of functionalities rather than system,
functionalities made available in terms of personalized services
made available by a “Provider”.

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SCADA Systems Evolution (cnt.)
Process Control and Business Information Systems
The first element to give a description of the evolutionary lines

followed by the SCADA systems is the integration with the
“Business Information Systems”. An example of architecture to
which it’s possible to arrive by following this concepts is
provided by the figure in the following slide. The figure shows
systems for which interaction modes have been defined with the
intent to reach the realization of an unique Business Information
System.

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Process Control and Business Information Systems (cnt.)
A classic example is represented by a production company. The

availability, for example, of the information relevant to the flows
of “Raw Material” and “Finished Products” close to the
availability of data relevant to exercise states of the productive
process, included the stop states, allow to conduct statistic
analysis to know the effective level of company productivity
beside to the possibility to program a periodic maintenance of
the components of the production equipments.

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To the SCADA system evolution the most significant contribution

was given by the communication technologies. The diffusion and
perfection of networks based on the “Standard IEEE 802”, said
“Ethernet” has allowed to have communication infrastructures
reliable, flexible, modular and manageable for which there are
defined communication protocols specific in different areas of
Process Control. This kind of network is the key to develop
systems of geographic dimension.

idJob: 1159731
For these systems is possible to use of the “TCP/IP Technology”

made available by telecommunication services providers. Also
the Radio Cellular systems for the communications between
remote entities of a geographic dimension system and the
“Wireless” networks for the local communications have allowed
to realize a new set of functions that in some way changes the
work organization.

idJob: 1159731
To day is possible to associate to control system statuses, for

which it’s necessary an operator intervention, the issuing of
“sms” messages of intervention request. This allows to realize
“Unmanned” systems able to recall the attention of operators
busy in other activities on exercise statuses that cannot be
handled with automatic procedures.

idJob: 1159731
From SCADA Systems to SCADA Services
The evolution of information technologies, telecommunication

and peripheral devices have brought to formulate hypothesis of
SCADA system architecture that transform the need to realize
a control system to the satisfaction of needs of functional type.
In other words have available the SCADA system functionalities
instead of SCADA system itself. The SCADA system moves from
the Customer to the Supplier and from a control system it
transforms in Service Provider to realize control activities. A
representation of the needed structure is depicted in next slide.

idJob: 1159731

idJob: 1159731
SCADA for Electric Systems

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SCADA for Electric Systems
Functions of an Electric SCADA System
The Electric System Control has the task to guarantee three

essential functions:
! Service Quality: in terms of regulation of Voltage (constant

amplitude and absence of distortion and flicker) and
Frequency (constant and equal to the nominal value). The
SCADA must also guarantee other parameters like: Power
Exchange among Adjacent Networks, Energy Import/Export,
Power Supply Continuity, etc…

idJob: 1159731
SCADA for Electric Systems (cnt.)
Functions of an Electric SCADA System (cnt.)
! System Economy: related to the investment projects and

production and distribution costs. The punctual knowledge of
the functioning state of a system allow its optimal use that may
avoid investments for plants extension. At the same time, it’s
possible optimize the production mix to minimize the
production costs or the transmission and distribution losses.
! Functioning Security: as system capability to react to

disturbances and failures by limiting area and duration of the
disservice.

idJob: 1159731
The Handling of an Electric System has different activities on

timeframes well distinct:
! Hard Real-Time: includes the daily exercise of the Plants, the

instant monitoring of the Power Flows, of the Voltage Profiles,
of the Provided and Consumed Power, beside the alarm
acquisition from the Protection System
! Almost Real-Time: includes the short terms intervention
planning (minutes, hours, days), the energetic resources
handling, diagnosis after out of service

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! Off-Line: includes activities of long terms planning of the

Electric System, the study of the improvements interventions,
the operators training.
It’s a good practice to associate the Quality objective to the

Real Time Control functions, the Economy of the system to the
Almost-Real Time functions and Security to off-Line functions.
The figure in next slide shows the associations.

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An Historical vision of the exercise of a Power System identify

the following four functioning modalities:
! Normal: The system works without problems;

! Alert: some parameters are close to the limits or the system
isn’t robust with respect to some events;
! Emergency: There is violations of some functional parameters
(It could be possible a system black-out);
! Restore: Transition phase from the emergency state to a
normal state

idJob: 1159731

idJob: 1159731
Classification of Electric Systems
The Power Systems are classified in three families:
! Energy Production and Transmission Systems

! Energy Distribution Systems
! Industrial Systems
The borders among the three systems aren’t net. It’s not rare to
have systems that have common characteristics

idJob: 1159731
Classification of Electric Systems (cnt.)
The parameters to evaluate to classify a power system are:
! Extention: we have plants within a limited site, until to plants

on regional or national area;
! Voltage Level: classically LV, MV, HV (respectively Low
Voltage, Medium Voltage, High Voltage);
! Generation Capacity: the system manager (through the
SCADA) can control the generation sources;
! Load Management: the system manager (through the
SCADA) can control the utilities

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! Objective: The electric energy is the finished product (to sale)

for energy manufacturers and distributors, while it’s a service
for the industrial plants
The table in the next slide gives a view of the classification

criteria for the Power Systems. This classification is historically
justified by the fact that the task of Power System Manager (and
then of the SCADA) are substantially different in the various
cases.

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GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION INDUSTRIAL

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Extension Dimension on Regional City or Regional Area limited to the
or National Scale Area Industrial Site
Voltage AT MT / BT with MT / BT with

substations in AT substations in AT
Generation Control of Generators NO Often in
on territory Cogeneration
Loads No Control No Control Fully Controlled
Objective Energy Production/ Energy Distribution Energy for
Transmission and Sale production of
Goods
APPLICATION EMS DMS Specific
SOFTWARE

idJob: 1159731
The set of software functions that the SCADA must guarantee to

a Energy Production and Transmission System is called EMS
(Energy Management System). Analogously the set of software
functions for distribution systems is called DMS (Distribution
Management System). For the Industrial Systems there is no no
standard packets because these plants have a high specificity.
Each packet includes many functionalities, some of which
transportable from one area to another. The classification is
useful to understand the functionalities to require to the SCADA
system.

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Why a SCADA for an Electric System
The SCADA realization for an electric system can be necessary

or only convenient, depending on the electric system itself.
Generally if the electric system includes the generation, the
SCADA is necessary to guarantee the system functioning. The
Regulation of the Produced Power by the generators and the
Load Handling – particularly in condition of degraded network –
impose the use of an Automatic Control System, without which
the system cannot work in conditions of security and quality. For
these system the SCADA is a Must and its installation is out of
discussion.

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Why a SCADA for an Electric System (cnt.)
Strictly speaking, the SCADA is not essential for the functioning

of an electric distribution system but it’s a fundamental element
to guarantee:
! Service Quality
! Technical Efficiency of the Network
! The Optimal and Economic Handle of the System
The SCADA is mandatory for the Distribution Companies to

record the quality parameters of the provided energy.

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ACRONYMS

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ACRONYM LIST
AM/FM Automated Mapping and Facilities Management

API Application Programming Interface
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASDL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
ASDU Application Service Data Unit
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator
CASM Common Application Service Models
CIM Common Information Model
CMMS Computerized Maintenance Management System
COM Component Object Model
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CRT Cathode-Ray Tube
CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
DAPI Database Application Programming Interface

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
DCOM Distributed Component Object Model

DCS Distributed Control System
DPLC Digital Power Line Carrier
DMS Distribution Management System
DMTF Distributed Management Task Force
DNC Dynamic Network Colouring
DNP Distributed Network Protocol
DSA Dynamic Security Analysis
DTD Document Type Definition
EAM Enterprise Asset Management
ECS Electric Control System
ED Economic Dispatch
EFI Earth Fault Indicator
ELS Emergency Load Shedding
EMS Energy Management System

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

ERP Enterprise Resource Planning
FEP Front End Processor
FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GOMSFE Generic Object Model for Substation Feeder Equipment
GOOSE Generic Object Oriented System-wide Events
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPS Global Positioning System
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
GUI Graphical User Interface
HMI Human Machine Interface
HW HardWare
HTML HyperText Markup Language
HVAC Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IED Intelligent Electrical Device
IEEE The Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISDN Integrated Service Digital Network
IFD Intelligent Field Device
I/O Input / Output
GUI Graphic User Interface
ICCP Inter Control Center Communication Protocol
ISM Instrumentation, Scientific and Medical
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LAN Local Area Network
LCD Liquid Cristal Display
LED Light Emitting Diode
LPS Lighting Protection System
MAC Media Access Control

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
MMI Man Machine Interface

MMS Manufacturing Message Specification (ISO/IEC 9506)
ODBC Open Data Base Connectivity
O&M Operation & Maintenance
OLE Object Linking and Embedding
OPC OLE for Process Control
OPF Optimal Power Flow
OLTC On Load Tap Changer
OS Operating System
PABX Private Automated Branch eXchange
PC Personal Computer
PC Power Centre
PCC Point of Common Coupling
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PDU Protocol Data Unit

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
PLC Programmable Logic Controller

PLC Power Line Carrier (carrier wave)
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
RCE Events Chronological Recorder
RDBMS Relational Data Base Management System
RDF Resource Description Framework
RTOS Real Time Operating System
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SAS Substation Automation System
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SER Sequential Event Recorder
SOE Sequence Of Events
SQL Structured Query Language
SSA Static Security Assesment
SVC Static Var Compensdator

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
SW SoftWare
TASE Telecontrol Application Service Element
TCP/IP Trensmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
TDM Time Division Multiplexing
TTC Transformer Tap Changer
TVC Transformer Voltmetric Capacitive
UC Unit Commitment
UCA Utility Communication Architecture
UMT Universal Mean Time
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
UPS Uninterruptable Power Supply
URI Uniform Resource Identifier
UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair
VDU Video Display Unit
VSA Voltage Security Assesment

idJob: 1159731
ACRONYM LIST (cnt.)
XML eXtensible Markup Language

XSL eXtensible Stile Language
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
WAN Wide Area Network
WBEM Web-Based Enterprise Management
WLAN Wireless LAN
WMS Weighted Minimun Squares

idJob: 1159731
CV:
Antonio Lorusso (Control Center Expert)
Antonio is expert in Defining, Projecting and Developing of Large Industrial Automation Control Systems Key Expert
For twenty five years CEO of an ICT company, technological partner of the Italian TSO ENEL/TERNA.
Project Director, account manager and project manager.
Antonio has extensive experience:

> Over 40 years of experience in consultancy and management in Electric, Gas, Water and Waste Water Control Systems
> Actively involved in projects related to Electric Distribution, Transmission and Generation Control Systems
> Quality Assurance and Quality Control
> Trouble Shooting and Problem Solving.
> Working experience in SCADA Systems and Platforms Development
> Masters degree in Computer Science at Pisa University
> Gas, Hydro and Energy Informatics and Management
> Expert on Energy and Hydro Informatics
> DMS/EMS Application Development Software
Relevant examples of assignments are:

> Control System for Telecommunication Cable Factory Automation
> Mobile Information Systems for Airport (Fiumicino, Linate, Hong-Kong)
> Power Generation and Transmission Control System – Developed with Rockwell Int. in Anaheim (California) for ENEL Italy.
> Developing of a General Purpose SCADA Platform for System Control
> New SCADA System for the Italian Electrical Network Control System - Italian TSO TERNA
> Electrical Network Defence System - Italian TSO TERNA
> Wide Area Management System (WAMS) - Italian TSO TERNA
> RTU and SCADA development for Electric Substation Automation Systems
> Transmission & Distribution operational projects support in Brazil.
> Italy-Montenegro HVDC Control System - Italian TSO TERNA

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titolo: SCADA Systems

SCADA (System Control And Data Acquisition)

1 SCADA Experience in Process Control

Section Slide No.

2 SCADA Experience in Process Control

3 SCADA Experience in Process Control

What is a SCADA System?

We can start from the acronym meaning. SCADA:

Data Acquisition, Supervisory and Control. But of WHAT?

Any PROCESS, mainly in an industrial context, that we want to

4 SCADA Experience in Process Control

The SCADA concept born in the ‘60 years together with

5 SCADA Experience in Process Control

How to characterize a SCADA System?

By various elements like:

• Geographical Distribution of the System to be controlled

• Control Intelligence (Distributed or Centralized)

• Human Operator and System Interaction Degree

• Reaction Time to a Controlled Process Event

6 SCADA Experience in Process Control

Sample of Processes requiring SCADA System

• Traffic Control (Airplane, Railway, Automobile, …)

7 SCADA Experience in Process Control

8 SCADA Experience in Process Control

9 SCADA Experience in Process Control

SCADA: Data Acquisition

• Role of support to the supervisory and control functions. It’s not

• Means: Data Exchange between Process and System

• No decision making between the supervisory and control

10 SCADA Experience in Process Control

• Make possible to observe the status evolution of the controlled

• This function includes:

11 SCADA Experience in Process Control

• System Capability to make decision relevant to the status

• It’s concentrated in the processing system that, performed

12 SCADA Experience in Process Control

SCADA Systems has been always considered as system with

13 SCADA Experience in Process Control

SCADA: The Controlled Process

• The analysis of the controlled process produces information

14 SCADA Experience in Process Control

The Controlled Process: Realtime

• The “Real Time” term refers to the capability of the SCADA

• Limits to the SCADA performances reside into the technology:

! computing system capability

15 SCADA Experience in Process Control

The Controlled Process: High Reliability

• A Control System is a mosaic of components and each of them

16 SCADA Experience in Process Control

The Controlled Process: High Availability

• Availability is the percentage of time for which the system

• availability can refer to the entire system or to critical parts of it

• a process can have availability needs for security reasons or

17 SCADA Experience in Process Control

The Controlled Process: Human-Machine Interaction

• Supervisory and Control Systems always require interactions

! simple observation of functions and processes

18 SCADA Experience in Process Control

The Controlled Process: Geographical Dimension

• Geographical Dimension of a SCADA System it’s defined by the

• All these characteristics determine more complexity in

19 SCADA Experience in Process Control