Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment: 01
Layout of Lab:

 Equipments used in lab:

 Cabin
 Table
 refrigerator
 Overhead stirrer
 Peristatic pump
 DO meter
 COD meter
 Jar test apparatus
 Turbidity meter
 Electric oven
 Turbidity meter
 COD meter
 Water sampler
 Oil & grease content analyzer
 Hot plate magnetic stirrer
 Furnace
 Weight balance
 Vacuum filtration assembly
 Weight balance
 Distilled water apparatus
 Imhoff cone apparatus
 Titration apparatus
 Jar test apparatus
 PH meter
 TDS-Salinity-conductivity

 Description of apparatus:

 Refrigerator:
Some of chemicals are very volatile in nature. Refrigerator is used to store them in
safe mode.

 Overhead stirrer:
An overhead stirrer is a laboratory device used for mixing, homogenizing, suspending,
and recirculating large volumes or high-viscosity substances, which typically can't be
handled by a magnetic stirrer. Most if not all overhead stirrers allow for the
monitoring of reaction progress as a function of viscosity change.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Peristatic pump:
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a
variety of fluids. The fluid is contained within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular
pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made).The body of fluid is
then transported, at ambient pressure, toward the pump outlet.

 DO meter:
Meter measures Dissolved Oxygen (DO) to determine water quality in a
variety of applications including wastewater, aquariums and fish hatcheries.
Simultaneously displays DO and temperature readings. Unit holds and recalls minimum
and maximum readings. Features automatic temperature compensation and calibration to
air.

 COD meter:
In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an
indicative measure of the amount of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a
measured solution. It is commonly expressed in mass of oxygen consumed
over volume of solution which in SI units is milligrams per litre (mg/L). A COD test can
be used to easily quantify the amount of organics in water. The most common application
of COD is in quantifying the amount of oxidizable pollutants found in surface
water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater.

 Jar test apparatus:

The jar test is a laboratory procedure that simulates coagulation/flocculation with
differing chemical doses. The purpose of the procedure is to estimate the minimum
coagulant dose required to achieve certain water quality goals.

 Turbidity meter:

In physical terms, turbidity is due to particles of varying sizes scattering or absorbing

light, giving the medium in question a cloudy appearance. This turbidity is caused by
suspended particles such as sludge, limestone, yeast or microorganisms. Today, the
phenomenon of turbidity is measured using optoelectronic meters. An artificial light
source emits a known intensity of light through a sample. The suspended particles scatter
or absorb the light. The scattered light is then recorded on a photodetector. Nowadays,
the scattered light is generally measured at an angle of 90°. This measurement principle
is known as nephelometry. A Nephelometer is therefore a turbidity meter that measures
scattered light at an angle of 90°. The results are shown in NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Unit).

 Electric oven:
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Laboratory ovens are ovens for high-forced volume thermal convection applications. These

ovens generally provide uniform temperatures throughout. Process applications for
laboratory ovens can be for annealing, die-bond curing, drying, Polyimide baking, sterilizing,
and other industrial laboratory functions

 Water sampler:
We use it in order to get water sample at required time.

 Oil & Grease content analyzer:

Oil and grease includes fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in water,
generally wastewater.  If these compounds are not removed before discharge of treated
wastewater, oil and grease can interfere with biological life in surface waters and create
unsightly films.

 Hot plate magnetic stirrer:

A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating
magnetic field to cause a stir bar (also called "flea") immersed in a liquid to spin very
quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a rotating magnet or a
set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with the liquid.

 Weight balance:
In laboratory weight balance is used to calculate weight of different chemicals.

 Vacuum filtration assembly:

Filtration is a unit operation that is commonly used both in laboratory and production
conditions. This apparatus, adapted for laboratory work, is often used to isolate the
product of synthesis of a reaction when the product is a solid in suspension. The product
of synthesis is then recovered faster, and the solid is drier than in the case of a simple
filtration. Other than isolating a solid, filtration is also a stage of purification : the soluble
impurities in the solvent are eliminated in the filtrate (liquid).

 Distilled water apparatus:

Distilled water is water that has been boiled into steam and condensed back into liquid
in a separate container. Impurities in the original water that do not boil below the boiling
point of water remain in the original container. Thus, distilled water is one type of
purified water.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Imhoff cone apparatus:

It is a chamber suitable for the reception and processing of sewage. It may be used for
the clarification of sewage by simple settling and sedimentation, along with anaerobic
digestion of the extracted sludge. It consists of an upper chamber in which sedimentation
takes place, from which collected solids slide down inclined bottom slopes to an entrance
into a lower chamber in which the sludge is collected and digested. 

 Titration apparatus:
Titration, also known as titrimetric, is a common laboratory method of quantitative
chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified
analytic. Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as
volumetric analysis.

 PH Meter:
PH meter, electric device used to measure hydrogen-ion activity(acidity or alkalinity)
in solution. Fundamentally, a pH meter consists of a voltmeter attached to a pH-
responsive electrode and a reference (unvarying) electrode.

 TDS-Salinity-conductivity apparatus
A TDS meter indicates the total dissolved solids (TDS) of a solution, i.e. the concentration
of dissolved solid particles. Dissolved ionized solids, such as salts and minerals, increase
the electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution. Because it is a volume measure of ionized
solids, EC can be used to estimate TDS. Dissolved organic solids, such as sugar, and
microscopic solid particles, such as colloids, do not significantly affect the conductivity of
a solution, and are not taken into account.
The most accurate way to measure all TDS in water in a laboratory is to evaporate the
water leaving behind dissolved solutes as residue, and then weighing the residue.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment no: 02
Determination of PH value of water sample.

 Theory:
PH means negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration i.e H +. A measure of acidity or
alkalinity of water soluble substances (pH stands for 'potential of Hydrogen'). A pH value is a number
from 1 to 14, with 7 as the middle (neutral) point. Values below 7 indicate acidity which increases as the
number decreases, 1 being the most acidic. Above 7 solution will be basic.

On the basis of pH value there are three types of solution or water:

 Acidic solution
 Neutral solution
 Basic solution

Acidic Solution:
 An acidic solution is any aqueous solution which has a pH < 7.0 ([H+] > 1.0 x 10-7 M). Examples: Lemon
juice, vinegar, 0.1 M HCl, or any concentration of an acid in water are examples of acidic solutions

Neutral Solution:

If PH of water is equal to 7 then water will be neutral e.g human blood.

Basic Solution:
According to the Bronsted-Lowry definition, bases are substances that accept hydrogen ions from an
acid. Basic solutions are made by dissolving the base, the solute, in a liquid solvent. Basic solutions are
characterized by pH values higher than 7 and can conduct electricity.
Scope & Significance:
As water is very important for humans, animal’s birds, plants and aquatic life so great care is required for
its safety.
This test method sets out the procedure for determining the pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of water
using an electronic pH meter

Environmental Significance:
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C


NEQS (National Environmental Quality Standards) and WHO (World Health Organization)
require pH of drinking water to be in range of 6.5 to 8.5.Extreme pH can cause skin Infections
and eye irritations.
 pH of waste water should be in range of 6 to 9.
 In anaerobic treatment, if the pH goes below 5 due to excess accumulation of acids, the process is
severely affected. Shifting of pH beyond 5 to 10 upsets the aerobic treatment of the wastewater.
pH value or range is of immense importance for any chemical reaction. A chemical shall be
highly effective at a particular pH.
 Chemical coagulation, disinfection, water softening and corrosion
control are governed by pH adjustment.
 If pH<7 then water has high concentration of CO2 which help the metals of pipe to leached out
and dissolve in water which disease like “cancer”.
 If pH>7 then water has high concentration of O2 which cause corrosion of pipe and reduce the
dia of pipe.

Units:
It is measured in Number and has no units.

 Apparatus & Chemicals Required:

 Buffer solution having 4 PH
 Distilled water
 PH meter
 Beaker
 Acidic water
 Basic water
 beaker
 Buffer solution having 7 PH
 Buffer solution having 10 PH

 Procedure:

 First of all we took two samples of water in order to check PH of that water from two different
sources.
 We pour this sample in a graduated beaker.
 Then we set PH meter apparatus. And calibrate the PH meter by using standard buffer solutions
available in the laboratory.
 After this, we wash this electrode named as probe with distilled water.
 After this dip in water sample, and shake water with it but keep in mind that electrode could not
touch walls of beaker
 Keep it until reading of PH meter becomes constant.
 Note the reading. This is PH of that sample of water.
 Repeat in the same way for 2nd sample.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Observations & calculations:

Case:1
PH of water=2.44
Result: Water is acidic in nature
Case 2:
PH of water=8.09
Result: water is basic in nature.

 Precautions:
 Wear white coat during the lab
 Don’t strike the probe of PH meter with the walls of beaker.
 Wash the electrode named as probe with distilled water before performing any experiment.
 Make sure that its calibration is required or not.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment no: 03

Determination of Electrical conductivity of water sample.

 Definition:
Conductivity of water is defined as ability of the water to conduct electricity through it.

 Theory:
Conductivity depends upon the number of ions present in the water. More the ions, more will be the
conductivity. These conductive ions come from dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as
alkalis, chlorides, sulfides and carbonate compounds.
Environmental Significance:
 It is used to determine mineralization
 It is used to check ability of water to pass electric current.
 It is used to check effect on humans(Blood pressure) and plants(yellowing of leaves).
 It denotes amount of treatment required
 Determine variation in natural water
 In fresh water bodies, it is recommended that conductivity should be in range of 50S to
500S.
 Conductivity is an indicator of presence of inorganic solids in the
water.
 If minerals and metals are suspended in the distilled water, ions form. These can be
measured as conductivity.

Units:
Conductivity is expressed in micro or mile Siemens.

Factor Effecting on Conductivity:

 Conc.of Ions.
 Temperature
 Mobility of Ions
 Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Apparatus:
 Beaker
 Flask
 Wash bottle
 Conductivity meter

Chemicals:

 Distilled water
 Procedure:
 Take 25mL water sample in a flask.
 Wash the conductivity meter with distilled water
 Turn on the conductivity meter
 Calibrate the meter if required.
 Simply put the tip of the conductivity meter inside the water sample and rotate it in sample for
some time.
 Wait until a stable reading appears on the conductivity meter.
Note the readings.

 Observations and Calculations:

Sample Time(s) Temperature(F) Electrical conductivity(US/cm)

1 31 79 691
2 24 79.9 15.54
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment No. 04

Determination of turbidity in water sample.

 Definition:
Turbidity is the technical term referring to the cloudiness or haziness of a solution and it is a
qualitative characteristic which is imparted by solid particles obstructing the transmittance of light
through a water sample.

 Theory:
Turbidity often indicates the presence of dispersed and suspended solids like clay, organic matter,
silt, algae and other microorganisms. So in short turbidity is an expression of the optical property
that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through the
sample.

 Environmental Significance:

 According to WHO standard 5 NTU is suggested as the turbidity limit

for drinking water, while 1 NTU is recommended to achieve the
adequate disinfecting safety.
 Turbidity in water is required for the production of organisms in the
water bodies. Turbid water serves as a shield for their existence.
 Turbidity measurements of the filtered water are needed to check on
faulty filter operation.
 Turbidity measurements are useful to determine the optimum dosage of coagulants to treat domestic
and industrial wastewaters.

Units:
Turbidity is expressed in NTU (Nephlometric turbidity unit).
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Apparatus and chemicals:

 Turbidity meter
 Water sample and Distilled water
 Beaker
 Some standard solutions
 Wash bottle

 Procedure:
 First of all take sample of water.
 Set turbidity meter.
 Take some standard solutions in order to check either calibration of turbidity meter is required or
not?
 It gives accurate result, it means calibration is not required.
 Now wash the bottle with distilled water and also remove the finger prints.
 Shake the bottle for some time.
 Place it in turbidity meter and note the maximum value.

Comments:
Turbidity=0.932 NTU

It means water is good for drinking purpose.

 Precautions:
 Wash the bottle with distilled water.
 Remove finger prints from bottle.
 Check either calibration of meter is required or not.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment no: 05

Determination of chlorides (Cl -1) in water sample.

 Definition:
Chlorides occur in all natural waters in widely varying concentration, the chloride content normally
increases as the mineral content increases They combine with Sodium,Potasium and aluminum etc.
Chloride salts such as sodium chloride are often very soluble in water. One of common salt of
chloride is sodium chloride (NaCl).

 Theory:
Chloride in the form of chloride (Cl-) ion is one of the major inorganic anions in water and waste
water. The chloride concentration is higher in waste water than in raw water because sodium
chloride is a common article of diet and passes unchanged through the digestive system.

 Environmental Significance:

The measured chloride ions can be used to know salinity of different water sources.

According to WHO, in drinking water, chlorides should not exceed

250mg/L. According to NEQS, chlorides in waste water should not exceed 1000mg/L.

 Chlorination is an important process of water treatment.

 A high chloride contents may harm metallic pipes and structures as well as growing plants.
 If we prepare kafi,then its taste will change if it contains NaCl=400 mg/L and
CaCl2=530mg/L
 It is very important to prepare industrial chemicals such as caustic soda,chlorine,NaCl and
Sodium hypochlorite
 Water containing NaCl make reduces porosity of soil and disturb root system of plants.
 The food of Nutrition Board of the institute of medicine recommended amount of chloride pr
day for 9-50 years as 2.3 g/day.
 0.15 % of our body contains chloride Ion.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Units:
Chloride concentration (Cl-) is expressed in mg/L of water.

 Apparatus:
 Burette
 Burette stand
 Cylinder
 Funnel
 Balance
 Wash Bottle
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Beaker
 Graduated volumetric flask

Chemicals
 Mercuric Nitrate(Titrant)
 Diphenyl Cabazon(.025g)
 Xylene cynol (.003g)
 Ethanol(10ml)

 Methods:
1. Mohr method
2. Mercuric Nitrate method

(a)Concentration Cl - of <100 ml

(b) Concentration of Cl - >100 ml

3. Potentiometric method
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Procedure:

(Mercuric Nitrate method)

(a)Concentration Cl- of <100 ml

 Take 50 ml of chloride containing solution in titration flask

 Add 1-2 ml of mix indicator(mixture of Diphenyl+Carbazone+Xylene Cyanol)
 Cabazon indicates titration end point. It is in the form of purple color complex with mercuric Ion.
 Xylene is PH indicator and point enhancer
 Then add 0.1 N HNO3 until solution becomes colourless.It will indicate PH 2.3-3.8.
 Titrate this sample with 0.0141 N Hg(NO3)2.Till purple color achieve
 Take three readings and calculate values
 Take 50 ml Distilled water.

(b) Concentration Cl- of >100 ml

 Take 50 ml of chloride containing solution in titration flask

 Add 0.5 ml of mix indicator(mixture of Diphenyl+Carbazone+Xylene Cyanol)
 Cabazon indicates titration end point. It is in the form of purple color complex with mercuric Ion.
 Xylene is PH indicator and point enhancer
 Then add 0.141 N HNO3 untill solution becomes colourless.It will indicate PH 2.3-3.8.
 Titrate this sample with 0.014 N Hg(NO3)2.Till colour becomes yellow.
 Take three readings and calculate values
 Take 50 ml Distilled water.
 Then by using following formula find Concentration of Cl- Ion of sample.

Constration of Cl- Ion={(A-B)*N*35.4*1000}/ml of Sample

Where

A=mean volume of Titrant in ml

B=mean volume of Distilled water in ml

N=normality of titrant

 Observations & Calculations:

Sampl Vol. of titrant Mean Volume Volume of Conc. Of

e sample Chlorides

1 0.9 0.9 50 ml 12.01 mg/l

0.9
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment NO.06
Determination of sodium ions in water sample.

 Definition:
Sodium is soft, silver white metallic element. Sodium is both an electrolyte and mineral. It helps
keep the water (the amount of fluid inside and outside the body's cells) and electrolyte balance of
the body. Sodium is also important in how nerves and muscles work.

 Theory:
Sodium is soft, silver white metallic element. It occurs in the form of Sodium chloride, Sodium per
oxide and Sodium carbonate. It is very important component of salts.
It is removed from the water through process of ion exchange, electro dialysis, reverse osmosis.

 Environmental Significance:
 Specific concentration of Sodium is required by our body.
 According to WHO drinking water contain Sodium<250 mg/L
 Sodium does not harm human health but we don’t like salty water.
 For human health it is necessary to use sodium 1.5 g/day.
 It maintains Blood pressure, Nervous system,artries & Muscles functions.
 It reduces porosity of soil.
 It causes corrosion in water supply pipes.
 The measured sodium ions can be used to know salinity of different water sources.
 High amount of sodium causes high blood pressure, nauseas, goiter,vomiting,numbness.
 It is used to neutralize the acids.
 Sodium ions in water should not exceed 20mg/L. Water with more than 20mg/L
concentration is saltish in nature.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Units:
Sodium concentration (Na+) is expressed in mg/L of water.
Apparatus:

 Burette stand
 Burrete
 Cylinder
 Funnel
 Balance
 Wash Bottle
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Beaker
 Graduated volumetric flask

Chemicals:

 Mercuric nitrate – Hg (NO3)2

 Nitric acid HNO3
 Distilled water
 Mixed indicator containing Diphenylcarbazone and Xylene

 Procedure:
 Take 0.254 g NaCl.
 Dissolved this in 1 litter Distilled water.
 Pour this in 1000 ml flask to get stock solution.
 Now for preparing intermediate solution, Take 10 ml of Stoke solution in 100 ml solution(90 ml
distilled water) & fill it up to mask.
 Take 5 flasks of 100 ml and then add 5 ml,10 ml,15 ml,20 ml and 25 ml of intermediate solution
in each flask and fill it up to mask with distilled water.
 Determine the conductivity of all these sample by conductivity meter.
 Plot a calibration curve cons(mg/L) vs conductivity(Siemens).
 Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Observations & Calculations:

Sample Conductivity Constration of Sodium

Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment NO .07
Estimation of potassium by using flame photometer.

 Definition:
Potassium is soft, silver white metallic element. It is denoted by ‘K’.
 Theory:
Potassium is soft, silver white metallic element. It occurs in the form of Potassium chloride(KCl)
and Potassium Hydroxide(KOH).It is very important for Humans, animals as well as plants.

 Environmental Significance:
 Specific concentration of Potassium is required by our body.
 95 % of Potassium is used as fertilizer.
 It maintains Osmotic pressure and cell size in plants.
 If large amount of potassium is present in plants then it resist for other Nutrients.
 KOH is used to form liquid soap and detergents.
 KCl is used in medical drips and saline injections. It is also used to prepare Glass that is used in
TV screen.
 Potassium chromate is used to save skin of animals during the preparation of Leather.
 In Human body Potassium controls Water balance, Acid Base balance in blood and tissues.
 It is also necessary for normal growth and building mussels.
 It act as a electrolyte.
 It protect against cardiovascular diseases.
 If potassium is present in low amount then human face digestive problems, heart diseases and
depression.
 If potassium is present in high amount then fluid increases in lungs.
 If human directly inhale potassium then it cause eye and skin irritation problems.
 Direct exposure of potassium cause burning or permanent damage of skin and eyes.
 Deficiency of potassium cause hypokalemia
 Excess of potassium cause hyperkalemia
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Units:

 Apparatus:
 Flame photometer
 Flask (1000 ml)
 Flask(100 ml)

Chemicals:

 Potassium chloride
 Distilled water
 Procedure:
 Take 1.19g of KCl in 1000 ml flask.
 Dissolved this in 1 litter Distilled water, in order to get 1000 ppm stock solution.
 Now for preparing intermediate solution, Take 10 ml of Stoke solution in 100 ml solution (90 ml
distilled water) & fill it up to mask.
 Take 5 flasks of 100 ml and then add 2 ml,4 ml,6 ml,8 ml and 10 ml of intermediate solution in
each flask and fill it up to mask with distilled water.
 Determine the amount of potassium in each sample by using flame photometer.
 Plot a calibration curve cons(mg/L) vs wavelength of photon.

 Observations & Calculations:

Sample Amount of potassium

1 3.3 ppm
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment NO.08

Determination of hardness of water sample.

 Definition:

 Water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water. Hard water is high in
dissolved minerals, both calcium and magnesium.

 Theory:

Major contributors of hardness are Ca+2 and Mg+2.while minor contributors are Sr+2,Fe+2 and Mn+2

 Types of hardness:

There are two types of hardness.

1. Temporary/carbonate hardness:
Temporary hardness is due to presence of Ca(HCO 3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2
It is removed by one of following methods.
 Boiling
 By addition of lime
2. Permanent/Non carbonate hardness:

It is due to presence of MgCl2,CaCl2 and MgSO4 .

It is removed by following methods.

 Addition of lime
 Base exchange method
 By using sodium carbonate.

 Environmental Significance:
 Hard water contains calcium and carbonate ions.
 Hard water forms precipitate with soap.
 According to WHO amount of hardness should be less than 500 mg/L.
 Hard water is good for growth of children.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Hard water don’t dissolve metal.

 Due to hardness stains becomes on clothes.
 If hard water is flowing through pipes then accumulation of minerals will occur, as a result
diameter of pipe decreases.
 It increases fuel cost in boiler.

Units:

Mg/L as CaCO3.

 Apparatus:
 Burrete
 Cylinder
 Funnel
 Balance
 Wash Bottle
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Beaker
 Graduated volumetric flask

Chemicals:

 Ammonia Buffer
 EBT(Erichrome Black T) as indicator.
 EDTA(Ethylene Diamine Tetra acetic acid).

 Procedure:
 Take 25 ml solution in titration flask.
 Add 1-2 ml Ammonia Buffer to maintain PH 7-9.
 Add 1-2 ml EBT as indicator. As result of addition color of solution becomes wine red.
 Titrate it with 0.02 molar EDTA,keep on adding EDTA until colour changes from wine red to
blue.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Take three readings.

 Now by using following formula find amount of hardness.

( A−B )∗0.02∗50∗1000
 Cons. Of Hardness=
Volume of sample used ( ml )
Where
A=volume of titrant used for sample
B= volume of titrant used for distilled water.

 Observations & Calculations: Calculations:

( 6.5−0 )∗0.02∗50∗1000
A= 6.5 B= 0 Conc. Of Hardness=
25
Conc. Of Hardness= 130 mg/l as CaCO 3
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment NO: 09
Determination of Ca+2 Ion hardness of water sample.

 Definition:
Water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in the water. Hard water is high
in dissolved minerals, both calcium and magnesium

 Theory:

Major contributors of hardness are Ca+2 and Mg+2.while minor contributors are Sr+2,Fe+2 and Mn+2

Types of hardness:

There are two types of hardness.

Temporary/carbonate hardness:

Temporary hardness is due to presence of Ca(HCO 3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2

It is removed by one of following methods.

 Boiling
 By addition of lime

Permanent/Non carbonate hardness:

It is due to presence of MgCl2,CaCl2 and MgSO4 .

It is removed by following methods.

 Addition of lime
 Base exchange method
 By using sodium carbonate.

 Environmental Significance:
 Hard water contains calcium and carbonate ions.
 Hard water forms precipitate with soap.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 According to WHO amount of hardness should be less than 500 mg/L.

 Hard water is good for growth of children.
 Hard water don’t dissolve metal.
 Due to hardness stains becomes on clothes.
 If hard water is flowing through pipes then accumulation of minerals will
occur, as a result diameter of pipe decreases.
 It increases fuel cost in boiler.

Units:

Mg/L as CaCO3.

 Apparatus:
 Burrete
 Cylinder
 Funnel
 Balance
 Wash Bottle
 Conical flask
 Pipette
 Beaker
 Graduated volumetric flask

Chemicals:

 Ammonia Buffer
 EBBR as indicator.
 EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra acetic acid) as a titrant.
 Procedure:
 Take 25 ml solution in titration flask.
 Add 1-2 ml Ammonia Buffer to maintain PH 7-9.
 Add 1-2 ml EBBR as indicator. As result of addition color of solution becomes pink.
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Titrate it with 0.02 molar EDTA, keep on adding EDTA until color changes from pink to purple
or dark.
 Take three readings.
 Now by using following formula find amount of hardness.

( A−B )∗0.02∗50∗1000
Cons. Of Hardness=
Volume of sample used ( ml )
Where
A=volume of titrant used for sample
B= volume of titrant used for distilled water.

 Observations & Calculations:

A=
B= 0

( 6.5−0 )∗0.02∗50∗1000
Conc. Of Hardness=
25
Conc. Of Hardness= 130 mg/l as CaCO3
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

Experiment No: 10
Determination of alkalinity of water sample.

 Definition:
Alkalinity is primarily a way of measuring the acid neutralizing capacity of water. In other words, its
ability to maintain a relatively constant pH.

 Theory:
The possibility to maintain constant pH is due to the hydroxyl, carbonate and bicarbonate ions present in
water. The ability of natural water to act as a buffer is controlled in part by the amount of calcium and
carbonate ions in solution. Carbonate ion and calcium ion both come from calcium carbonate or
limestone. So, water that meets limestone will contain high levels of both Ca2+ and CO32- ions and have
elevated hardness and alkalinity. Total alkalinity is due to the hydroxyl ions and carbonate ions.
Alkalinity due to hydroxyl ions is called “phenolphthalein alkalinity” and due to carbonate ions is called
“methyl orange alkalinity”.

 Environmental Significance:

 Taste is disturbed due to alkalinity.

 Important for fishes and aquatic life.
 It is helpful for irrigation.
 Controls Corrosion.
 Foul pipe and accessories of water distribution system.

 Apparatus and Chemicals:

 Beaker
 Conical Flask
 Pipette
 Burette
 Measuring Cylinder
 0.02N of Sulphuric Acid
 Phenolphthalein
 Methyl Orange
Ameer Hamza 15-CE-95 Section: C

 Procedure:
 Take 50ml of sample in titration flask.
 Add 1-2 drops of phenolphthalein. If the color of solution is pink, then titrate it against
0.02N of Sulphuric Acid till color changes to colorless.
 Note the volume of titrant used.
 Add 1-2 drops of methyl orange in the previous solution, color of solution becomes blue.
Add 0.02N of Sulphuric acid till the color changes to peach color.
 Note the volume of titrant used.
 Add both the volume used.
( A−B )∗N∗1000∗50
 Total Alkalinity =
ml of sample

 Observations and calculations: