Lecture Slide Unit V Structure Geology Concepts

15-11-2019
Disclaimer: This presentation is prepared only for the understanding of the students about the concepts of structure geology from various sources. DR. ATUL KUMAR PATIDAR -2019
Scale
Disclaimer: This presentation is prepared only for the understanding of the students about the structure Geology.
Sources are from, Research gate, ebooks, S.K Garg and google.com. Dr Atul Kumar Patidar 2019
UNIT-IV
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL Is there any linkage between plate tectonics and the Basin formation….?
GEOLOGY AND FIELD GEOLOGY
Large scale deformation of the Earth’s crust = Plate Tectonics
Smaller scale deformation = Structural geology
Tectonics operates at scales ranging from 100m to 1000km, and

focusses on processes such as-
• Continental rifting and basins formation,
• Subduction, collisional processes and
• Mountain building processes etc.
Geodynamics focusses on the forces that drive mantle convection,

plate motion and deformation of Earth's material (plate tectonic
processes). Geodynamics involves working at scales > 100 km.
Structural geology operates at scales ranging from 100 microns to 100

https://www.reddit.com/r/interestingasfuck/comments/4fgw3g/rock_folds/
meters (i.e. grain to outcrop).
DR. ATUL KUMAR PATIDAR
2019
Disclaimer: This presentation is prepared only for the understanding of the students about the concepts of structure geology from various sources. DR. ATUL KUMAR PATIDAR -2019 Disclaimer: This presentation is prepared only for the understanding of the students about the concepts of structure geology from various sources. DR. ATUL KUMAR PATIDAR -2019
Syllabus outline- Introduction to Geology (PEGS-2012) Structure Geology and rock deformation
TOPICS/SUB TOPICS NO. OF Course Assignment
SESSION Outcomes /Quizzes/ • Structural geology is the study of three-dimensional distribution of rock units with
(Hours) Addressed Tests respect to their deformational histories.
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH: Theories of Origin of Earth,
CO1 &
UNIT I Interior and Exterior of Earth, Fundamentals of plate tectonics, convergent, 06 • Structural geology is a branch of geology, that deals with the form, arrangement,
divergent and transform margins. CO3
and internal structure of rocks.
MINEROLOGY & PETROLOGY: Introduction and classification of Minerals, Assign-1
UNIT II Elementary ideas about crystal structures. Introduction to Igneous, 06
CO1 &
Test-1
• Structural geology examines the present state of crustal deformation and
Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks. CO2 determines the original geologic setting and the direction of the earth forces
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY: Rock weathering and its types. Geological work of (tectonic forces) that produced these rock structures.
UNIT III Wind, River and Ocean, glacier. Principles of Isostasy. 08 CO3
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL AND FIELD GOEOLOGY: Dip, strike,

clinometer compass and its uses. Basic concepts of Stress, Strain and Rock CO4 &
UNIT IV deformation, Geometry, Mechanism and classification of Folds and Faults. 08 Folds
CO5
Morphology and Mechanism of Joints, shear zones and Salt Domes.
BASICS OF STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEONTOLOGY: Stratigraphic Principles, Fault

Assign-2
Type Section, Type Location and Type Area, Unconformities – origin and
types, Geological Time Scale,
Test-2/
Introduction to Paleontology, Fossils and Fossilization, Introduction and CO4 & Quiz
UNIT V 08
Importance of Invertebrate Paleontology. Micro-Paleontology: Morphology CO5
and Distribution of Microfossils (Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Conodonts,
Ostracodes, Diatoms and Palynology),
Folds and faults are geologic structures
Importance of Microfossils in Petroleum Exploration. 3
Rock Deformation
Rocks change their shape and volume, when they are subjected to stress.
Stresses are caused by forces that are exerted on the edges or interior of a material.
 Gravity constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks.
Basic concepts of  Temperature changes cause thermal expansion and contraction that can cause rocks to
fracture.
Stress, Strain  Wetting and drying similarly can induce or enhance rock fractures.
&  On a large scale, horizontal plate movement exerts lateral and vertical stresses on
rocks.
Rock deformation Rocks exhibit two principal responses to stresses
that are exerted on them.
 They may deform like a brittle material,
meaning that they fracture and fault.
 Alternatively, at higher temperatures and

pressures, many rocks flow in response to
stress (Folding). This type of deformation is
referred to as ductile.
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Is there any linkage between plate tectonics and the Basin formation….? Earth Dynamics
?
Are you agree or disagree with these statements…..?
• Mountain ranges are produced by
1. Forces created by plate motion are small and do not deform or break rocks. plate tectonics.
2. Plate motion causes only horizontal motion of continents.
3. New structural landforms are created only at plate boundaries. • The theory of plate tectonics
4. The tallest and deepest landforms are created at plate boundaries. states that Earth’s surface is
5. Metamorphic rocks formed deep below Earth’s surface sometimes can be broken into rigid plates that
located near the tops of mountains.
move horizontally on upper
6. Mountain ranges can form over long periods of time through repeated
collisions between plates.
mantle.
7. Continents are continually shrinking because of erosion.
• Mountains and valleys form
where plates move away from
each other or slide past each
other.
Types of plate boundaries
Forces, That Shape Earth Plate Movements

Results by Stress How many types…? Vertical & Horizontal
Vertical Motion: Isostasy is the equilibrium between continental crust and the
denser mantle below it.
 A continent floats on top of the mantle because the mass of the continent
is equal to the mass of the mantle it displaces (mass equilibrium).
• The downward vertical motion of Earth’s surface is called subsidence.
• The upward vertical motion of Earth’s surface is called uplift.

Do you know about
 Isostasy
 Subsidence
 Uplift
 Compression
 Tension
 Shear
 Strain
Plate Movements Stress- Pressure applied to rock

(Rock can be subject to several different kinds of stress)
Horizontal Motion: Horizontal motion at plate boundaries applies much
greater forces to rocks than vertical motion does. Lithostatic stress: Rock beneath the Earth's surface
experiences equal pressure exerted on it from all
 Forces at plate boundaries are strong enough to break rocks or change
directions because of the weight of the overlying rock. It
the shape of rocks.
is like the hydrostatic stress (water pressure) that a
Stress is the force acting on a surface. Different types of person feels pressing all around their body when diving
• Squeezing stress is compression. stress change rocks down deep in water.
• Stress that pulls something apart is tension. in different ways
• Parallel forces acting in opposite directions are shear. Differential stress: In many cases, rock may experience an additional,
unequal stress due to tectonic forces. There are three basic kinds.
Tensional stress (stretching)

Compressional stress (squeezing)
Shearing stress (side to side shearing)
Compression, tension, and shear can cause in changes in the shape of the rock.
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Horizontal Motion- Compression and Tension Compression, tension, and shear stresses
Different type of landforms are produced by these forces:
Squeezing stress is compression-
• Compression thickens and fold to rock layers Massive, slow-moving tectonic plates have so
Mountain building much force they can build tall mountains, form
deep valleys
EX- the Himalayas grow a few mm each year due
to compression.
Compressional stresses create folded mountain When divergent boundaries occur within a
ranges, and reverse faults, thrusts. continent, they can form continental rifts, or
enormous splits in Earth’s crust- due to
Stress that pulls something apart is tension-
Tension. EX- Rift valley
• Tension stretches and thins, layers of rock Rifting
Transform boundaries, form where tectonic
plates slide horizontally past each other-
due to Shear Stresses
Tension stresses create mountain ranges that are a

series of faults, ridges, and valleys.
Strain- Rock Deformation in Response to Stress Strain- Rock Deformation in Response to Stress
Rock responds to stress differently depending on the pressure and temperature Rock responds to stress differently depending on the pressure and temperature
(depth in Earth) and mineralogical composition of the rock.
(depth in Earth) and mineralogical composition of the rock.
Elastic deformation: Temporary change in shape or size Elastic deformation: For small differential stresses, less than
that is recovered when the deforming force is Removed. the yield strength, rock deforms like a spring. It changes shape
by a very small amount in response to the stress, but the
deformation is not permanent. If the stress could be reversed
Stress
the rock would return to its original shape.
Ductile deformation: Permanent change in shape or size Brittle deformation: Near the Earth's surface rock behaves in
that is not recovered when the stress is removed. its familiar brittle fashion. If a differential stress is applied that is
greater than the rock's yield strength, the rock fractures. It
Brittle deformation: Rupture- Loss of cohesion of a body Strain breaks. Note: the part of the rock that didn't break springs back
under the influence of deforming Stress (Usually occurs to its original shape. This elastic rebound is what causes
earthquakes.
along sub-planar surfaces)
Ductile deformation: Deeper than 10-20 km the enormous
lithostatic stress makes it nearly impossible to produce a fracture
(crack - with space between masses of rock) but the high
temperature makes rock softer, less brittle, more
malleable. Rock undergoes plastic deformation when a
differential stress is applied that is stronger than its yield
strength. It flows. This occurs in the lower continental crust and
in the mantle
Temperature Pressure relation Factors that affect deformation

Question: Under what conditions do rocks exhibit ductile/brittle behavior?
Rocks undergo ductile deformation- • Temperature

 When subjected to high confining pressure and temperature, • Pressure
 Thus, brittle structures form near the surface in the upper crust, • Strain rate
 And ductile structures form at greater depth,
• Rock type
• Rocks are Elastic and brittle near the earth's

Surface,
Temperature
Ductile
• More plastic and ductile deeper in the crust
(Because of the increasing temperature and
pressure)
Brittle
The variation of these factors determines if a rock will fault or fold.
Pressure
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Structural features of the Rock

Tectonic forces and resulting deformation
Earth crust is generally unstable and are subjected to number of forces operating
within the Earth interior.
• Due to these forces rock may undergo deformation (during and after the deposition).
• Degree of deformation depends on the-

 Intensity,
 Type of forces and
 Rigidity of the rock
• These deformational forces may tilt to horizontal rock layers into inclination or some
time nearly vertical.
• Some rock layers shows undulations, flexures or bends, known as FOLD.
• In some cases rock bodies get fractured, producing cracks, joints. When these kind of
surfaces shows displacement are called FAULTS.
Which types of faults are these……? • Some time two different rock layers shows geological time gaps or break in deposition
due to EROSION, known as Unconformity.
Structural Features Attitude of Beds- Dip and Strike

Fault
Unconformity
Bhuj fm Attitude is a three dimensional orientation or positioning of the given
geological features, like- bed, joint, fold, Fault
0°
N
N25°E
Type….?
270°
W E
90°
Due 50°
Fracture/ joints Fold
S
180°
The strike line of a bed, fault, or other planar The dip is an angle between the tilted
feature, is a line representing the intersection bed or feature relative to a horizontal
of that feature with a horizontal plane. (Ex. plane, and is given by the number (0°-90°)
KHF, Bhuj N25°E) and the direction (due 50°)
Geological structure mapping S. K. Garg 358 Measuring Geological Structures
Dipping beds
Bhuj fm
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Symbol of common geological structures Identify the geological feature…

S. K. Garg p. 362
Bhuj fm
Bhuj fm
Identify the geological feature… FOLD: Classification, Mechanism and Geometry
http://geoscience.wisc.edu/~chuck/Classes/Mtn_and_Plates/rock_deformation.html Beyond plastic deformation, rocks fail structurally and faulting occurs.
Folds S.K. Garg 366 Anticline and Syncline

Folds are wave-like bends in layered rock, Represent rock strained in a ductile
manner, usually under compression.
Folds are classified according to size, fold shape, tightness, and dip of the axial plane.
Anticline Syncline
Younger rock
Plastic deformation (bending, buckling) of a single or multiple (stack) strata.
Anticlines are folds in which the oldest A syncline is a fold with younger layers Older rock
rock lies in the center or core. Most often closer to the center of the structure.
anticlines are arch shaped. Synclines are typically a downward fold.
• Anticlines are sought out by geologists who explore for oil and gas because the https://www.slideshare.
net/gauravhtandon1/str
arches form natural traps for the hydrocarbons. uctural-geology
5
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Mapping and Symbols for Anticline and Syncline Fold Terminology

• Axial plane: the plane of mirror symmetry dividing the fold into two limbs. It may be
vertical, inclined or horizontal. (Hinge Line: The surface trace of an axial plane is called
the hinge line )
• Axis of the Fold: line formed by the intersection of the axial plane and a bedding plane.
• Limbs: Side of the fold (an individual fold have two limbs).
• Plunge or Pitch of the fold: where the fold axis is inclined, (angle with a horizontal
plane).
Crest Plunging angle
• Crest & Trough:
• Anticline: Trough
• Syncline:
Folds Terminology Folding mechanism
Structural Geology by Haakon Fossen
Folds classification based on the orientation Example General Classification of fold S.K. Garg pp 366
of the hinge line and the axial surface Asymmetric Fold
Basis of
No Fold Type
Classification
• Symmetrical
• Asymmetrical
1 Position of Axial plane • Overturned (AP inclined)- FAN fold
Overturned Fold • Recumbent (AP horizontal)
• Isoclinal (Equal angle dipping limbs in same direction)
Degree of compression • Open fold (Bed thickness same throughout)
2
of the bed • Closed fold (Bed thickness higher at Crest/ Trough)
• Anticlinorium & Synclinorium (Large scale folding-
3 Mode of occurrence within an anticline)
• Domes & Basins
• Plunging fold (Inclined axis)
4 Position of fold axis
• Non-plunging fold (Horizontal axis)
• Similar fold (Plastic movement, similar bed thickness)

• Parallel fold (Shape of bed various with the depth)
5
Behavior with depth/ • Monocline & Homocline (steep inclination & gentle
miscellaneous dipping strata)
Fold classification-based on
orientation - Ramsay 1967
• Drag fold (Minor folding of incompetent beds in major fold)
• Chevron fold (Pointed crest- axial part)
Based on Fleuty (1964) http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/08/geometric-description-of-folds.html
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General Classification of fold Definitions

Based on position of Axial plane
Symmetrical: When the axial plane divides a fold into two

equal halves in such a way that one half is the mirror image.
Asymmetrical: When the differential compressive forces are

applied. The magnitude of the folding will be uneven.
An overturned fold, or overfold, has the axial plane inclined to

such an extent that the strata on one limb are overturned.
A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.

When the two limbs of a fold are essentially parallel to each
other. If rock became fractured called Nappe fold.
S. Earle, 2015
General Classification of fold General Classification of fold

Recumbent to Nappe
Open folds have limbs that dip gently, whereas isoclinal folds have parallel limbs.
• A recumbent fold has an essentially
horizontal axial plane. When the two limbs of Nappe Closed fold- When the thickness of the beds are unequal at the limbs, and higher at
a fold are essentially parallel to each other. the crest and trough.
• If rock became fractured called Nappe.
Isoclinal Fold
Recumbent Fold
Google.com
Classification based on dip isogons

General Classification of fold
by Ramsay’s (1967)
Based on tightness
Dip isogons are lines connecting points of identical dip for vertically oriented folds. Structural Geology by Haakon Fossen
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Symmetry and order (related to fold geometry)

Kink-like folds in oceanic sediments in Oman
General Classification of fold
Bed thickness
uniform Bed thickness
change
Structural Geology by Haakon Fossen
Geometry of Anticline and Syncline Dome and Basin

A dome is a feature in structural geology consisting of symmetrical
anticlines that intersect each other at their respective apices, forming a distinct, rounded,
elliptical-to-circular-shaped protrusion on Earth's surface.
• Structural basins are often important sources of coal, petroleum, and groundwater.

A fold has two limbs, the limbs are connected by the hinge line. If the hinge line/axis is Chevron folds are characterized by repeated
horizontal, it is "non-plunging“. But if it is at any other angle, the fold hinge is plunging. well behaved folded beds with straight limbs
and sharp hinges.
• These folds develop repeated set of v-
shaped beds.
• They develop in response to regional or
local compressive stress. Inter-limb angles
are generally 60 degrees or less.
Chevron Fold
Drag fold: A minor fold, usually one of a
series, formed in an incompetent bed lying
Drag fold
between more competent beds.
• Produced by movement of the
competent beds in opposite directions
relative to one another.
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General Classification of fold S.K. Garg pp 366

Causes of Folding S.K. Garg 379
Basis of
No Fold Type
Classification
Tectonic causes
• Symmetrical
• Asymmetrical • Lateral compression
1 Position of Axial plane • Overturned (AP inclined)- FAN fold • Igneous intrusion (Laccolith)
• Recumbent (AP horizontal) • Salt intrusion
• Isoclinal (Equal angle dipping limbs in same direction)
Degree of compression • Open fold (Bed thickness same throughout)
2 Non-Tectonic causes
of the bed • Closed fold (Bed thickness higher at Crest/ Trough)
• Anticlinorium & Synclinorium (Large scale folding- • Landslide
3 Mode of occurrence within an anticline)
• Creeping (Bending of weaker beds)
• Domes & Basins
• Differential compaction
• Plunging fold (Inclined axis)
4 Position of fold axis • Isostatic adjustment (Geosyncline sedimentation load)
• Non-plunging fold (Horizontal axis)
• Similar fold (Plastic movement, similar bed thickness) • Subsidence due to solution cavities (Limestone sink holes)
• Parallel fold (Shape of bed various with the depth) • Glaciation dragging
5
Behavior with depth/ • Monocline & Homocline (steep inclination & gentle
miscellaneous dipping strata)
• Drag fold (Minor folding of incompetent beds in major fold)
• Chevron fold (Pointed crest- axial part)
What can be a SCALE of Folding…?

FAULT
S.K. Garg 385
Mega folding
Bhuj, Kutch basin
A body of rock that is brittle, either because it is cold or because of its composition,
or both is likely to break rather than fold,
when subjected to stress, and the result is fracturing or faulting.
FAULT: Classification, Mechanism and Geometry

Macro/ Micro folding Macro/ Micro folding
Fractures, Joints and Fault Fractures & Joints

• There is no side-to-side movement of the rock on either side of a joint.
• Fracturing- Fracturing is common in any type of rocks • Most joints form where a body of rock is expanding because of reduced
(near the surface), that have been exposed by erosion pressure.
and have expanded. A fracture in a rock is also called a
joint. • During the formation, the pressure regime may be the combination of
tension & compression.
• Joints- fractured bedrock along which no movement • Joints can also develop where rock is
has occurred. being folded,
– Multiple parallel joints are called joint sets.
• Folding typically happens during
compression, there may be some
parts of the fold that are in tension.
• Faults- fractures in bedrock along which movement
has occurred
Where there is differential stress on the rock,
– Categorized by type of movement as dip-slip, joint sets develop at angles to the compression MSD
strike-slip, or oblique-slip. directions.
Considered “active” if movement has occurred along them within the last 11,000 years
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Faults Dip and Strike S.K. Garg 387

Folding is generally favored by the development of compressional stress, where
as the fracturing is favored by shearing stress (with Brittle rocks). (Net slip: stretching or extension amount)
• The rock breaks and the two rocky blocks move in opposite directions, This
relative movement along a planar fracture surface is known as fault.
• Faults are classified on the basis of the direction of their movement.
A fault is boundary
between two bodies of
rock along which there
has been relative
motion
All the stress and strain produced by moving plates in the Earth's rocky crust.
General Classification of FAULT S.K. Garg 390

Types of Faults
No. Basis of Classification Fault Type
Dip-slip fault Strike-slip fault
• Normal
The apparent movement of the fault • Reverse, Thrust Normal fault
1
blocks • Transverse Oblique-slip fault Left-lateral SS
• Vertical (dextral)
• High-angle (dip above 45d)
2 The amount of the dip of the fault
• Low-angle (dip below 45d)
• Dip-slip
Based on attitude/ net-slip of the
3 • Strike-slip
fault Reverse fault
• Oblique-slip
• Parallel fault
Thrust faults Right-lateral SS
• Radial fault
(Sinistral)
• Enchelon fault
4 Based on general pattern • Step fault
• Peripheral fault
• Horst & Graben
• Listric fault
less than 30° dip from horizontal
S.K. Garg 398 Dip-slip faults

Horst and Graben structures
These kind of faults have movement parallel to the dip of the fault plane
Dip-slip faults have movement parallel to the dip of the fault plane
– Fault blocks, bounded by normal faults, that drop down or are Normal faults- the hanging-
uplifted are known as graben and horsts, respectively. wall block has moved down
relative to the footwall block.
The forces that create normal faults are
pulling the sides apart, or extensional.
Reverse faults- the hanging-

Normal fault wall block has moved up
relative to the footwall block.
The forces creating reverse faults are
compressional, pushing the sides together.
REVERSE FAULTS are high angle,

Generally, THRUST FAULTS which are reverse faults are low angle.
• Graben associated with divergent plate boundaries are called rifts
https://www.docsity.com/en/news/education-2/plate-boundaries-geologic-structures-explained-animated-gifs/
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Rift related Normal faulting- Extensional Tectonics

Normal faults…?
Interpreted Seismic section
Bhuj fm
http://pg.lyellcollection.org/content/21/2-3/85
Interpreted Seismic section Interpreted Seismic section
Fault wedge geometry is imaged adjacent to San Diego. The ca. 2 Ma top lower Pico
horizon and strata above it display normal separation across faults.
http://pgc.lyellcollection.org/content/8/1/9/tab-figures-data
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/11/4/1111/132233/late-miocene-quaternary-fault-evolution-and
Can you identify faults on Seismic section…? Reverse faults…?
Not to scale
Google.com
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Salt Domes: Morphology and Mechanism Strike-Slip Fault

Strike-slip faults have a different type of movement than normal/ reverse fault.
• In these faults the fault plane is usually vertical, so there is no hanging wall or
footwall.
• The forces creating these faults are lateral or horizontal, carrying the sides past
each other.
• Thus the slip occurs along the strike, not up or down the dip.
Right-lateral San Andreas Fault
Strike-slip Types Satellite image of Western Bhuj, showing Strike-slip faults

• Strike-slip faults have movement that is predominantly horizontal and parallel to the
strike of the fault plane. Can be right-lateral/ left-lateral strike slip fault.
• Oblique-slip faults have movement with both vertical and horizontal components
Half dome
Strike-slip Tectonics How disastrous strike-

slip fault can be….?
PAPER TITLE: The Dzhungarian fault:

Late Quaternary tectonics and slip
rate of a major right-lateral strike-slip
fault in the northern Tien Shan region.
Earthquake
map
Major cities, active faults, and

historic seismicity of the northern
Tien Shan region.
G. E. Campbell et al., 2013

G. E. Campbell et al., 2013
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Mechanisms of faulting Evidences for S.K. Garg P. 399

recognition of faults
1) Because of friction and the rigidity of the host rocks, the planes cannot glide or
flow past each other easily, and so occasionally all movement stops. • Presence of slicken side
2) Thus, stress builds up, and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strain • Gouge and brecciation
threshold, the accumulated potential energy is released into the fault. • Shear zone presence
(Earthquakes)
• Dislocation of the strata
3) The ductile lower crust and mantle accumulate deformation gradually via
shearing, (offset, termination, repetition, omission)
4) whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture – instantaneous stress

release – resulting in motion along the fault. • Escarpment
5) A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the strain rate is • Drainage shifting
too great. • Offset ridges
6) The energy released by instantaneous strain causes earthquakes. • Paired terraces
• Incised valleys
Disclaimer: This presentation is prepared only for the understanding of the students about the concepts of structure geology from various sources. DR. ATUL KUMAR PATIDAR -2019
A Geologist….
Slicken side
Lesser Himalaya , LS fm THANK
YOU
slickenlines,
Striations
13

Lecture Slide Unit V Structure Geology Concepts

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Lecture Slide Unit V Structure Geology Concepts

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15-11-2019

Tectonics operates at scales ranging from 100m to 1000km, and

Geodynamics focusses on the forces that drive mantle convection,

Structural geology operates at scales ranging from 100 microns to 100

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL AND FIELD GOEOLOGY: Dip, strike,

BASICS OF STRATIGRAPHY AND PALEONTOLOGY: Stratigraphic Principles, Fault

 Gravity constantly exerts downward stress on all rocks.

 Alternatively, at higher temperatures and

Types of plate boundaries

Forces, That Shape Earth Plate Movements

• The downward vertical motion of Earth’s surface is called subsidence.

• The upward vertical motion of Earth’s surface is called uplift.

Plate Movements Stress- Pressure applied to rock

Tensional stress (stretching)

Tension stresses create mountain ranges that are a

the rock would return to its original shape.

Temperature Pressure relation Factors that affect deformation

Rocks undergo ductile deformation- • Temperature

• Rocks are Elastic and brittle near the earth's

Structural features of the Rock

• Degree of deformation depends on the-

• Some rock layers shows undulations, flexures or bends, known as FOLD.

Structural Features Attitude of Beds- Dip and Strike

Geological structure mapping S. K. Garg 358 Measuring Geological Structures

Symbol of common geological structures Identify the geological feature…

Identify the geological feature… FOLD: Classification, Mechanism and Geometry

Folds S.K. Garg 366 Anticline and Syncline

Plastic deformation (bending, buckling) of a single or multiple (stack) strata.

Mapping and Symbols for Anticline and Syncline Fold Terminology

Folds Terminology Folding mechanism

Structural Geology by Haakon Fossen

• Similar fold (Plastic movement, similar bed thickness)

General Classification of fold Definitions

Symmetrical: When the axial plane divides a fold into two

Asymmetrical: When the differential compressive forces are

An overturned fold, or overfold, has the axial plane inclined to

A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.

General Classification of fold General Classification of fold

Classification based on dip isogons

Symmetry and order (related to fold geometry)

Structural Geology by Haakon Fossen

General Classification of fold General Classification of fold

Geometry of Anticline and Syncline Dome and Basin

General Classification of fold General Classification of fold

General Classification of fold S.K. Garg pp 366

What can be a SCALE of Folding…?

FAULT: Classification, Mechanism and Geometry

Fractures, Joints and Fault Fractures & Joints

Faults Dip and Strike S.K. Garg 387

General Classification of FAULT S.K. Garg 390

S.K. Garg 398 Dip-slip faults

Reverse faults- the hanging-

REVERSE FAULTS are high angle,

Rift related Normal faulting- Extensional Tectonics

Interpreted Seismic section

Interpreted Seismic section Interpreted Seismic section

Can you identify faults on Seismic section…? Reverse faults…?

Salt Domes: Morphology and Mechanism Strike-Slip Fault

Strike-slip Types Satellite image of Western Bhuj, showing Strike-slip faults

Strike-slip Tectonics How disastrous strike-

PAPER TITLE: The Dzhungarian fault:

Major cities, active faults, and