VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANASANGAMA, BELAGAVI-590018, KARNATAKA

INTERNSHIP REPORT ON
“SOLAR POWER PLANT”
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

Submitted By
Ms. AISHWARYA S 1SG16EE007
Ms. Bi Bi AYESHA S 1SG16EE019
Mr. DHANUSH S 1SG16EE025
Mr. GAGAN H J 1SG16EE029
Ms. GOUTHAMI K 1SG16EE033
Ms. KUSUMA H 1SG16EE047
Ms. MONIKA N 1SG16EE054

Under The Esteemed Guidance Of:

Mr. KRISHNA RAJ,
Mr. SHIVA NAGAPPA,

For the academic year of

2019-2020
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SAPTHAGIRI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
14/5 Chikkasandra, Hesaraghatta Main Road, Bangalore-560057
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ABSTRACT

The Solar Energy is produced by the Sunlight is a non-vanishing renewable source of

energy which is eco-friendly. Every hour enough sunlight energy reaches the earth to meet
the world's energy demand for a whole year. In today's generation we needed Electricity every
hour. This Solar Energy is generated by as per applications like industrial, commercial, and
residential. It can easily draw energy from direct sunlight. So it is very efficient & free from
environmental pollution for surrounding. In this article, we have reviewed about the Solar
Energy from Sunlight and discussed about their future trends and aspects. The article also tries
to discusses the working, solar panel types; emphasize the various applications and methods
to promote the benefits of solar energy. Nowadays, due to the decreasing amount of
renewable energy resources, the last ten years become more important for per watt cost of
solar energy device. It is definitely set to become economical in the coming years and growing
as better technology in terms of both cost and applications. Everyday earth receives sunlight
above 1366W approx. This is an unlimited source of energy which is available at no cost. The
major benefit of solar energy over other conventional power generators is that the sunlight
can be directly converted into solar energy with the use of smallest photovoltaic (PV) solar
cells. There have been a large amount of research activities to combine the Sun's energy
process by developing solar cells/panels/module with high converting form. The most
advantages of solar energy is that it is free, reachable to common people and available in large
quantities of supply compared to that of the price of various fossil fuels and oils in the past ten
years.
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Moreover, solar energy requires considerably lower manpower expenses over conventional
energy production technology.
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CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………....... .. 2
2. SOLAR ENERGY .……………………………………………………………………………………........... 3

a. SOLAR POTENTIAL IN INDIA ……………………………………………………….....….. 3

b. FORMS OF SOLAR ENERGY..…………………………………………………………........ 3

3. PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY FROM PV CELLS..………………………………………4

4. SOLAR CELL, MODULE, ARRAY STRUCTURE …………………………………………….. 5

5. SOLAR PANEL TECHNOLOGIES ……………………………………………………………... … 7

a. MONOCRYSTALLINE …………………….………………………………………………………………...7
b. POLYCRYSTALLINE …………………………………………………………………………………… .. 8
c. THIN FILM …………………………………………………………………………………………………… ... 8
6. SOLAR ARRAY PARAMETER ……………………………………………………………………..... 9
a. PERFORMANCE CRITERIAN……………………………………………………………............ ..10

b. DECIDE VOLTAGE……………………………………………………………………………................ 10

c. INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE CLIMATIC DATA ……………… ..........…...11

7. POWER CONDITIONING UNIT ……………………………………………………………………...12

a. SOLAR CHARGER ……………………………………………………………………………................ 12
b. INVERTER ………………………………………………………………………………………… ................15
c. GRID CHARGER ………………………………………………………………………………................ 19
d. SELECTOR MECHANISM……………………………………………………………………........…...19
e. BATTERY BANK …………………………………………………………………………........……...….. 20
f. CENTRAL ALGORITHM ……………………………………………………………………………..…….20
8. UTILITY GRID OVER OR UNDER FREQUENCY ……………………………………………. 22
9. ADVANTAGES ……………………………………………………………………………………………. ....24

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1. INTRODUCTION

Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated power, or a combination. Commercial
concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s.as the cost of solar electricity
has fallen, the number of grid-connected solar PV systems has grown into millions and utility
scale photovoltaic power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built.
Karnataka was the first to embark on Alternating Energy when Bangalore city’s lighting
scheme was completed. Karnataka was the first to have the longest transmission line in the
world in 1902 from Shivanasamudram to KGF covering a distance of 147 kms Karnataka was also
the first state in the country to conceive and set up a professionally managed corporation to
plan, construct, operate and maintain power generation projects in the state, thus was the born
of KPCL, Karnataka Power Corporation Ltd.
Karnataka Power Corporation, a government owned company, is engaged in the service
of generating electrical power in the state of Karnataka in India. The company was started on 20-
07-1970 due to a vision of the Karnataka government for seerate entities for generation and
distribution of electric power. It has been a long, rewarding journey. A journey fraught with trials
and triumphs with challenges and achievements.
Today KPCL takes great pride in the experience it has gathered the expertise it has
developed and the skills it has honed. Especially in the planning investigation, design execution
and effective operation of large power projects.
Mission and objectives
 Identifying and developing opportunities in power generation.
 Establishing and operating power plants.
 Constant upgradation of technical competence and system, developing human resources
capabilities, and empowerment are ways to achieve these objectives.
 KPCL seeks to be a world class organization emphasizing efficiency, cost effectiveness
and harmony with the environment.
ACHIEVEMENTS
 Highest ever generation of 19473 million units (1999-2000).
 Highest ever thermal generation of 11392 Million Units 2003-04.
 Highest Plant Load Factor (PLF) of 90.39% at Raichur Thermal Power Station (2002-2003).
 Higher ever capacity addition of 600 MW, in 1999.

2. SOLAR ENERGY

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 Solar energy is a very large inexhaustible power source. The power from the sun
intercepted by the earth is approximately 2.9*10^15 MW, which is many thousands of
times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy
source.
 Solar radiation we are getting 7 to 9 hours in a day, the amount of sunlight falling on the
geometrical location is known as “Insolation or incident solar radiation".
 Solar Insolation level is 4 to 7 KWh/Sq-m in average 300 sunny days. Northern Karnataka,
Rajasthan and some parts get 365 sunny days.
 Solar energy originates with the thermonuclear fusion reaction occurring in the sun.
 The spectrum of solar light at the earth surface is mostly spread across the visible & near.

 The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of
electricity.
a. SOLAR POTENTIAL IN INDIA

a. FORMS
OF
SOLAR
ENERGY
•
•
Light Energy
• Heat Energy

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3. PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY FROM PV CELLS

 Light hits the photovoltaic cell.
 Player absorbs the light energy

Fig.1 Structure of PV Cell

 Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles of radiant energy. When photons

strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed (transmitted through the cell),
Only the absorbed photons generate electricity.
 When the photons are absorbed, the energy of the photons is transferred to
electrons in the atoms of the solar cell. Solar cells are usually made of two thin
pieces of silicon, the substance that makes up sand and the second most common
substance on earth.
 One piece of silicon has a small amount of boron added to it, which gives it a
tendency to attract electrons. It is called the p-layer because of its positive
tendency

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 The other piece of silicon has a small amount of phosphorous added to it, giving it
an excess of free electrons. This is called the n-layer because it has a tendency to
give up negatively charged electrons.
 So the PN junction diode consists of N-layer made with Silicon and Phosphorous,
P-layer with Silicon and Boron. When the solar cells act like PN junction diodes, it
converts the vitality from sunlight into usable electrical energy when exposed to
sunlight. Sunlight striking the surface of the cell, electrons will be generated and
opposite side holes will be created. The Flowing of electrons causes electricity.
 The cells are very thin and fragile so they are sandwiched between a transparent
front sheet-usually glass, and a back sheet-usually glass or a type of tough plastic.
This protects them from breakage and from the weather.
 Solar cells are made of different types of materials i,e mono-crystalline,
polycrystalline, thin film.

4. SOLAR CELL, MODULE, ARRAY STRUCTURE

 Solar cell in the solar panel/module can generate approximately 0.5V to 0.6V, so if we
combined in series 36 cells we get around 18 volts.
 To increase their utility, a number of individual PV cells are interconnected together in a
sealed, weatherproof package called a Panel (Module). For example, a 12 V Panel

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(Module) will have 36cells connected in series and a 24 V Panel (Module) will have 72 PV
cells connected in series.
 Solar panels operates similarly to large semiconductors and utilize a large-area p-n
junction diode. Solar panel collects solar radiation from the sun and effectively converts
that energy to electricity
 To achieve the desired voltage and current, modules are wired in series and parallel forms
a panel called a PV Array. The flexibility of the modular PV system allows designers to
create solar power systems that can meet a wide variety of electrical needs.
 The cells are very thin and fragile so they are sandwiched between a transparent front
sheet-usually glass, and a back sheet-usually glass or a type of tough plastic. This protects
them from breakage and from the weather. An aluminium frame is fitted around the
module to enable easy fixing to a support structure.
 The total solar PV array capacity should not be less than the SPV plant capacity on max.
radiation day and shall be comprise of solar multi-crystalline modules of minimum 250
watts.
 The picture as mentioned, PV / Solar cells are wired in series and in parallel to form a PV /
Solar Panel (module). The number of series cells indicates the voltage of the Panel
(module), whereas the number of parallel cells indicates the current.
 If many cells are connected in series, shading of individual cells can lead to the destruction
of the shaded cell or of the lamination material, so the Panel (module) may blister and
burst. To avoid such an operational condition, Bypass Diodes are connected anti-parallel to
the solar cells as in Fig.3. As a consequence, larger voltage differences cannot arise in the
reverse-current direction of the solar cells. In practice, it is sufficient to connect one bypass
diode for every 15-20 cells. Bypass diodes also allow
current to flow through the PV module when it is
partially shaded, even if at a reduced voltage and
power.
 Bypass diodes do not cause any losses, because under normal operation, current does not
flow through them

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 The rated output power of any supplied module shall not have negative tolerance.
 The module frame, if any, shall be made of a corrosion-resistant material which shall be
electrolytically compatible with the structural material used for mounting the modules.
 The module shall be provided with a junction box with provision of external screw
terminal connection and with arrangement for provision for by-pass diode.

5) SOLAR PANEL TECHNOLOGIES :

A. Mono-Crystalline Technology:

This type of solar cell consists of a single layer of silicon. The cost of the panel is higher because
pure silicon is used; it is the most expensive solar cell to produce . The efficiency of this type of
solar cell is 14 to 17 %.Crystalline framework is homogeneous

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Produced by growing high purity, single crystal Si rods and slicing them into thin wafers. Most
commonly made by the Czochralski process Cell has an even, smooth look

Figure. Mono-crystalline type solar cell

B) Poly-Crystalline Technology:
To make polycrystalline silicon cells consist of liquid silicon. It is less efficient, because
some degree of degradation of the silicon crystals. However, this technology is easier and

cheaper to manufacture. The efficiency of this type of solar cell is 13 to 15 %.

Each cell is composed of a block of multiple crystals, rather than out of a single
silicon crystal.Cells have a distinct look grainy or mosaic.

C) Thin film Technology:

The Thin film solar cell uses semiconductor layers that are only a few micrometers
thick. The cost of thin film is lower because lower the material cost. It is less efficient than
the other types of silicon. It has advantages because it is placed on a flexible material,
prepare things like roof tiles. These materials have positive temperature coefficient, so we
can use in high temperatures. The efficiency of this type of solar cell is 5 to 7 %.

These include the following :

1) Arsenide
2) Copper indium Diselenide

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3) Cadmium Telluride
Figure. Thin film solar cell

6) SOLAR ARRAY PARAMETERS

The below graph shows the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current
and voltage (I x V). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages from short-circuit
to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a given radiation level.

Fig. Graph showing (I-V) characteristics.

 VOC = open-circuit voltage: – This is the maximum voltage that the array provides
when the terminals are not connected to any load (an open circuit condition). This
value is much higher than Vmp which relates to the operation of the PV array which
is fixed by the load. This value depends upon the number of PV panels connected
together in series.
 ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current provided by the PV array when the
output connectors are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This value is
much higher than Imp which relates to the normal operating circuit current.
 MPP = maximum power point – This relates to the point where the power supplied
by the array that is connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its maximum

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value, where MPP = Imp x Vmp. The maximum power point of a photovoltaic array
is measured in Watts (W) or peak Watts (Wp).
 FF = fill factor – The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum power that
the array can actually provide under normal operating conditions and the product of
the open-circuit voltage times the short-circuit current, ( Voc x Isc ) This fill factor
value gives an idea of the quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1
(unity), the more power the array can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and
0.8.

FF = Pmax /(Voc∗Isc) ; typical values = 0.70 to 0.75

 %eff = percent efficiency – The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio

between the maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared to
the amount of solar irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency of a typical solar
array is normally low at around 10-12%, depending on the type of cells
(monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin film) being used.
 Pinc = incident light energy = 100mW/cm2
 Effect of temperature = -0.45% / °C

a. Performance criterian
• Solar powerfully depends upon the irradiation, absorbing surface and sunlight. Absorbing
surface and sun should be vertical to each other. Solar cells are sensitive to temperature,
increases in temperature decreases the power generating capability. Mono and Poly
crystalline modules are negative temperature coefficient, thus when temperature
increases power decreases. Thin film modules are Positive temperature coefficient, thus
increase in temperature increases the performance. So thin film technology used in high
temperature regions. Increase in temperature causes slightly increase in current in the
solar cells and decreasing in voltage by a greater amount. The result is less power
production.
• Relative humidity affects the efficiency of Solar panel. Efficiency of Solar panel is high
during low relative humidity and also performance is high. During Morning and Evening

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time humidity will be more, thus Performance of the solar panel is minimized. During the
peak time, humidity will be less, thus Performance of the panel is maximized. That’s why
we are getting maximum output during peak time.
• Wind Speed is also considered for performance parameter. At higher Wind speed, the air
temperature decreases and output increases, So Wind Speed can help solar panels
perform more efficiently. Thus, during Installation, solar panels should be fixed above the
surface level that is 3 or 6 feet, this allows the wind to flow between the solar panels and
the roof.
• Finally, to get Maximum Output from the Solar panels we have better climatic conditions.
Having an optimum Temperature, more wind speeds, low relative humidity and high solar
insulation level
• During installation, we need to select a suitable place by determining geometrical
conditions. Then we need select suitable tilt for the solar panel. The angle should be
calculated based on the latitude of the particular location.
• India is situated in the Northern Hemisphere (above the equatorial region). So Panels
should be facing to south to get maximum output. when we face panel to the north getting
results less than facing in the south. Thus, Panels should be facing south to get the
maximum Sun shine.
b. Decide system voltage

Off-grid systems usually adopt one of three common system voltages: 12V, 24V or 48V

The PV industry adopts standardized 12V or 24V modules for

nominal output. You can connect PV modules in parallel for
increased current as well as increased system wattage with no
panel voltage change. It is better to have a series and parallel mix
where two (series) rows of four (parallel) PV panels can increase
the voltage of the system, with each PV module connected like
batteries in series, positive connectors to negative connectors. With four 12V panels connected

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in parallel, the voltage increases by four, giving a 48V array. Two rows

of PV panels of similar connection give the same total system voltage.

The electrical output of a PV module decreases as

temperatures rise. For peak operation, seat modules with a 2-3 inch
(5-8 cm) gap under the array for cooling air to circulate and maintain
maximum power output.

c. Instruments used to measure climatic data

An analysis of the solar irradiance, wind power, Temperature and

Humidity for Bengaluru, Karnataka India is presented. The analysis of
local weather data patterns shows that solar power, wind power and
Temperature can remunerate well for one another, and can furnish estimable
utilization factor for renewable energy applications. To measure the
climatic data using few instruments are here :
a) Solar Power Meter
b) Anemometer
c) Temperature and Humidity meter
d) lux meter

a) Solar Power Meter : It Measures the Intensity of the solar radiation striking the
earth. That is used to calculate overall energy, efficiency and placement of solar
systems. The STC value for irradiance is 1000 watts per square meter [W/m2 ]. Its
value varies from 0 W/m2 to 1250 W/m2. The 1000 W/m2 value represents full sun or
Peak sun.

b) Anemometer : It is a device used for measuring wind speed in the atmosphere in

m/s or km/hr.It measures the speed of airflow in the atmosphere, temperature and
humidity.

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c) Temperature and Humidity meter : This meter senses temperature and humidity in
atmosphere and it measures minimum, maximum real time values of room
temperature, humidity.

d) Lux meter : a lux meter used for measuring illuminance in work places.
The lux is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance.in
photometry, this is used as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by
the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface.

7) POWER CONDITIONING UNIT

Solar Power Conditioning unit (PCU) is an integrated system consisting of a solar
charge controller, inverter and a Grid charger. It provides the facility to charge the
battery bank through either a Solar or Grid/DG set. The PCU continuously monitors the
state of battery voltage, solar power output and the load. Due to constant usage of
power, if the battery voltage goes below a set level, the PCU will automatically transfer
the load to the Grid/DG power and also charge simultaneously. The PCU always gives
preference to the solar power and will use Grid/DG power only when the solar power /
battery charger is unable to meet the load requirement.

PCU design for highest efficiency:

A Solar PCU is an electronic unit which consists of the following functional units.
1. Solar charger.
2. Inverter.
3. Grid (mains utility) charger.
4. Output selector mechanism.
5. Battery bank.
6. Control algorithm.
1) Solar charger

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The solar charger controller is the part of the PCU which converts the solar energy
collected by the solar photovoltaic panel (SPV) to charge the battery. There are two main
types of solar chargers- PWM type and MPPT type.

a) PWM type solar charger:

In the PWM type solar charger , the SPV Panel is directly connected to the
battery by means of an electronic switch. Since the SPV panel is a current source,
it delivers charging current at a voltage plus the drop across the switching
element. This is a very elective and low cost charger. The drawback in this
method is that the SPV voltage is controlled by the battery voltage. Hence, it
does not operate at the peak power point of the SPV panel and so utilization is
low. Different technologies are used for switching the panel to the battery.
Combination of MOSPET and diode are most common.
Figure. PWM type solar charger

b) MPPT type solar charger :

In a MPPT type solar charger,an electronic conversion unit changes the
voltage of the solar panel to the battery level. Here, the panel voltage is not deed
on the battery voltage level.so the panel is operated at its peak power point.
Hence utilization of the panel is maximized. Drawback of such schemes is in the
costs and hence is practical only for larger system.

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Figure. MPPT type solar charger

Maximum Power Point Tracking is electronic tracking - usually digital.

The charge controller looks at the output of the panels and compares it to the
battery voltage. It then figures out what is the best power that the panel can put
out to charge the battery. It takes this and converts it to best voltage to get
maximum AMPS into the battery. (Remember, it is Amps into the battery that
counts). Most modern MPPT's are around 93-97% efficient in the conversion.
You typically get a 20 to 45% power gain in winter and 10-15% in summer. Actual
gain can vary widely depending weather, temperature, battery state of charge,
and other factors.
This is just the opposite of the seasonal variation for MPPT controllers.
Since panel temperatures are much lower in winter, they put out more power.
And winter is usually when you need the most power from your solar panels due
to shorter days.

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The green line has a sharp peak at the upper right - that represents the maximum power
point. An MPPT controller "looks" for that exact point, then does the voltage/current
conversion to change it to exactly what the battery needs. In real life, that peak moves around
continuously with changes in light conditions and weather.
An MPPT tracks the maximum power point, which is going to be different from the STC
(Standard Test Conditions) rating under almost all situations. Under very cold conditions a 120-
watt panel is actually capable of putting over 130+ watts because the power output goes up as
panel temperature goes down - but if you don't have some way of tracking that power point,
you are going to lose it. On the other hand under very hot conditions, the power drops - you lose
power as the temperature goes up. That is why you get less gain in summer.
MPPT's are most effective under these conditions: Winter, and/or cloudy or hazy days -
when the extra power is needed the most.
The power point tracker (and all DC to DC converters) operates by taking the DC input
current, changing it to AC, running through a transformer (usually a toroid, a doughnut looking
transformer), and then rectifying it back to DC, followed by the output regulator. In most DC to
DC converters, this is strictly an electronic process - no real smarts are involved except for some
regulation of the output voltage. Charge controllers for solar panels need a lot more smarts as
light and temperature conditions vary continuously all day long, and battery voltage changes.
Thus an SMART POWER TRACKING is used.

2) Inverter

The inverter is the heart of the solar PCU. It is the part of PCU that converts the DC
voltage from the battery to alternating current(ac) power to the output. Different
technologies exist for inverter. in the transformer based inverter , the dc-ac inversion
happens at low voltage of the battery and then this is stepped up to a 220V ac using a
transformer. This technology is being replaced world over by high efficiency Switched
Mode Power Supply (SMPS) based inverter. Here the dc voltage is the first
transformed to high voltage dc using a high frequency SMPS. High voltage dc is then
inverted.

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Figure. Block diagram of solar inverter

A solar inverter converts the DC (Direct Current) output of a PV solar panel into a utility
frequency AC (alternating current) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid (or)
used by a local, off-line electrical n/w.

In this proposed system, the solar energy is stored in the battery from PV cells. This energy
of the battery is altered to AC supply of 50Hz frequency using PWM inverter IC with
MOSFET to the driver MOSFET bridge & step-up the voltage by a transformer,  all in off-
line n/w only but not grid tie type.

 Types of inverters :
1. Off-grid Inverters:

Off-grid inverters, also known as stand-alone inverters, do not need to be hooked up to a solar
panel. Instead, they draw the DC power from batteries which are charged using PV arrays or
other resources like engine generators, hydro turbines, and wind turbines. Because these
inverters are isolated from utility grids, they do not require anti-islanding protection. Further,
they cannot export excess solar electricity into the grid. Off-grid inverters find use in remote
areas or when people want to live completely independent of the grid.

2. Grid-tied Inverters:

Grid-tied inverters are connected to a utility grid and function by matching their
frequency with that of the utility grid sine wave. They are designed to automatically shut down
in the event of a power cut for safety reasons. Hence, they cannot supply power during an

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outage.
It is also known as Solar-Grid-Battery mode of operation, the solar charger first charge the
battery and also supports the inverter to power the appliances. Once the solar energy stops
coming, the appliances are shifted to the grid utility by the output selector. The battery is not
discharged in this case till there is a grid failure.
This type of operation is suitable for installations where grid supply is irregular and the
user will want to use the grid power as long as it is available. The battery is kept reserved for
use when the grid fails. At the same time, in daytime, the loads will work in solar power. The
main focus here is to have uninterrupted power supply.
In any backup inverter, the grid charger comes on as soon as the grid input is turned ON.
So it will happen that both solar charger and grid charger turns ON in daytime. Such PCU cannot
differentiate between the content of charge from solar and grid. When the battery voltage
reaches a certain level, the output change to inverter and it could very well be discharging the
battery which was actually charged by grid charger!
Grid tie systems are becoming more popular as the price of solar drops and electric rates
go up. There are several brands of grid-tie only (that is, no battery) inverters available.  All of
these have built in MPPT. Efficiency is around 94% to 97% for the MPPT conversion on those.
 There are four types of grid-integrated solar PV inverters :
 Battery-Hybrid Inverters :
These are a mix of the above two inverters, which allow you to be mostly
independent of the grid but also sync with it in case of low solar or high consumption
days. Typically such inverters first charge the connected battery and then export any
excess power to the grid. Similarly, at night/cloud days – these inverters are smart
enough to first use the stored power for the consumption and after a certain threshold,
recharge the battery through the grid. Due to grid-syncing, they need to be installed with
the anti-islanding protection. These are a great solution for Indian consumers, but often
the utilities are not supportive of providing a net-metering connection to these hybrid
inverters and the regulations around the same are unclear.

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design life and 5 years warranty. The good inverters have 97 – 99% conversion from DC
to AC. The less sophisticated ones will only give about 90-92% conversion on the
ground. The performance difference is reflected in the price and serviceability
typically.. 

 Micro Inverters:
Micro-inverters are smaller in size and capacity than the standard string
inverters. The latter ranges from 1.5-5kW in size for residential applications, the former
is usually around 200-350W in size. Unlike the string inverters, these do not need an
array of panels to convert the DC. These are installed on the back of every panel and
are responsible for the conversion of the panel on which they are installed. These are
slightly costly but better for areas that have partial shading. These are also on-grid or
grid-connected inverters.
 Central Inverter :
These inverters are typically used in MW scale plants. They are huge, have
their own rooms with exhaust, etc. They have incredibly efficient and have much more
grid-related features like balancing, fluctuation management, etc. Unlike String
inverters, these start from 400KW typically.
Think of the car engine, when selecting your inverter. It’s technical, but most
people can understand the cost-performance metrics of engines and make an educated
decision as per their requirements and budget.

3) Grid Charger:

 It is an auxiliary charger in a Solar PCU. It charge’s the battery from the grid when solar
is not available. Different type of chargers are available in the market. Some inverters are even
bi-directional and have the ability to charge the battery in the reverse direction from the grid.

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The system is always placed in the solar mode, under this condition the power from
the PCU will be coming from the inverter. But when solar energy is not sufficient enough the
appliances will be operated from the grid. This is made possible with the help of a relay.

5) Battery bank:

  The battery bank stores the solar charge for use by the inverter. In a normal day
solar energy keeps varying depending on cloud formation, shadow and time of day etc. The
loads connected to the inverter will also be having its own variations in loading pattern. Hence it
is very essential to have a battery backup to act as a buffer and for storage of electricity
produced through solar. Use C10 tubular batteries which are available in the market exclusively
for solar systems.

Active material : The active materials in a battery are the raw composition materials that form
the positive and negative plates, and are reactants in the electrochemical cell. In lead-acid
batteries, the active materials are lead dioxide (PbO2) in the positive plates and metallic sponge
lead (Pb) in the negative plates, which react with a sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution during battery
operation
 Objective
Storage medium for energy produced by PV array Primary functions of battery
 Apart from everyday storage.
 To provide autonomy during cloudy days.
 To supply power to electrical loads at stable voltages and currents.
 To supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical loads or appliances.

6) Control Algorithm:

This is the part which distinguishes a solar PCU from an ordinary inverter + solar
charger. This is the part which controls the priority and optimally select which is the source of
charging solar or grid or both. It also selects the source of ac output to be either from the
inverter or from the grid.  It can operate in either Solar-Battery-Grid or as Solar-Grid-Battery.

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In solar-battery-grid, the battery is charged first and also supports the inverter to
power the appliances. Once the solar energy stops, the PCU starts consuming the stored energy
from the battery. Once the stored energy is used to a particular level, the inverter stops and the
connections to the appliances is given from the grid with the help of output selector. The main
focus here is to save the electricity bill cost.
This type is used at places where power outage is more and the consumer wants to use
the grid as long as it is available. The battery is kept as a backup to use when the grid fails. In this
condition at day time the load will work in solar power. Here the main purpose is to have
uninterrupted solar power. The efficiency of the inverter is one of the most important factor
which decides the overall cost of the system. For eg transformer based inverter has only 70%
efficiency, while for SMPS based high frequency inverter the efficiency is 90%. In short it is very
important to choose the right type of technology for a solar PCU. Not doing so, one would never
get the real benefit of the installed solar system.

 Other important Features/Protections required in the PCU

• Authentic tracking of the solar arrays maximum power operation voltage

(MPPT).
• Array ground fault detection.
• LCD and piezoelectric keypad operator interface Menu driven.
• Automatic fault conditions reset for all parameters like voltage, frequency
and/or black out.
• MOV type surge arresters on AC and DC terminals for over voltage protection
from lightning-induced surges.
• PCU should be rated to operate at 0 to 55 deg. Centig norade above ambient
temp
• All parameters should be accessible through an industry standard
communication link.
• The PCU should go in sleep mode when there is no grid supply.

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• Since the PCU is to be used in solar photo voltaic energy system, it should have high
operational efficiency. The idling current at no load must not exceed 2 percent of the
full-load current.
• There shall be a direct current isolation provided at the output by means of a suitable
isolating transformer.
• The PCU shall include appropriate self-protective and self-diagnostic features to
protect itself and the PV array from damage in the event of PCU component failure or
from parameters beyond the PCU’s safe operating range due to internal or external
causes. The self-protective features shall not allow signals from the PCU front panel to
cause the PCU to be operated in a manner which may be unsafe or damaging. Faults
due to malfunctioning within the PCU, including commutation failure, shall be cleared
by the PCU protective devices and not by the existing site utility grid service circuit
breaker.
• The PCU shall go to shut down/standby mode, with its contacts open, under the
following conditions before attempting an automatic restart after an appropriate time
delay; in sufficient solar power output etc.
• When the power available from the PV array is insufficient to supply the losses of the
PCU, the PCU shall go to a standby/shutdown mode. The PCU control shall prevent
excessive cycling during rightly shut down or extended periods of insufficient solar
radiation.
• The PCU’s should be tested from the MNRE approved test centres / NABL /BIS
accredited testing- calibration laboratories. In case of imported power conditioning
units, these should be approved by international test houses. Party must supply and
upload the test report of PCU /inverter along with the tender document.

8) Utility-Grid Over or Under Frequency

The PCU shall restart after an over or under frequency shutdown when
the utility grid voltage has returned to the within limits for minimum of two
minutes.

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 The PCU generated harmonics measures at the point of connection to the

utility services when operating at the rated power shall not exceed a total
harmonic current distortion of 3 percent, a single frequency current distortion of 3
percent and single frequency voltage distortion of 1 percent, when the first
through the fiftieth integer harmonics of 50 Hz are considered.
 The PCU Power factor at the point of utility service connection shall be 0.95
lagging or leading when operating at above 25 percent of the rated output, but
may be less than 0.95 lagging below 25 percent of the rated output.
 The high voltage and power circuits of the PCU shall be separated from the
low voltage and control circuits. All conductors shall be made of standard copper.
 The PCU shall withstand a high voltage test of 2000 V rms, between either
the input or the output terminals and the cabinet (chassis).
 Full protection against accidental open circuit and reverse polarity at the
input shall be provided.
 The PCU shall not produce Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) which may
cause malfunctioning of electronic and electrical instruments including
communication equipment, which are located within the facility in which the PCU
is housed.
 The PCU shall have an appropriate display on the front panel to display the
instantaneous AC power output and the DC voltage, current and power input. The
display shall be visible from outside the PCU enclosure. Operational status of the
PCU, alarms, trouble indicators and ac and the dc disconnect switch positions shall
also be communicated by appropriate messages or indicator lights on the front
cover of the PCU enclosure.

 Electrical safety, earthing and protection:

A) Internal Faults: In built protection for internal faults including excess temperature,
commutation failure, overload and cooling fan failure (if fitted) is obligatory.

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B) Galvanic Isolation: Galvanic Isolation is required to avoid any DC

component being injected into the grid and the potential for AC components
appearing at the array.
i. Over Voltage Protection: Over Voltage Protection against atmospheric
lightning discharge to the PV array is required. Protection is to be provided
against voltage fluctuations in the grid itself and internal faults in the
power conditioner, operational errors and switching transients.

C) Earth fault supervision: An integrated earth fault device shall have to be provided
to detect eventual earth fault on DC side and shall send message to the supervisory
system.

D) Fast acting semiconductor type current limiting fuses at the main bus-bar to
protect from the grid short circuit contribution.

i. The PCU shall include an easily accessible emergency OFF button located at an
appropriate position on the unit.
ii. The PCU shall include ground lugs for equipment and PV array grounding. The
DC circuit ground shall be a solid single point ground connection in accordance
with WEC 69042.
iii. Components and circuit boards mounted inside the enclosures shall be clearly
identified with appropriate permanent designations, which shall also serve to
identify the items on the supplied drawings.
iv. All doors, covers, panels and cable exists shall be gasketed or otherwise
designed to limit the entry of dust and moisture. All doors shall be equipped
with locks. All openings shall be provided with grills or screens with openings no
larger than 0.95 cm.
v. The design and fabrication of the PCU the site temperature (0 O to 70O C),
incident sunlight and the effect of ambient temperature on component life shall
be considered carefully. Similar consideration shall be given to the heat sinking
and thermal for blocking diodes and similar components.

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9) ADVANTAGES
 Director room temperature conversion of light to electricity through simple solid-state
devices.
 Absence of moving parts.
 Ability to function unattended for long periods as evidence in space program.
 Power levels – voltage/current can be achieved by more integration.
 Maintenance cost is low, as they are easy to operate.
 They do not create pollution.
 They have a long effective life.
 They are highly reliable.
 They consume no fuel to operate, as the Sun’s energy is free.
 Rapid response in output to input radiation.
 Wider power handling capabilities.
 Easy to fabricate.
 Amenable to on-site installation.
 They can be used with or without Sun tracking making possible wide range of
applications possibilities.
 It is an environmentally clean source of energy. Free and available in adequate quantities
in all most all parts of the world where people live.

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