Instrumentation & Measurements
Ruqia Ikram
Lecture 7,8
2 Institute of Space Technology (IST) Fall, 2019
Temperature and Heat Flux Measurements
Thermal Expansion Method
Bimetallic Thermometers
Liquid in glass thermometer
Pressure thermometer
Thermocouples
Bulk Semi conductor Sensors (RTD, Thermistors)
Radiation Methods (Pyrometers)
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Bimetallic Thermometers
If the two strips of metals A and B with different thermal expansion
coefficient but at same temperature are firmly bonded together.
Temperature changes causes differential expansion and strip will deflect
into uniform circular arc.
What is Thermal Expansion coefficient.
It is the material property that is indicative of extent to which material
expands upon heating.
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Bimetallic Thermometers
Using strength of material relations deflection of different types of
materials can be calculated.
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Bimetallic Thermometers
Accuracy of bimetallic strip depends upon requirement of applications.
Temperature range −1000 𝐹 to 10000 𝐹
Inaccuracy of about 0.5 to 1 percent.
Applications
These devices can be used for temperature control systems.
Overload cutout switches in electric apparatus allowing current to flow
through bimetal strip
Temperature compensating devices that have temperature as
modifying or interfering inputs.
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Liquid-in-glass thermometer
It is the well known and most adaptable thermometer.
Liquid filled bulb takes energy from environment until two are at same
temperature.
Mercury utilized at intermediate and high temperature .(−380 𝐹 to 10000 𝐹 )
For lower temperature alcohol −800 𝐹 , Pentane −3300 𝐹 , mixture of
propane and propylene −3600 𝐹.
Two types
Partial immersion
Total immersion
Pressure Thermometers
It consists of
sensitive bulb
Interconnecting capillary tube
pressure measuring devices
e.g. bourdon tube.
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Pressure Thermometers
Compensation method
Capillary tube as long as 200 ft length may be used for remote
measurements.
Temperature variations along the capillary and at pressure sensing device
need compensation.
Vapour Pressure thermometer
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Thermocouples
If two wires of different materials A and B are connected in circuit with one
junction at temperature T1 and other at T2 ,voltage or current is detected
across its end.
Direct conversion of heat energy into electrical energy.
Three different effects
Seebeck effect
Peltier effect
Thomson effect
Seebeck effect:- It is defined as temperature difference of dissimilar electrical
conductors produce voltage difference between them.
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Thermocouples
Peltier effect:- It is a phenomenon when electric current is passed through
thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at other end
means one end becomes hot while other becomes cold.
Thomson Effect:-It deals with single metallic wire.
Total e.m.f is given by
Pair of materials mostly preferred for thermocouples are Platinum /rhodium,
Chromel/Alumel, Copper/ Constantan, Iron/ Constantan.
Maximum sensitivity 60𝜇 𝑉 ℃ at 350°𝐶 (Copper/constantan)
Minimum sensitivity 6𝜇 𝑉 ℃ (Platinum/ Platinum rhodium)
Platinum /Platinum rhodium is most accurate with ±0.25 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 error
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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Electrical resistance of various materials changes with temperature.
Conductors are used in RTD where as thermistors are made of semi-
conductors
Variation of resistance R with temperature T can be represented by
equation
The number of terms depends upon material , accuracy required and
temperature range.
Most commonly used material are platinum, nickel , copper
Platinum is linear
±0.4 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 300°𝐹 𝑡𝑜 − 100°𝐹
±0.3 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 0°𝐹 𝑡𝑜 + 300°𝐹
±0.25 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 300°𝐹 𝑡𝑜 − 200°𝐹
±0.2 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 0°𝐹 𝑡𝑜 + 200°𝐹
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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
They may be clamped, welded or cemented onto the body surface.
For fluid, winding may be enclosed in stainless steel bulb to protect
it from corrosive liquid and gases.
Bridge circuits used with resistance temperature sensor may use
either deflection or null mode of operation.
Selection of bridges depends upon on the accuracy required.
For bridge with fixed arms cause severe non-linearity for this R1,R2
are fixed and higher resistance than R3 & R4.
Bridges may be excited with ac or dc voltage. Rms ac through
thermometer causes heating that rises temperature of thermometer
above its surroundings called self-heating error.
This can be avoided by unsymmetric pulse type of excitation.
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Thermistors
Manganese, nickel and cobalt oxides milled, mixed in proper
proportion with blinders and pressed into desired shapes called
thermistors.
They are nonlinear.
Resistance/temperature relation
𝑇0 = 25℃ 𝛽 = 4000℃
Thermistors are available commercially in form of beads, flakes,
rods and disks.
Temperature range −2000 𝐶 to 10000 𝐶
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Radiation method
All temperature measuring devices discussed up to this point
require a physical contact of thermometer with the body whose
temperature is to be measured.
For very hot bodies , thermometer may actually melt at high
temperature.
For moving bodies, non-contacting means of temperature sensing is
convenient.
For this purpose device called as radiometer, radiation pyrometer,
radiation thermometer, optical pyrometer is used.
Applications
Missile guidance
Satellite attitude sensing
Infrared spectroscopy
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