IMPERIALISM IN

INDONESIA: 
COLONIZATION THROUGH
LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM

BY: RILEY LATHROP

POPULATION ~  268,000,000
4th most populous country
(worldometers.info)

Capital:
Jakarta
 THE BEGINNING:
THE PORTUGUESE IN INDONESIA

In 1511, the Portuguese were searching for spices and to spread the ideas of
Christianity as they entered Indonesia, being the first Europeans in
Indonesia. The Maluku Islands in Indonesia harbored most of the spices
and were known as the "Spice Islands," a highly sought area. The areas of
Indonesia that were primarily run and used by the Portuguese were Timor,
Solor, and Flores. On August 10th, 1511 the Portuguese defeated the
Javanese in the battle for taking over the rule of Java.  The Portuguese had a
strong military and navigation force during their reign that allowed them
to build trading posts and take charge of the sea and expand Indonesia even
further.  In the 1600s the Portuguese made an effort to control the entire
Indonesian spice trade industry, however the Portuguese eventually lost
because of the invasion from the Dutch, who took the control from the
Portuguese. (Carey et. al.)
 RESOURCES AND EXPORTS
SOUGHT FROM INDONESIA

Coffee, tea, tobacco, sugar, peppers, cloves,

cinnamon, rubber, opium (Jacks, 2015).
 DUTCH IMPERIALISM IN INDONESIA
In the 1590s, the Netherlands had gained independence from
Spain, and the Dutch began their voyages directly to the Indies. In
1799, the Dutch government took direct control over Indonesia
(Jacks 2015). During the period of Dutch Imperialism in 1870-1910,
the Dutch tried to take complete control of all the areas they
claimed, which was a part of a time in history called "high
imperialism,” when Britain and France were facing competition
from Germany and Italy. Unclaimed parts of Africa, Asia and the
Pacific were being taken by one power before another could,
creating a race between European countries for the most territory
abroad (Janssen 2015).
The "Netherlands Indies" were crucial to the Dutch
economy because the profits from coffee, tobacco,
oil, and other products that helped finance the
industrialization of the Netherlands (Janssen 2015).
The resources were the main attraction to the Asian
and African lands, as well as the dominating power
one group of humans felt over others. The
imperialism escalated throughout this time, and the
abuse of the natives increased. 

Europeans in the Indies, who controlled the economy and

government, paid only 20% of the tax revenues of the Indies
(Janssen 2015). Most of the tax burden still fell on native
Indonesians, because of the destruction of the "culture system."
These revenues were used to finance Dutch military conquests in
the outer islands. In time, the Dutch government was spending
more money to support the Netherlands Indies than it was
collecting from the Indies in revenues. Most of the cash flow from
the Indies to the Netherlands after 1900 was in the hands of private
businesses. In 1942, the Japanese empire took control away from
the Dutch and gained control of Indonesia. Japan finally granted
independence to Indonesia in 1945 (Jacks 2015). 
THE CULTIVATION SYSTEM IN JAVA
The Dutch kingdom was facing extreme
financial burden after the Napoleonic
wars in Europe and the Java War. In 1830,
Governor-General Van den Bosch began
the Cultivation System, which meant that
the Dutch now had a monopoly on the
cultivation of the export crops on Java.
The Dutch decided which crops and what
quantity the Javanese peasants were to
generate and deliver. Javanese peasants
had to give up one fifth of their harvests to
the Dutch. The peasants received random
payments in cash that had no relation to
the crop’s value in the world market.
Oppression emerged since the Javanese
officials received a bonus when their
residency delivered more crops than their
last batch. This cultivation system turned
out to be a financial success, and between
1832 to 1852 around 19 percent of the
Dutch income came from this Javanese
colony, and 19 percent turned into 33
percent by 1866. In the beginning of the
cultivation system, Javanese power
holders joined in, however in 1850 the
system was changed and only the Dutch
colonial state was the dominating force
(Investments, Indonesia).
 THE LIBERAL PERIOD

The opinions from the people in the Netherlands began to reject the
cultivation system and support a more liberal approach for the colonies in
foreign nations, both for economic and humane goals. In 1870, the Dutch
liberals won their battle and the Dutch parliament ended some of the
aspects to the cultivation system such as the amount of money that was
being taken from the natives. These Dutch people who fought for this were
the ones who created a path for a new period called the "Liberal Period" in
Indonesian history, running from 1870 to 1900. Liberals promised that the
benefits of economic growth that they were striving for would reach down to
the local level, yet Javanese farmers struggling with hunger, famine and
epidemics were just as common as under the Cultivation System
(Investments, Indonesia). 
 THE ETHICAL POLICY 
The Ethical Policy was announced by Dutch Queen
Wilhelmina in 1901. This policy recognized that the
Dutch had a debt towards the Indonesians for the
control the Dutch had over their lives the past years.
This policy had the goal to raise living standards of the
native population in Indonesia. The slogan was
“irrigation, education, and emigration,” and it meant to
accomplish direct intervention in the economic life of
the Indonesian people, yet the effects were ambiguous
and not completely successful (Manara).  
The education provided under the new policy did begin
the idea of Indonesian nationalism, and educated
Indonesians in a way that allowed them to object
colonial rule. The Ethical Policy provided a small
section of Indonesian elite with Western political ideas
of freedom and democracy. For the first time, the native
people started to develop a national identity as Indonesians’ nationalism was cultivated in 1908 when
Indonesians. As the educational opportunities grew, the students in Batavia created the association called “Budi
colonial leaders realized the Indonesians were Utomo” which was the first native political society. This
beginning to recognize the issues with the imperialism group established a tradition in which the young
that was occurring. The colonial rule soon began again Indonesians elite and the Dutch authorities were to
to repress the Indonesians, however this did lead to collaborate in order to gain some independence in the
eventual liberation for the Indonesians (Manara). future. The Dutch authorities at the beginning allowed
the political movements, however in 1920 their views on
these new ideas and uprisings shifted. The calm regime
suddenly became a suppressive environment. This only
caused the Indonesian nationalist movement, creating an
even stronger force of uprising. The Indonesian
Nationalist Party was established as a reaction, and this
organization and movement had the goal of gaining full
independence of Indonesia. The Youth Pledge in 1928
was an organization with the ideals of “to wit one
motherland, one nation, and one language,” yet figures
from this movement were arrested and exiled by colonial
authorities. The idea that many had for one language and
one strong culture is even prevalent in a lack of success
today. Today, Indonesia is still being forced into the use
of European-based customs and lifestyles such as the use
of the English language (Manara).
DAENDELS AND RAFFLES: PROMINENT FIGURES

           Herman Willem Daendels, Governor-

General from 1808 to 1811 during the French
occupation of Holland reorganized the central
and regional colonial administration by
dividing Java into districts/residencies which
were each lead by a European civil servant
called the resident. These residents were
responsible for a wide range of matters in their
residency, varying from legal matters to the
organization of agriculture (Janassen 2015).

           British Lieutenant Sir Stamford Raffles,

Governor-General from 1811 to 1816 during the
British occupation of Java continued the
reorganizations of Daendels by reforming the
judicial, police, and administrative system of
Java. He introduced the land-tax which meant
that Javanese peasants had to pay tax,
approximately the value of two-fifths of their
annual harvests, to the authorities. His
administrative alterations meant an increasing
intervention in Java's society and economy by
foreigners, which is reflected by the growing
number of middle ranked European officials
working in the residencies. Between 1825 and
1890 this number increased from 73 to 190
(Janassen 2015).
    
      
BRITISH COLONIZATION IN INDONESIA

The story of imperialism in Indonesia did not end with the Dutch.
In the 1800s, the imperialistic efforts began with another part of
Europe: Great Britain. In 1801, the British first took control over
Minahasa, in northern Indonesia on the island called Sulawest.
Shortly after, in 1814, Fort York was established during the
Napolenic rule, and the Java people were led by Raffles. Raffles
implemented the land-tenure system, which meant that crops were
grown and given freely to the government. When under the Dutch,
crops were grown by the citizens and the government stole them
without paying. Raffles also ended slave trade and restored the
native temples in Indonesia. The British rule ended in 1824 when
the Treaty of London was implemented and stated that all colonies
are to be returned to the Dutch (Carey et. al.).
 ENGLISH AS A NECESSITY:
LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM
Indonesia is multicultural with 300
distinct native ethnicites
Indonesia is multilingual with more than
1000 languages and dialects 
The country is united with one national
language called "Bahasa Indonesia." 
Most Indonesians acquire and use their
local language as their first language and
Bahasa Indonesia as their second
language. 
Learning or acquiring English is
considered to upgrade someone's social
image and prestige (Manara). 
ENGLISH AS A NECESSITY FOR SUCCESS

English has become such an expectation

for success that the idea of linguistic
imperialism has emerged. In the past
Indonesian national curriculum, English
was solely a subject taught as an elective
at junior and senior high schools of
grades seven to twelve. However, starting
in the early 1990s the need to obtain the
skills of English for international
communication and globalization has
become urgent and necessary for the
development of the country of Indonesia
(Manara).

In 1994, the Ministry of Education

and Culture issued the 1994
Curriculum endorsing early
introduction to English starting
from Grade 4 of elementary school,
thinking firmly that early teaching is
a must. Since then, many
educational institutions have been
competing to introduce English at
early age and offering an English-
only environment in their schools.
In the early 2000s, private schools
offering English as the Medium of
Instruction (EMI) was growing in
numbers. English became the highly
sought commodity in Indonesia
(Manara)
 ENGLISH AS A NECESSITY FOR SUCCESS

In 2003, the pressure of globalization in Indonesia

caused the government to upgrade public schools to
the International Standard School program (ISS). One
important requirement for the ISS program is the use
of English as a means to teach subjects such as math
and science. Grants were offered to the schools by the
government to update the schooling programs since
English had become necessary for success in science
and technology (Manara).

The establishment of ISS caused controversy and debate among academicians and parents because
there was now a threat to the Bahasa traditional language and culture. The Coalition for Anti-
Commercialization of Education submitted a judicial review of the article on the national education
system to the Constitutional Court to end the implementation of ISS. One argument made by the
Coalition was that the use of EMI in these schools could diminish a national identity among
students. Also, the ISS seems to promote a social hierarchy which can further damage identity,
because the cost of schooling is expensive which creates inequality in the quality of education for
Indonesians. This is is against the 1945 Constitution. The Constitutional Court officially decided to
put an end to the ISS program in 2013. After the termination of ISS, a new curriculum was proposed
reducing the number of hours for English lessons in junior high schools to 4 hours per week and 2
hours per week in senior high schools. The closure of ISS programs and the establishment of the
new curriculum have risen to the new challenge that say schools should provide more exposure and
opportunities of learning and using English especially in public sector educational institutions
(Manara). 
 WHAT IS
 LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM? 
Does the spread of English as a global language mean the spread of the western culture?
Does the striking dominance of English form cultural and social inequality?
 Is linguistic imperialism irresistible?

"… Seen in its simplest terms, language imperialism

involves the transfer of a dominant language to other
peoples. The transfer is essentially a demonstration of
power—traditionally military power, but also in the modern
world economic power—and aspects of the dominant
culture are usually transferred along with the language. In
view of the prestige of the dominant power and its culture,
the transfer may not be imposed but actually be demanded
by the peoples who adopt the dominant language. It is likely
to be regarded as an intrinsically superior language and
accorded alleged virtues—e.g., that it is more logical, more
beautiful, or easier to learn than the dominated languages"
(Huda). 

"Worldwide, there are over 1,400 million people living in

countries where English has status. One out of five of the
world's population speaks English to some level of
competence. Demand from the other four-fifths is
increasing…By the year 2000, it is estimated that one over
billion people will be learning English. English is the main
language of books, newspapers, airports and air, traffic
control, international business, academic conference,
science and technology, diplomacy, sport, etc."
(British Council, English 2000 press release, 23 March,
(Graddole, 2002, p.181)  (Huda). 
WHY IS ENGLISH THE LANGUAGE OF
DOMINATION?

English is rooted in the British pattern of migration-

intensive colonization of North America, and the building of
its colonial empire in Africa and Asia. When economic and
political leadership moved from Britain to the USA in the
early 20th century, English, along with culture, was the
channel between the old and the new empire that based the
rules of the game and allowed English to dominate over its
competitors (Huda). 
English is looked upon as a mean to get economic
opportunities, improve standard of living, gain social status
and public recognition (Huda). 
Many families invest in educating their children in
international schools and at reputable universities to help
them get unique positions and bright careers, as they are
promised by linguistic imperialism (Huda). 
WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF A LANGUAGE
SHIFT FOR A COUNTRY? 
Language shift happens when a foreign language gradually overwhelms the native
tongue of other countries throughout the course of time (Huda). 
"When ‘language shift’ occurs, a society unwillingly and unconsciously gives up its
identity and finds itself dragged into a new one, as part of the new language and
cultural concepts associated to it (Huda)." 
People in the developing countries are ready to not just change their language but
also to shift their residence, as a result of the deterioration of economic and social
conditions and move to a place they can receive a different job that centers
around the English language (Huda). 
In Mexico,  there is a fear of “Americanization” from the United States, especially
because of the cross-border contacts between the two countries. Because English
is spreading in Mexico as a “foreign” language," there is an unease over the issues
of identity which always come to surface. For example, Huda explains,
“Unfortunately, education in the United States strongly encourages immigrant
children to lose their fluency in the languages they speak at home. This policy is in
agreement with the languages they speak at home. This policy is in agreement
with nativist ideals and organizations such as U.S. English (...), but is at odds with
the interests of individuals and a global economy" (Huda). 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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World's New Identity: A Research Paper in Linguistics. International
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YouTube, 4 June 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=BytK4NAYVHM.

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