Filter Realization

DSP: Unit V — FIR Filters
Unit V: FIR Filters

FIR Filter Realization
Rajini M
Dept. of Elect. & Comm. Engineering,
PES University;
UE18EC253: DSP
Overview
1 Introduction
2 Structures for Realization of Discrete-Time Systems

Basic Building Blocks
3 Filter Structures
4 IIR Filter Structures
5 FIR Filter Structures

Direct-form structure
Cascade-form structure
Lattice structure
6 Lattice structure (IIR)
Introduction
Digital Filters
A Linear time-invariant discrete-time systems are

characterised by the the general linear constant coefficient
difference equation
N−1
X M−1
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k)
k=1 k=0
By means of z -transform, linear time-invariant discrete-time

systems are characterised by ration transfer function
PM−1 −k
k=0 bk z
H(z) =
1 + N−1 −k
P
k=1 ak z
Introduction
Digital Filters
Depending on the structure of H(z), we have two types of
digital filter:
1 FIR filters: All zero systems (also called as moving average
system).
M
X
y (n) = bk x(n − k)
k=1
N
X
H(z) = 1 + ak z −k
k=1
2 IIR filters: All pole systems (also called as autoregressive
system).
N
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + b0 x(n)
k=1
1
H(z) = PN
1+ −k
k=1 ak z
Structures for Realization of Discrete-Time Systems
Factors influence the choice of structure
The block diagram representation of a system is referred to as

realization.
The factor that plays an role in deciding the structures:
1. Computational complexity
2. Memory requirements
3. Finite word length effects
Structures for Realization of Discrete-Time Systems
Basic Building Blocks
Filter Structures
Filter Structures
The broad category of filter structures:

1. Direct-form structure
2. Cascade form structure
3. Lattice structure
4. Parallel structure
FIR filters: 1, 2 and 3.
IIR filters: 1, 2, 3 and 4.
IIR Filter Structures
IIR Filters
The transfer function of IIR filter (pole-zero systems)
Y (z) b0 + b1 z −1 + · · · + bM−1 z −(M−1)

H(z) = =
X (z) 1 + a1 z −1 + · · · + aN−1 z −(N−1)
The corresponding difference equation of an IIR filter is given by

difference equation
N−1
X M−1
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k)
k=1 k=0
IIR Filter Structures: Direct-form I
Direct-form I
IIR Filter Structure: Direct-form II
Direct-form II
IIR Filter Structure: Direct-form II

IIR Filter Structure: Cascade form
Cascade form
IIR Filter Structure: Parallel form

Parallel form
FIR Filter Structures
FIR Filters
A finite duration impulse response filter has a system function

M−1
X
H(z) = bk z −k = b0 + b1 z −1 + · · · + bM−1 z −(M−1) (1)
k=0
The impulse response h(n) is

bn , 0 ≤ n ≤ M − 1;
h(n) =
0, otherwise
The difference equation is
y (n) = b0 + b1 x(n − 1) + · · · + bM−1 x(n − M + 1) (2)
Length of the filter (number of taps/ coefficients) = M

Order the filter = M − 1
The direct form structure of FIR filter with difference equation

given by eq.(2) is
This structure requires M − 1 memory locations (to store

M − 1 previous inputs).
Complexity: M multiplications and M − 1 additions per
output point.
This realization is often called as traversal of tapped-delay line
filter.
Example 1: Direct-form structure
Consider the causal linear time invariant system with system

function H(z)
1 1 2
H(z) = 1 − z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + z −4
3 6 5
Y (z) 1 −1 1 −2 2
H(z) = = 1 − z + z + z −3 + z −4
X (z) 3 6 5
1 1 2
Y (z) = X (z) − z −1 X (z) + z −2 X (z) + z −3 X (z) + z −4 X (z)
3 6 5
1 1 2
y (n) = x(n) − x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) + + x(n − 4)
3 6 5
The direct form structure of the FIR filter
with b0 = 1, b1 = − 13 , b2 = 16 , b3 = 1, b4 = 2
5
The equivalent structure is
with b0 = 1, b1 = − 13 , b2 = 16 , b3 = 1, b4 = 2
5
The cascade realization follows from eq.(1).

Factor the system function H(z) into second order FIR system
so that
b1 −1 bM−1 −(M−1)
H(z) = b0 (1 + z + ··· + z )
b1 b0
K
Y
= Hk (z)
k=1
  
 (M−1)/2
Y
(1 + B1k z −1 + B2k z −2 )

b0  M odd






 k=1
H(z) =  
(M−2)/2


 Y
(1 + B1k z −1 + B2k z −2 ) M even

b (1 + b10 z −1 )

 0



k=1
Figure: (a) M even (Order = M − 1 odd) (b) M odd (Order = M − 1

odd)
Example 2: Cascade-form structure
Obtain the cascade-form structure realization of the given FIR

filter system function
6 7 26 1
H(z) = 1 + z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + z −4
5 5 25 5
FIR filter length M = 5 (Order = 4). With factorization we get

1 −1 −2 −1 1 −2
H(z) = 1 + z + z 1+z + z
5 5
Example 2: Cascade-form structure
The cascade-form realization of H(z)

Lattice structure
Lattice structures for FIR filter
Lattice structures offers many advantages over other filter

structures, making them popular structure for digital speech
processing and adaptive filters.
Modular in nature: If filter order is changed then we need to
extra stages to the old stages.
Robust: less sensitive to coefficient quantization effects.
Computationally efficient filter structure.
We begin the development of lattice structure by considering
sequence of FIR filters. We then extend this to IIR filters (All pole
systems only).
Lattice structure
Consider the FIR filer system functions (all zero system)

m
X
Hm (z) = hm (k)z −k = Am (z), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
k=0
Hm (z) is an mth degree polynomial.

By definition Am (z) is a polynomial
m
X
Am (z) = 1 + αm (k)z −k , m≥1
k=1
and A0 (z) = 1.
By comparing the coefficients of Hm (z) and Am (z), we have
1. hm (0) = 1 = αm (0).
2. hm (k) = αm (k), k = 1, 2, · · · , m
Lattice structure
Lattice structure (FIR) cont.

If {x(n)} is the input sequence to the filter Am (z) and {y (n)} is
the output sequence, we have
m
X
y (n) = x(n) + αm (k)x(n − k)
k=1
where, αm (k) are the direct-form structure coefficients

Lattice structure
Now suppose that we have a first-order filter (m = 1). The output

of such a filter is
y (n) = x(n) + α1 (1)x(n − 1) (4)
This output can also be obtained form a first-order or single-stage

lattice filter as
The output from the top branch is exactly eq.(4), if we select

K1 = α1 (1), K1 is called reflection coefficient.
Lattice structure
Next consider an FIR filter with m = 2. The output from

direct-form filter structure is
y (n) = x(n) + α2 (1)x(n − 1) + α2 (2)x(n − 2) (5)
By cascading two lattice structures, we can obtain eq.(5)

Lattice structure
The output of the first stage is

f1 (n) = x(n) + K1 x(n − 1) (6)
g1 (n) = K1 x(n) + x(n − 1) (7)
The output from second stage is
f2 (n) = f1 (n) + K2 g1 (n − 1) (8)
g2 (n) = K2 f1 (n) + g1 (n − 1)
Substitute f1 (n) and g1 (n − 1) from eq.(6) and (7) in f2 (n), we
obtain
f2 (n) = x(n) + K1 x(n − 1) + K2 (K1 x(n − 1) + x(n − 2))
= x(n) + K1 (1 + K2 )x(n − 1) + K2 x(n − 2) (9)
Now comparing eq.(5) with (9), we get
α2 (2) = K2 , α2 (1) = K1 (1 + K2 )
α2 (1)
or equivalently, K2 = α2 (2), K1 = (1+α2 (2))
Lattice structure
By continuing this process for an M − 1 stages,
f0 (n) = g0 (n) = 1
fm (n) = fm−1 (n) + Km gm−1 (n − 1), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
gm (n) = Km fm−1 (n) + gm−1 (n − 1), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
Then the output of (M − 1)th -stage
filter corresponds to the
output of (M − 1) order FIR filter, y (n) = fM−1 (n).
Lattice structure
The top branch gives the filter output, which is the output of an
FIR filter of order m, that is
m
X
y (n) = fm (n) = αm (k)x(n − k), αm (0) = 1
k=0
The z-transform relationship is

m
X
Fm (z) = αm (k)z −k X (z) = Am (z)X (z)
k=0
Equivalently,
Fm (z) Fm (z)
Am (z) = =
X (z) F0 (z)
Lattice structure
Now, consider the lower branch of the lattice structure
g2 (n) = g2 (n) = K2 f1 (n) + g1 (n − 1)

= K2 (x(n) + K1 x(n − 1)) + K1 x(n − 1) + x(n − 2)
= K2 x(n) + K1 (1 + K2 )x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) (10)
= α2 (2)x(n) + α2 (1)x(n) + x(n − 2)
Consequently, the filter coefficients are {α2 (2), α2 (1), 1}, whereas
the coefficients for the filter that produces output f2 (n) are
{1, α2 (1), α2 (2)}. Hence the two sets of filter coefficients are in
reverse order.
Define,
m
X m
X
gm (n) = αm (m − k)x(n − k) = βm (k)x(n − k)
k=0 k=0
where, βm (k) = αm (m − k).

Lattice structure
In the z-transform domain,

m
X
Gm (z) = βm (k)z −k X (z) = Bm (z)X (z)
k=0
Gm (z) Gm (z)
Bm (z) = =
X (z) G0 (z)
where, Bm (z) represents the system function of the FIR filter with
coefficients {βm },
m
X
Bm (z) = βm (k)z −k
k=0
since βm (k) = αm (m − k),

Lattice structure
m
X
Bm (z) = αm (m − k)z −k
k=0
Xm
= αm (l)z l−m
l=0
m
X
= z −m αm (l)z l
l=0
−m
= z Am (z −1 )
Hence, Bm (z) is called the reciprocal or reverse polynomial of

Am (z).
Lattice structure
So far, we have established the following relationships
Fm (z) Fm (z)
Am (z) = =
X (z) F0 (z)
Gm (z) Gm (z)
Bm (z) = =
X (z) G0 (z)
Bm (z) = z −m Am (z −1 )
Lattice structure
Taking z-transform on the following equations
f0 (n) = g0 (n) = 1
fm (n) = fm−1 (n) + Km gm−1 (n − 1), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1

gm (n) = Km fm−1 (n) + gm−1 (n − 1), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
We get,
F0 (z) = G0 (z) = 1
Fm (z) = Fm−1 (z) + Km z −1 Gm−1 (z), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
Gm (n) = Km Fm−1 (z) + z −1 Gm−1 (z), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
Lattice structure
If we divide each equation by X (z), we obtain
A0 (z) = B0 (z) = 1
Am (z) = Am−1 (z) + Km z −1 Bm−1 (z), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1

−1
Bm (n) = Km Am−1 (z) + z Bm−1 (z), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1
Thus the lattice stage is described in the z-domain by the matrix
equation
Am (z) 1 Km Am−1 (z)
=
Bm (z) Km 1 z −1 Bm−1 (z)
Remember:
Am (z) = m −k and K = α (m)
P
k=0 αm (k)z m m
Lattice structure
Conversion from lattice coefficients to direct-form

coefficients
Lattice structure
Conversion from lattice coefficients to direct-form coefficients
The direct-form FIR filter coefficients {αm (k)} can be obtained

from the lattice coefficients {Ki } by using the following relations:
A0 (z) = B0 (z) = 1
Am (z) = Am−1 (z) + Km z −1 Bm−1 (z), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1

Bm (z) = z −m Am (z −1 )
The solution is obtained recursively beginning with m = 1.

We obtain a sequence of (M − 1) FIR filters, one for each
value of m.
Lets take an example.
Lattice structure
Example 3: Lattice structure (FIR)
Given a three stage lattice filter with the coefficients

K1 = 1/4, K2 = 1/4, K3 = 1/3, determine the FIR filter
coefficients for the direct-form structure.
Solution: Begin with m = 1 and wkt A0 (z) = B0 (z) = 1, we have
A1 (z) = A0 (z) + K1 z −1 B0 (z)

= 1 + 1/4z −1
= α1 (0) + α1 (1)z −1
Thus the first-order FIR filter coefficients are α1 (0) = 1 and

α1 (1) = 1/4. Since B1 (z) is the reversal of A1 (z),
B1 (z) = 1/4 + z −1
Lattice structure
Now, m = 2
A2 (z) = A1 (z) + K2 z −1 B1 (z)
= 1 + 3/8z −1 + 1/2z −2
= α2 (0) + α2 (1)z −1 + α2 (2)z −2
Also,
B2 (z) = 1/2 + 3/8z −1 + z −2
Finally, the addition of third stage
A3 (z) = A2 (z) + K3 z −1 B2 (z)
= 1 + 13/24z −1 + 5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3
= α3 (0) + α3 (1)z −1 + α3 (2)z −2 + α3 (3)z −3
The desired direct-form FIR filter is characterized by the
coefficients,
α3 (0) = 1, α3 (1) = 13/24, α3 (2) = 5/8, α3 (3) = 1/3
Lattice structure
Conversion form direct-form coefficients to lattice

coefficients
Lattice structure
Conversion form direct-form coefficients to lattice coefficients
Suppose that we are given the FIR coefficients for the

direct-form structure or equivalently Am (z), then wkt
Km = αm (m).
Similarly, to obtain Km−1 we need polynomial Am−1 (z).
Consequently, we need to find polynomials Am (z) starting
from m = M − 1 and stepping down successively to m = 1.
The desired recursive relation for the polynomial is
Am (z) = Am−1 (z) + Km z −1 Bm−1 (z)
= Am−1 (z) + Km (Bm (z) − Km Am−1 (z))
Solving for Am−1 (z), we obtain
Am (z) − Km Bm (z)
Am−1 (z) = , m = M − 1, M − 2, · · · , 1
1 − Km2
Observe that this procedure works as long as |Km | =
6 1.
Lattice structure
Example 4: Lattice structure (FIR)
Determine the lattice coefficients corresponding to the FIR filter

with system function
H(z) = A3 (z) = 1 + 13/24z −1 + +5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3
Solution: First we note that K3 = 1/3. Furthermore,
B3 (z) = 1/3 + 5/8z −1 + +13/24z −2 + z −3
The step down relationship with m = 3 yields
A3 (z) − K3 B3 (z)
A2 (z) = = 1 + 3/8z −1 + 1/2z −2
1 − K32
Hence, K2 = 1/2 and B2 (z) = 1/2 + 3/8z −1 + z −2 .
A2 (z) − K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = = 1 + 1/4z −1
1 − K22
Hence, K1 = 1/4.
Lattice structure
Example 5: FIR filter
Realize the following FIR system H(z) = 1 + 3z −1 + 2z −2 in the

following forms (a) cascade form (b) lattice form.
Solution:
(a) Cascade-form: H(z) = (1 + z −1 )(1 + 2−2 ) = H1 (z)H2 (z)
(b) Lattice form:
H(z) = A2 (z) = 1 + 3z −1 + 2z −2 = 1 + α2 (1)z −1 + α2 (2)z −2
Hence, K2 = α2 (2) = 2. And Bm (z) = z −m Am (z)
B2 (z) = 2 + 3z −1 + z −2
For m = 1,
A2 (z) − K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = = 1 + z −1 = α1 (1) + α1 (1)z −1
1 − K22
Hence, K1 = α1 (1) = 1.
Lattice structure
Lattice structure
Realize the following FIR system

H(z) = 1 − 1.3343z −1 + 0.9025z −2
in the following forms (a) direct form (b) lattice form.
Solution:
Y (z)
(a)Direct-form: H(z) = 1 − 1.3343z −1 + 0.9025z −2 = X (z)
y (n) = x(n) − 1.3343x(n − 1) + 0.9025x(n − 2)

(b)Lattice form:
H(z) = A2 (z) = 1−1.3343z −1 +0.9025z −2 = 1+α2 (1)z −1 +α2 (2)z −2
Hence, K2 = α2 (2) = 0.9025. And Bm (z) = z −m Am (z)
B2 (z) = 0.9025 − 1.3343z −1 + z −2

Lattice structure
For m = 2,
A2 (z) − K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = 2
= 1 − 0.7013z −1 = α1 (1) + α1 (1)z −1
1 − K2
Hence, K1 = α1 (1) = −0.7013

Lattice structure
An FIR filter is described by the difference equation
y (n) = 2x(n) + 13/12x(n − 1) + 5/4x(n − 2) + 2/3x(n − 3)
Determine its lattice form.

Solution:
Y (z) = 2X (z) + 13/12z −1 X (z) + 5/4z −2 X (z) + 2/3z −3 X (z)

Y (z)
= H(z) = 2 + 13/12z −1 + 5/4z −2 + 2/3z −3
X (z)
H(z) = K0 A3 (z) = 2(1 + 13/24z −1 + 5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3 )
A3 (z) = 1 + 13/24z −1 + 5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3
Hence,
K3 = α3 (3) = 1/3
Lattice structure
B3 (z) = 1/3 + 5/8z −1 + 13/24z −2 + z −3

For m = 2,
A2 (z) = 1 − 3/8z −1 + 1/2z −2
B2 (z) = 1/2 − 3/8z −1 + z −2
Hence, K2 = 1/2 For m = 1,
A1 (z) = 1 + 1/4z −1
Hence, K1 = 1/4.
Lattice structure (IIR)
IIR Filter (All pole systems)

Let an N th order all-pole system function H(z) is given by
1 1
H(z) = PN =
1 + k=1 aN (k)z −k A N (z)
The difference equation and direct-form realization of this system

are
N
X
y (n) = − aN (k)y (n − k) + x(n) (11)
k=1
If we interchange the roles of input and output , we obtain

N
X
x(n) = − aN (k)x(n − k) + y (n)
k=1
or, equivalently
N
X
y (n) = x(n) + aN (k)x(n − k) (12)
k=1
We observe that
Eq.(12) describes an FIR system having the system function
H(z) = AN (z).
Eq.(11) represents an IIR system with the system function
H(z) = AN1(z) .
One system can be obtained from the other by interchanging
the roles of input and output.
FIR IIR
x(n) = f0 (n) = g0 (n) x(n) = f1 (n)
y (n) = f1 (n) y (n) = f0 (n) = g0 (n)
Therefore, in IIR filter given the input fN (n) = x(n), we must
successively find fN−1 (n), fN−1 (n), · · · , f0 (n). Rearranging FIR
filter fm (n) equation, we get,
fm−1 (n) = fm (n) − Km gm−1 (n − 1)
The equation for gm (n) remains unchanged.
The resulting set of equations
fN (n) = x(n)
fm−1 (n) = fm (n) − Km gm−1 (m − 1), m = N, N − 1, · · · , 1

gm (n) = Km fm−1 (n) + gm−1 (n − 1), m = N, N − 1, · · · , 1
y (n) = f0 (n) = g0 (n)
The corresponding structure is
Consider single stage lattice structure for IIR filter
x(n) = f1 (n)
f0 (n) = f1 (n) − K1 g0 (n − 1)
g1 (n) = K1 f0 (n) + g0 (n − 1)
y (n) = f0 (n) = x(n) − K1 y (n − 1)
Similarly for two stage lattice structure for IIR filter
x(n) = f2 (n)
First stage outputs Second stage outputs

f1 (n) = f2 (n) − K2 g1 (n − 1) f0 (n) = f1 (n) − K1 g0 (n − 1)
g2 (n) = K1 f1 (n) + g1 (n − 1) g1 (n) = K1 f0 (n) + g0 (n − 1)
y (n) = f0 (n) = g0 (n) = −K1 (1 + K2 )y (n − 1) − K2 y (n − 2) + x(n)
g2 (n) = K2 y (n) + K1 (1 + K2 )y (n − 1) + y (n − 2)
Clearly, the above difference equation represents a two pole IIR
system.
Taking z-transform,
Y (z) 1 1
= H(z) = =
X (z) A2 (z) 1 + K1 (1 + K2 )z −1 − K2 z −2
Gm (z)
= B2 (z) = K2 + K1 (1 + K2 )z −1 + z −2
Y (z)
It must be noted that coefficients of A2 (z) and B2 (z) are in
reverse order and B2 (z) = z −2 A2 (z)
Therefore, in general the system function for all-pole IIR system is
Y (z) F0 (z) 1
= =
X (z) FN (z) AN (z)
Similarly,
GN (z) GN (z)
= = BN (z) = z −N AN (z)
Y (z) G0 (z)
Hence, we have the lattice parameters or reflection

coefficients Km , for both the all-pole and all-zero lattice
structure are the same.
The two lattice structures differ only in the interconnections
of their signal flow graphs.
Stability of All-pole System (Schur-Cohn Stability

test)
An all-pole system is stable if all the roots of the denominator

polynomial AN (z)are inside the unit circle.
N
X
AN (z) = 1 + = 1 + αN (1)z −1 + · · · + αN (N)z −N
k=1
The Schur-Cohn Stability test states that the polynomial

AN (z) has all its roots inside the unit circle iff
|Km | < 1 m = 1, 2, · · · , N
Example 8: IIR filter lattice structure
Consider an all-pole IIR filter given by

1
H(z) =
1+ 13/24z −1 + 5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3
Determine the lattice structure. Comment on its stability.
Solution:
We have m = N = 3 and
1 1
H(z) = =
A3 (z) 1 + 13/24z + 5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3
−1
A3 (z) = 1 + 13/24z −1 + 5/8z −2 + 1/3z −3

Hence, K3 = 1/3.
B3 (z) = 1/3 + 5/8z −1 + 13/24z −2 + z −3

With m = 2,
A3 (z) − K3 B3 (z)
A2 (z) = = 1 + 3/8z −1 + 1/2z −2
1 − K32
Hence, K2 = 1/2
B2 (z) = 1/2 + 3/8z −1 + z −2
With m = 1,
A2 (z) − K2 B2 (z)
A1 (z) = = 1 + 1/4z −1
1 − K22
Hence, K1 = 1/4. Since all the reflection coefficients satisfy
|Km | < 1, the given system is stable.
Determine the impulse response of an FIR filter with reflection

coefficients K1 = 0.6, K2 = 0.3, K3 = 0.5, K4 = 0.9.
Solution:
To find the impulse response h(n), we need the H(z), the system
function. But H(z) = A4 (z). We find the polynomial A4 (z)
recursively.
Recall:
A0 = B0 = 1.
Am (z) = Am−1 (z) + Km z −1 Bm−1 z.
Bm (z) = z −m A(z −1 )
A1 (z) = A0 (z) + K1 z −1 B0 (z) = 1 + 0.6z −1
B1 (z) = 0.6 + z −1
Similarly,
A2 (z) = A1 (z) + K2 z −1 B1 (z) = 1 + 0.78z −1 + 0.3z −2
B2 (z) = 0.3 + 0.78z −1 + z −2

and
A3 (z) = A2 (z) + K3 z −1 B2 (z) = 1 + 0.93z −1 + 0.69z −2 + 0.5z −3
B3 (z) = 0.5 + 0.69z −1 + 0.93z −2 + z −3

Finally,
H(z) = A4 (z) = A3 (z)+K4 z −1 B3 (z) = 1+1.38z −1 +1.311z −2 +1.337z −3 +
Thus the impulse response is
h(n) = {1, .38, 1.311, 1.337, 0.9}

Example 9: IIR filter
Find the lattice structure for the resonator

1
H(z) =
1 − 2r cos ω0 z −1 + r 2 z −2
What happens if r = 1?
Solution:
(a) K2 = r 2 , K1 = − 2r1+r
cos ω0
2 .
(b) When r = 1, the system becomes an oscillator
Thank you

Filter Realization

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Filter Realization

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DSP: Unit V — FIR Filters

Unit V: FIR Filters

2 Structures for Realization of Discrete-Time Systems

4 IIR Filter Structures

5 FIR Filter Structures

A Linear time-invariant discrete-time systems are

By means of z -transform, linear time-invariant discrete-time

Factors influence the choice of structure

The block diagram representation of a system is referred to as

The broad category of filter structures:

The transfer function of IIR filter (pole-zero systems)

Y (z) b0 + b1 z −1 + · · · + bM−1 z −(M−1)

The corresponding difference equation of an IIR filter is given by

IIR Filter Structures: Direct-form I

IIR Filter Structure: Direct-form II

IIR Filter Structure: Direct-form II

IIR Filter Structure: Cascade form

IIR Filter Structure: Parallel form

A finite duration impulse response filter has a system function

The impulse response h(n) is

The difference equation is

y (n) = b0 + b1 x(n − 1) + · · · + bM−1 x(n − M + 1) (2)

Length of the filter (number of taps/ coefficients) = M

The direct form structure of FIR filter with difference equation

This structure requires M − 1 memory locations (to store

Example 1: Direct-form structure

Consider the causal linear time invariant system with system

Example 1: Direct-form structure

The direct form structure of the FIR filter

Example 1: Direct-form structure

The equivalent structure is

The cascade realization follows from eq.(1).

Figure: (a) M even (Order = M − 1 odd) (b) M odd (Order = M − 1

Example 2: Cascade-form structure

Obtain the cascade-form structure realization of the given FIR

Example 2: Cascade-form structure

The cascade-form realization of H(z)

Lattice structures for FIR filter

Lattice structures offers many advantages over other filter

Consider the FIR filer system functions (all zero system)

Hm (z) is an mth degree polynomial.

Lattice structure (FIR) cont.

where, αm (k) are the direct-form structure coefficients

Now suppose that we have a first-order filter (m = 1). The output

y (n) = x(n) + α1 (1)x(n − 1) (4)

This output can also be obtained form a first-order or single-stage

The output from the top branch is exactly eq.(4), if we select

Next consider an FIR filter with m = 2. The output from

y (n) = x(n) + α2 (1)x(n − 1) + α2 (2)x(n − 2) (5)

By cascading two lattice structures, we can obtain eq.(5)

The output of the first stage is

By continuing this process for an M − 1 stages,

The z-transform relationship is

Now, consider the lower branch of the lattice structure

g2 (n) = g2 (n) = K2 f1 (n) + g1 (n − 1)

where, βm (k) = αm (m − k).

In the z-transform domain,

since βm (k) = αm (m − k),

Hence, Bm (z) is called the reciprocal or reverse polynomial of

So far, we have established the following relationships

Taking z-transform on the following equations

fm (n) = fm−1 (n) + Km gm−1 (n − 1), m = 0, 1, 2, · · · , M − 1

If we divide each equation by X (z), we obtain