Exam 1 Notes PDF

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BIOL 235 EXAM 1 Notes
Human Anatomy and Physiology (Athabasca University)
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CHAPTER 1
1.1 Anatomy & Physiology Defined

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(O) D: Anatomy/Physiology & their Branches
Anatomy — Body Structures & their Relationships

Dissection — Cutting apart the Structures to STUDY their Relationships
Physiology — Science of body FUNCTIONS [HOW it works]
Embryology — First 8-weeks Development after Fertilization
Cell Biology — Cellular Structures & Functions
Histology — Microscopic Structure of TISSUES
Gross Anatomy — Structures that can be Examined w/out Microscope
Systematic Anatomy — Structure of Body Systems [NRVS SyS, EX]
Regional Anatomy — Study of Specific Regions [Head]
Surface Anatomy — Surface Markings on Body [Moles, skin diseases]
Imaging Anatomy — Body Structures that can be Visualized via MRI / X-Ray
Pathological Anatomy — Structural Changes associated w/ Disease
Neurophysiology — Functional Property of Nerve Cells
Pathophysiology — Functional Changes associated w/ Disease + Aging
Checkpoint
1. What body function might a respiratory therapist strive to improve? What structures are
involved?
A)
1.2 LvL’s of Structural Organization & Body SyS

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(O) Describe: Body’s SIX LvL of Structural Organization
(O) List: 11 SyS of Human Body, their Organs, & Function
Six LvL’s
1. Chemical — Beginning, includes Atoms that Participate in RxN’s to make Molecules such as
DNA & Glucose
1. Cellular — Molecules Combine to form Cells = Functional Units of Organisms
1. Tissue — Group of Cells & Surrounding Materials that work Together to perform the same F’n
A) Epithelial: Covers Body Surfaces, Lines Organs, & Forms Glands
B) Connective: Connects, Supports, & Protects Body Organs [Blood Vessels]
C) Muscular: Contracts to move Body Parts & Generate Heat
D) NRVS: Carries info around body via Nerve Impulses
1. Organ — > 2 Tissues join together to form Organs

1. SyS — Related Organs w/ a Common F’n [Digestive SyS, EX]
2. Organismal — Any living Individual
11 SyS of Human Body

1. Integumentary = Skin, hair, Fingernails, Sweat/Oil Glands
A) F’n: Protect & Regulate Body TemP as well as Somatosensation
1. Skeletal SyS = Bones + Joins + Cartilage

A) F’n: Support body Structures & Provide Area for Muscle Attachment
1. Muscular SyS = Skeletal Muscle

A) F’n: Body Movement
1. NRVS SyS = Spine + Nerves + Eyes + Ears

A) F’n: Generate Action-PoT to Regulate Body
1. Endocrine SyS = Glands + Testes/Ovaries

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A) F’n: Regulate body Activities via Hormones
1. Cardiovascular SyS = Heart + Blood + B-Vessels

A) F’n: Pump Blood throughout Body to Provide Nutrients & take Waste
1. Digestive SyS = Gastrointestinal Tract Organs + Mouth + Pharynx [Throat]

A) F’n: Physical & Chemical breakdown + Absorption of Food
1. Urinary SyS = Kidneys + Urethra + Urinary Bladder

A) F’n: Produce, Store, & Eliminate Urine
1. Reproductive SyS = SEVEN UP + Ovaries

A) F’n: Produce Gametes for Reproduction
1. Lymphatic SyS = Spleen + Thymus + Lymph Nodes + Tonsils

A) F’n: Filtrate Blood, Carry Lipid from S.I to Blood, & Immune F’n
1. Respiratory SyS = Lungs + Pharynx + Trachea [wind pipe]

A) F’n: O2 + CO2
1.3 Characteristics of Life

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(O) D: Important Processes
Basic Life Processes — Six Important Life Processes

1. Metabolism — Sum of ALL Chemical Processes in the Body [Cata/Ana-Bolism
2. Responsiveness — Detect & Respond to External & Internal Changes
3. Movement — Movement of Body or Tissues or Cells
4. Growth — ^nC in Body Size B/W Cells inside ^nC in Size
5. Differentiation — Development of a Cell from Unspecialized to Specialized
6. Reproduction — Formation of New Cells or Individual
1.4 Homeostasis
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(O) Exp: How Homeostatic Imbalances are Related to Disorders
Homeostasis — Condition of Equilibrium in the Body’s Internal Enviro via Interactions of Regulatory
Processes
Homeostasis & Body Fluids — We exchange Fluid w/ Cells to Maintain ConC-Equilibrium as well as
for Protective Reasons [Lymph Nodes]
1. Intracellular Fluid [ICF] — Fluid w/in Cells
2. Extracellular Fluid [ECF] — Fluid Outside Cells
3. Interstitial Fluid — Fluid B/W Cells
4. Blood Plasma — Found in B-Vessels. Called Lymph if in Lymphatic-Vessels
OR Cerebrospinal Fluid OR Synovial Joints OR Aqueous Humor / Vitreous Body
CTRL of Homeostasis
1. Feedback SyS’s — Cycle of Events that can be Changed for Homeostasis such as ^nC’ing
Sweat when we Feel HOT or Shivering when we feel COLD
3 Components…
(1) Receptor: Monitors Change & Sends Input to CTRL Center = Afferent Pathway
(2) CTRL Center: Brain = Evaluates Input & Generates Output = Efferent Pathway
(3) Effector: Receives Output & Produces Response
1. NeG-Feedback SyS — Product Reverses a Pathway

A) B-Press too High = NAP is Released to Lower it = Reverse
1. PoS-Feedback SyS — Strengthens Response

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A) Child Birth: Contractions = Stretch-Sensitive NRV Cells activate = Release Oxytocin = causes

Contractions to be Stronger
Homeostatic Imbalances
1. Disorder — Abnormality of Structure or F’n
2. Disease — Specific Term for Illness that has Signs & Symptoms
3. Symptoms — Subjective Changes in Body that ~Observed [Headache]
4. Signs — Objective Changes that CAN be Observed [Rashes]
5. Diagnosis — Science of Distinguishing Disorders from each other
1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology
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(O) Des: Anatomical Position
(O) Relate: Anatomical Names to their Regions on Body
Body Positions — Standard Position of Reference = Anatomical Position = Stands Erect, eyes
forward, Lower Limbs are Parallel & Feet are flat on Floor directed FORWARD while Upper Limbs have
their Palms facing Forward
1. Prone — Lying face-DOWN
2. Supine — Lying face-UP
Regional Names — Head, Neck, Trunk, Upper Limbs, & Lower Limbs [PG 13 EXAM!!]
1. Head — Skull [Encloses Brain] + Face [Front Portion]
2. Neck — Supports Head & Attaches to Trunk
3. Trunk — Chest, Abdomen + Pelvis
4. U-Limbs — Attaches to Trunk = Arms
5. L-Limbs — Attaches to Trunk = Legs + Butt
Directional Terms — Words that Describe Position of Body in Relation to another

1. Superior/Cephalic/Cranial — Toward head
2. Inferior/Caudal — Away from Head
3. Anterior/Ventral — Toward Front
4. Posterior/Dorsal — Toward Back
5. Medial — Toward Midline
6. Lateral — Away from Midline
7. Intermediate — B/W 2 Structures
8. Ipsilateral — Same Side of Body as another Structure
9. Contralateral — OPP Side of Body from another Structure
10. Proximal — Near Attachment of a Limb to Trunk
11. Distal — Away from Attachment of a Limb to Trunk
12. Superficial/External — Toward Surface
13. Deep/Internal — Away from Surface [PG 15!!! EXAM]
Planes & Section [PG 16 EXAM!!!]

1. Planes — Imaginary Flat Surfaces that Pass through Body
(1) Sagital Plane — Vertical, Divides Body into L / R
(2) Midsaggital/Median Plane — Passes through Midline of Body or Organ
(3) Parasagittal Plane — UN-Equal Halves that ~Cross Midline
(4) Midline — Separates Body into Equal Halves
(5) Frontal/Coronal Plane — Divides Body into Anterior/Posterior
(6) Transverse / Cross-Sectional / Horizontal Plane — Divides Body into Sup/Inf
(7) Oblique Plane — Cuts body at a NON-90degree Angle
1. Section — Cut of a Body or Organ along a Pre-used Plane to Study it
Body Cavities — Enclose Internal Organs [PG 17, 18 EXAM!!!]

1. Cranial Cavity — Hollow Space in Head that contains Brain
A) Vertebral [Spinal] Canal: Spinal Cord
B) Meninges: 3xProtective Tissues + Shock-Absorbing Fluid
1. Thoracic Cavity — Chest Cavity that contains the Pericardial Cavity [Fluid that Surrounds
Heart + Pleural & Visceral Pleura] along w/ the Mediastinum [Central Part of Thoracic Cavity]

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A) Diaphragm: Separates Thoracic from Abdominopelvic Cavity
1. Abdominopelvic — Divided into Abdominal [Stomach + S.I] and Pelvic [Urinary Bladder, L.I

+ Reproductive Organs] Cavity
A) Viscera: Organs INSIDE Thoracic & Abdominpelvic Cavities
4) Nasal Cavity, Mary Cavity, Synovial Cavity, & Orbital Cavity [Eyes]
Thoracic & Abdominal Cavity MeM’s — MeM = Thin tissue that Covers or Connects Structures
1. Serous MeM / Pleura: ~Open Directly to Exterior
A) Parietal Layer: Lines WALLS of Cavities
B) Visceral Layer: Covers & Adheres Viscera w/in Cavities
C) Serous Fluid: Found B/W A & B = Allows for Movement [Inflating Lungs]
1. Pericardium = Serous MeM in the Pericardial Cavity

A) Visceral Pericardium: Covers Surface of Heart
B) Parietal Pericardium: Lines Chest Wall
C) Pericardial Cavity: Filled w/ Lubricating Serous Fluid
1. Peritoneum = Serous MeM of Abdominal Cavity

A) Visceral Peritoneum: Covers Abdominal Viscera
B) Parietal Peritoneum: Lines Abdominal Wall covering INFERIOR surface
C) Peritoneal Cavity: B/W A & B = Lubricating Serous Fluid
Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants — 2 Ways we can Divide the Abdominopelvic Areas
1. Abdominopelvic Regions — 2x Horizontal + Vertical Lines [Tic-Tac] Separate the Cavity into
9 Regions [PG 20 EXAM!!!] [F.C ALL THE PARTS]
A) Subcostal Line: Top Horizontal Part
B) Transtubercular Line: Bottom Horizontal Part
C) Midclavicular Lines: Mid-Point
1. Quadrants — Midsagittal Line & Transverse Line cut through Umbilicus [Belly Button] = R/L
Upper Quadrant [R/L-UP] & R/L Lower Quadrant [R/L-LP]
1.6 Medical Imaging

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(O) Des: Medical Imaging Procedures [PG 21 - 24 EXAM!!!]
Medical Imaging — Techniques & Procedures used to Create Images

1. Radiography — X-ray = White in Picture indicates DENSITY = Structural Image
A) Mammography: Breast Tissue Examination
B) Bone Densitometry: Bone Density Examination
C) Angiography: Blood-Vessels [can show Blockage]
D) Intravenous Urogram: Kidney Examination
E) Barium Contrast X-Ray: Colon Examination
1. MRI — High Magnetic Field, causes Protons to Arrange themselves = shows Cellular

Chemistry [Done for Soft Tissues to detect Tumors]
1. Computed Tomography [CT] — X-Ray for Section of Body as a Transverse Section =

Differentiates Tissues based on Densities = Accurate Structure
1. Ultrasound Scanning — High Frequency Waves that Reflect off of Structures to give an
Image
1. Coronary [Cardiac] Computed Tomography Angiography Scan [CCTA] — Iodine-

Medium is Injected, then X-Rays trace its movement = Gives Image
1. Positron Emission Tomography [PET] — Positron injected in Blood, taken up by Tissues &

as it Collides w/ e-’s = Produces Gamma Rays = shows Activity of Body

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1. Endoscopy — Visual Examination via Camera [goes up butt]
1. Radionuclide Scanning — Radioactive Substance Injected & Carried to Tissue = Emits

Gamma Rays = Intense colours shows MORE Activity
1. Single-Photon-Emission CT Scamming [SPECT] — Specialized type of 8) for the Heart,

Lungs, & Liver
CHAPTER 2 — Chemical LvL of Organization
2.1 How Matter is Organized

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(O) Identify: Main Chemical Elements in Human Body
(O) Des: Structure of Atoms, Ions, Molecules, Free Radicals, & Compounds
Chemical Elements — Are designed w/ a Chemical Symbol [H for Hydrogen]

1. Major Elements — 4 of them; Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, & Nitrogen [96%]
2. Lesser Elements — 8 of them; Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium,
Chlorine, Magnesium, & Iron [3.6% of body Mass]
3. Trace Elements — 14 of them; Iodine and others
4. Matter Exists in 3 States = Solids, Liquids, & Gas
Structure of atoms — Smallest Unit of Matter, contain P+ & Neutrons inside Nucleus with e- Outside
as Electron Shells
1. Subatomic Particles — Make up the Atom
Atomic # & Mass # — Atomic # = # of P+’s in Nucleus. Mass # = Sum of its P+ and

Neutrons [Sodium = 11 Protons + 12 Neutrons = Mass number is 23]
1. Isotopes — Atoms of an Element that have DIFF # of Neutrons = DIFF Mass #’s = Radioactive
Isotopes B/C their Nuclei Decay overtime
2. Half-Life — Time Required for HALF of Radioactive Atom to Decay
Atomic Mass — AvG-Mass of ALL Naturally Occurring Isotopes = Close to Mass #

1. Dalton — Mass of Atoms & their Subatomic Particles
Ions, Molecules & Compounds

1. Ion — Atom Gives up or Gain e-’s to become this = PoS or NeG Charge B/C it has UNEQUAL #
of P+’s or e-’s [Ionization = giving up e-’s]
2. Molecule — > 2 Atoms SHARE e-’s [H2O]
3. Compound — Contains Atoms of > 2 DIFF Elements [NaCl]
4. Free Radical — Atom or Group of Atoms w/ an UNPAIRED e- = Reactive
Checkpoint
1. What are the atomic number, mass number, and atomic mass of carbon? How are they
related?
A)
2.2 Chemical Bonds

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Chemical Bonds — Forces that hold Atoms together w/ other Atoms using their Valence Shell
[Outermost Shell of e-’s]
1. Octet Rule — 8xValence e-’s = Most Stable FORM
Ionic Bonds — Force of Attraction that holds OPP-Charged Ions B/C one is more Electronegative than
the other and becomes the Anion [NeG-Charged], while the Ion that LOST its e-’s becomes
the Cation [PoS-Charged]
1. Electrolyte — Breaks apart into PoS & NeG Ions in Solution [Salt]
Covalent Bonds — > 2 Atoms SHARE e-’s, ~Lose/~Gain
1. Single Covalent Bond — Atoms share ONE e- Pair [H + H = H2]
2. DBL Covalent Bond — 2xPairs of e-‘s are Shared [DBL Bond]

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3. Triple Covalent Bond — 3xPairs of e-’s are Shared [Triple Bond]

4. ~Polar Covalent Bond — e-’s are Shared EQUALLY
5. Polar Covalent Bond — Unequal sharing of e-’s due to Electronegativity
Hydrogen Bonds — Hydrogen Atom w/ a Partial-PoS-Charge attracts the Partial-NeG-Charge of other

Atoms = OPP Charged Attraction rather than sharing e-’s
A) Provide Strength & Stability = how Surface Tension is done
2.3 Chemical RxN’s

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Chemical RxN — New Bonds Form or Old Bonds Break using Reactants & Products
Forms of NRG & Chemical RxN’s — Chemical RxN’s Require NRG = Capacity to do Work. There are
2 forms of NRG; PoT NRG [NRG Stored due to Position] and Kinetic NRG [NRG Associated w/ Motion]
1. Chemical NRG — Form of PoT NRG = Stored in Bonds or Molecules
2. Law of Conservation of NRG — NRG ~Created / ~Destroyed, only Transformed
NRG Transfer in Chemical RxN’s — It takes NRG to form Bonds [Endergonic RxN’s], but breaking
Bonds RELEASES NRG [Exergonic RxN]
1. Metabolism — Couples Endergonic + Exergonic to drive RxN’s
2. Activation NRG — Collision NRG of Atoms that can Break or Form Bonds
A) ConC: More Particles = more likely they will Collide
B) TemP: Gives NRG = Kinetic NRG = Stronger Collisions
C) Catalysts: Lower A-NRG and Speed up Chemical RxN’s
Types of Chemical RxN’s [PG 37, EX]

1. Anabolism — SyN-RxN’s where Ions Combine to form Larger Molecules
2. Catabolism — Decomposition-RxN’s = Breakdown of Molecules into Reactants
3. Exchange RxN’s — BOTH Synthesis & Decomposition
4. Reversible — Products can Revert to Reactants & Back [A <-> B]
5. OxI-ReD RxN’s — One Electron LOSES e-s [Oxidation], other GAINS [Reduction]
2.4 Inorganic Compounds & Solutions

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Inorganic Compounds — Lack Carbon & are Simple Structures [H2O]
Organic Compounds — Contain Carbon & Covalent Bonds [CH4]
Water — Inorganic Compound = Uneven sharing of Valence e-’s means that it can act as a Solvent B/
C its bonds are Strong but ~Effect RxN [only Dissolves it]
1. H2O as a Solvent — Solution = Solvent [H2O] Dissolves a Solute [Ion]
A) Hydrophilic: Charged or Polar Covalent Bonds [H2O Soluble]
B) Hydrophobic: ~Polar Covalent Bonds [~H2O Soluble]
1. H2O in Chemical RxN’s — H2O is a Medium for RxN’s such Hydrolysis or Dehydration SyN
RxN’s where water is USED or MADE
1. Thermal Properties of H2O — Water can Absorb or Release Heat while having very little
Change happen to it = High Heat Capacity due to amount of H+-Bonds
A) Heat of Vaporization: High B/C LOTS of NRG Required to get H2O to Boil
1. H2O as a Lubricant — H2O is part of Mucus & Lubricating Fluid
Solutions, Colloids, & Suspensions — Mixture = Combo of Elements or Compounds that are

Physically Blended BUT ~bound by Chemical Bonds [Air = O2 + N + CO2]
1. Solution — Remains Evenly Dispersed among Solutes
2. Colloid — Large Solutes that Scatter Light & Appear Translucent/Opaque
3. Suspension — Suspended Solutes MIX w/ Liquid or Medium, but Settle to the Bottom
[Solutions & Colloid Solutes = ~Settle, rather Accumulate to Bottom]
Note; Mole — Amount of Substance that has a Mass in Grams EQUAL to the Sum of the Atomic
Masses of ALL its Atoms [NaCl = 58.44g = 22.99+34.45]

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Inorganic Acids, Bases, & Salts — These DISSOCIATE into Ions due to H2O
1. Acid — Dissociates into H+
A) Proton Donor: Gives H+ to other Molecules
1. Bases — Dissociates into OH-

A) Proton Acceptor: Takes H+
1. Salts — Dissociates into Cation & Anion = Important for making Electrical Currents
Acid-Base Balance; Concept of pH — 0 [Acidic] - 7 [Neutral] - 14 [Basic]

A) H+ ConC = 0.0001 = 10-4, pH = 4 [PG 41!!]
B) pH 6 = 10x more H+ than pH 7 [IMPORTANT!!]
1. Acidic Sol’n — More H+ than OH-

2. Basic [Alkaline] Sol’n — pH ABOVE 7
Maintaining pH; Buffer SyS’s — Convert Strong Acid/Bases into Weak Acids/Bases by using Buffers
[Either Remove or Add H+]
1. Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate Buffer SyS — Take H+ to become CO2 or become HCO3- to
release H+
A) CO2 + H2O <—> HCO3- + H+
2.5 Organic Compounds

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(O) Des: Functional Groups
(O) Identify: Carbs, Lipids, & Proteins
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of DNA, RNA, and ATP
Carbon & its Functional Group [PG 42 FOR ALL GROUPS]

1. Macromolecules — Large Molecules Combined = Polymers of Monomers
2. Micromolecules — Small Molecules = Can be Polymers or Monomers
3. Isomers — SAME Formula but DIFF Structure
Carbohydrates — Sugars, Glycogen, Starch, & Cellulose. F’n = Source of NRG to make ATP to drive
Metabolic RxN’s. Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
1. 3 Major Groups of Carbs — Mono / Di / Poly Saccharides
2) Mono/Di-Saccharides = Simple Sugars — Monosaccharides = 3-7 Carbon Atoms where their

‘Ose’ tells us how many Carbons [Trioses = 3], while Disaccharides is Combo of 2xMonosaccharides
3) Polysaccharides — Hundreds of Monosacchrides joined via Dehydration Synthesis RxN’s =

Insoluble in H2O & ~Taste Sweet
A) Glycogen: Polymers of Glucose in Animals
B) Starches: Polymers of Glucose in Plants
C) Cellulose: Polysaccharides in Plants that we ~Digest [Fibre]
Lipids — Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. However, Carbs have a 2:1 Ratio of

Hydrogen:Oxygen. Lipids have Less Oxygen = ~Polar Molecules [Hydrophobic]
1. F-Acids — Used to SyN other Molecules or Catabolized to make ATP. Consists of Carboxyl
Group + Hydrocarbon Chain
A) Saturated: ONLY Single Bonds = Saturated w/ H+ Bonds = Solid
B) Unsaturated: Contains > 1 DBL Bond = Kink = Liquid in Room TemP
1. Triglycerides/Triacylglycerols — 1xGlycerol Molecule + 3xF-Acids

A) Fat = Trigylceride that is SOLID @ Room TemP = Saturated Fat
B) Oil = Triglyceride that is LIQUID @ Room TemP = Unsaturated Fat
1. Phospholipid — 1xGlycerol Backbone, 2xF-Acids, 1xPhosphate = Amphipathic B/C it has

POLAR & ~POLAR Parts
1. Steroids — 4x Rings, SyN’d from Cholesterol = Testosterone, Estrogen, etc…

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1. Other Lipids
A) Eicosanoids: Lipids derived from Arachidonic Acid. 2 Subclasses…
i) Prostaglandins: Contribute to Inflammatory Responses
ii) Leukotrienes: Mostly Allergic RxN’s
Proteins — Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, AND NITROGEN
1. AAcids & Polypeptides — Each AAcid contains 1xH+, 1xAmino-Group [NH2] & 1xCarboxyl-
Group [COOH], and 1xSide-Chain [Chemical Property]
1. Functions [PG 49]
(1) Structural — Form Framework of Body [Collagen]
(2) Regulatory — F’n as Hormones to CTRL Processes [Insulin]
(3) Contractile — Shortening of Muscle for Movement [Myosin]
(4) Immunological — Antibodies
(5) Transport — Carry Substances [Hemoglobin]
(6) Catalytic — Act as Enzymes [Salivary Amylase]
1. 4 Structures to Proteins
A) Primary: AAcid Sequence [Dictates what Protein it’ll be]
B) Secondary: Folding of Peptide on itself [Alpha Helix or B-Pleated Sheet]
C) Tertiary: 3D Structure
D) Quaternary: 2xPolypeptides Bind
1. Shapes of Proteins
A) Fibrous: Insoluble in H2O & have Parallel Polypeptide Binded Chains and have Structural
Functions [Myosin, Collagen, Fibrin] [Enzymes v]
B) Globular: Soluble in H2O, Spherical Polypeptide Chains = Metabolic F’ns
1. Enzymes — Consist of 2 parts; Apoenzyme [Protein Portion] and Cofactor [~Protein] and are

Grouped according to their RxN’s [EX: Kinases]

3 Important Properties of Enzymes [PG 52, DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. Enzymes = Highly Specific — Each Enzyme binds to their own Substrates
2. Enzymes = Efficient
3. Enzymes = Subject to CTRL’s — Things can Enhance or Inhibit their Activity
Nucleic Acids: DNA & RNA — Nucleic Acids = Organic Molecules that contain Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen, & Phosphorous [PG 53 DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. DNA — Gene = Segment of DNA = Determine Traits we Inherit
2. RNA — Relays Instructions from Gene’s for Expression via Translation
Nucleotides — Nucleic Acid CHAIN, that consists of 3 parts;

1) Nitrogenous Base — Adenin + Guanine [Purines] & Cytosine & Thymine [Pyrimidines]
2) Pentose Sugar — 5xCarbon = Deoxyribose [attaches to each ^]
3) Phosphate Group — Binds to Pentose to form Backbone
4) DBL Helix — DNA’s structure
Adenosine Triphosphate — Transfers NRG Liberated from its Exergonic RxN’s via Removal of Pi via

Hydrolysis to make ADP [ATPase = Enzyme that does this] [PG 55]
CHAPTER 3 — Cellular LvL of Organization
3.1 Parts of a Cell

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(O): Name & Describe: 3 Main Parts of a Cell
Cell — Divided into 3 main Parts [PG 60 EXAM!!]

1. Plasma MeM — Barrier that Regulates flow of Materials In & Out
2. Cytoplasm — Contains Cytosol [Fluid Portion] & Organelles [ER, EX]
3. Nucleus — Houses DNA [Chromosomes] & Protects it via Nuclear-MeM

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3.2 Plasma-MeM
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Plasma MeM — Barrier that can be described as a Fluid Mosaic Model where the Arrangement of
the MeM resembles a Sea of Fluid-Lipids that contain a Mosaic of DIFF Proteins
Structure of Plasma MeM

1. Lipid Bilayer — Made up of Phospholipids, Cholesterol, & Glycolipids, and is said to
be Amphipathic [Outside, Head, Hydrophilic. Inside, Tail, Hydrophobic]
1. Arrangement of MeM Proteins — Classified into 2 Types… [PG 61 EXAM!!!]
1. Integral Proteins — Extend into Lipid Bilayer and are Embedded, acting as Trans-MeM
Proteins [Span Entire Lipid Bilayer and into Cytosol] = Amphipathic
A) Glycoproteins: Carbohydrate Group forms a Glycocalyx = Sugary Coat that acts as a Signal for
the Body to Recognize = Cell-Cell Communication
B) Receptors: Are Integral Proteins
(2) Peripheral Proteins — Attached to Polar Heads or Integral Proteins, ~Embedded

A) Enzymes & Linkers: Are (2)
F’ns of MeM-Proteins — PG 63 DIAGRAM EXAM!!

1. Ion Channels — Allow Materials In/Out
2. Carriers — Carry Substances from one Side to the other
3. Receptors — Recognize & Bind Ligands for Effect
4. Enzymes — Catalyze RxN’s
5. Linkers — Anchor Proteins to each other
6. Cell-Identity Markers — Glycoproteins = Allow Cells to Recognize other Cells
MeM Fluidity — Depends upon the #-of DBL Bonds [Introduces Kinks = ^nC MeM Fluidity by
Preventing Lipids from Tightly Packing] & Cholesterol Present
1. Note — Fluidity is GOOD B/C it allows Material to Enter & Exit
MeM Permeability — Selective Premeability

1. Readily — allows ~Polar Molecules such as Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and Steroids
2. Moderately — allows Small, ~Charged Polar molecules [H2O & AAcids]
3. IMPERMEABLE — Large, Charged Polar Molecules [Glucose]
Gradients across Plasma MeM — Uses ConC Gradient [Flow of Na+ inside, while flow of K+
outside] along w/ Electrical Gradient [Inside = More NeG] = MeM-PoT
3.3 Transport Across Plasma MeM

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(O) Des: Process of Substance Transport ACROSS MeM
Passive Process — Substance moves DOWN its ConC / Electrical Gradient

1. Diffusion — Molecules move from High to Low ConC Naturally, w/out NRG Input
A) Steepness of ConC Gradient: More Steep = Faster Diffusion Flow
B) TemP: Higher TemP = Faster Diffusion [^nC’d Kinetic NRG
C) Surface Area: Larger = More Area for Diffusion = Faster
D) Diffusion Distance: Greater Distance = SLOWER
1. Simple Diffusion — Substances move Freely through Bilayer w/out any Help [O2]
1. Facilitated Diffusion — Too Large or Charged, require Integral Proteins to help them move
Across MeM. Two ways…
(1) Channel-Mediated — Solute moves DOWN ConC-Gradient through a Channel
(2) Carrier-Mediated — Carrier [Protein] moves a Substance down its ConC Gradient

A) Transport MaX: Finite number of Proteins = Rate can be Reached

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B) Glucose: Binds to Carrier Protein [GLUT], Transporter changes Shape to Bind to it, and Transports it
through MeM to Release it on the other side [EX]
4) Osmosis — Movement of Solvent across MeM or through Aquaporins from Low-Solute-ConC to

High-Solute-ConC
A) Hydrostatic Pressure: Although H2O will go to High-Solute-ConC, this Pressure will force some
H2O back for Equilibrium Reasons
B) Osmotic Pressure: Solutes that ~Cross MeM exert its own Force and is Proportional to the
AMOUNT of Solutes
Tonicity [PG 69]

1. Isotonic — H2O is Equal on the Outside & Inside
1. Hypotonic — Sol’n has LOW ConC of Solutes = H2O Flows Inwards

A) Hemolysis: Rupture of Cell due to Influx of H2O
1. Hypertonic — Solution has HIGH ConC of Solutes = H2O flows Outward

A) Crenation: Cell Shrinkage
Active Process — Input of NRG to move Substance AGAINST its Gradient

1. Primary Active Transport — Hydrolysis of ATP = Releases NRG = Used [PG 69!!]
A) Na-K+ Pump: 3xNa+ [OUT] 2xK+ [IN] using Na+-K+ ATPase using ATP
1. Secondary Active Transport — NRG stored in one Gradient is used to Fuel other Gradients
= Harnesses Na+ ConC Gradient to fuel Others [Glucose]
A) Symporters: Transporters move the 2xSubstances in SAME Direction
B) Antiporters: Transporters “ “ in OPP Directions
3) Transport in Vesicles — Vesicle = Spherical Sac that is made via Endocytosis [Invagination of

MeM to bring Materials IN] or Exocytosis [Materials OUT]
(1) Endocytosis — 3 Types of Endocytosis [PG 71 - 73 DIAGRAMS EXAM!!!!]

1. Receptor-Mediated — Cells take up Specific Ligands via Invagination [PG 71]
A) Binding: Integral MeM Protein + Ligand Bind = Clathrin-Coated Pits
B) Vesicle Formation: Invagination, fuse, and break off Inside
C) Uncoating: Clathrin is Released & Returned back to Surface
D) Endosome Fusion: Separates Particles inside & Recycle the Receptor
E) Lysosome Degradation: Breakdown Particles ^ & use them
2) Phagocytosis — Cell Engulfs Particles by extending its Pseudopods [Projection of its Plasma-MeM
& Cytoplasm] and form a Vesicle to break it down [PG 72]
3) Bulk-Phase / Pinocytosis — Extracellular Fluid are taken-up via Invagination
(2) Exocytosis — Release Materials such as NeuroTrans, Hormones, & Enzymes [73]
(3) Transcytosis — Vesicles undergo Endocytosis on the OPP Side to fuse w/ Plasma-MeM,

and Release the Contents into Extracellular Fluid [done in B-Vessels & Interstitial Fluid such as
Transferring Antibodies from Mother to Fetus]
3.4 Cytoplasm
———————
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of Cytoplasm, Cytosol, & Organelles
Cytoplasm — Consists of Cytosol & Organelles
Cytosol — Fluid Portion that is filled w/ H2O & Dissolved Solutes and is the Site of Chemical RxN’s
such as Glycolysis and Translation [PG 75, DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. Cytoskeleton — Network of Protein Filaments that extend through Cytosol
A) Microfilaments: Actin + Myosin, that Generate Movement & Provide Mechanical Support [Shape of
Cell along w/ Microvilli]
i) Microvilli: Projections of MeM to ^nC its Surface Area

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B) Intermediate Filaments: Found in Mechanical Stress parts of Body [Skin] & Stabilize Position of

Cells by Attaching them to each other
C) Microtubules: Composed of Tubulin that help Determine Shape & Movement of Intracellular

Components [Vesicles, Flagella, Cilia, etc…]
Organelles — Structures inside Cell

1. Centrosome — Consists of 2xCentrioles [9xClusters of Microtubules]
& Pericentriolar [Surrounds Centrioles, that contains Tubulin Complexes = Organizing
Centres for Mitotic Spindle] [PG 76 DIAGRAM EXAM]
1. Cilia & Flagella — Cilia = Extend from Surface that help move Substances [Mucus],
while Flagella = Move entire Cells. Both are made from Microtubules
1. Ribosomes — Site for Protein-SyN that consists of a Large & Small Subunit
A) Their Location can Differ [on ER, Free-Floating, or even in Mitochondria]
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum — Network of MeM-Sacs

A) Rough ER: Covered w/ Ribosomes, site of Translation
B) Smooth ER: ~Ribosomes. F’ns = SyN F-Acids, Steroids, & Detox
1. Golgi Complex — Consists of Cisternae = Flattened Sacs [PG 80 DIAGRAM!!]

A) Entry [Cis] Face: Convex, faces the rough ER
B) Exit [Trans] Face: Concave, faces Plasma MeM
C) Medial Cisternae: B/W ^
Process of Golgi [PG 81, DIAGRAM EXAM!!]

(1) Proteins — SyN’d from Rough ER are put in Transport Vesicles & Delivered to Golgi
(2) Vesicle Fuses w/ Entry face & Releases Proteins Inside where they go to Medial Cisternae and
are Modified [Attach Pi or Carbohydrate or Fat]
(3) Products are then moved to Exit Face — Put into Secretory Vesicles [Exocytosis] OR
into MeM-Vesicles so the they are Incorporated into Plasma-MeM
1. Lysosomes — Vesicles that contain Hydrolytic Enzymes to break down Material [Autolysis]

that contain an ACTIVE H+-Pump that pumps H+ inside B/C they F’n best in Acidic Conditions
A) Autophagy: Worn-out Organelles are Digested
i) Autophagosome: MeM that creates a Vesicle around Organelle ^
1. Peroxisomes — Contain Oxidases [Enzymes that Oxidize Substances], which ends up

making Hydrogen Peroxide when Detoxifying Alcohol, BUT it also contains Catalase which
Decomposes H2O2 safely [B/C it’s Toxic to us]
1. Proteasomes — Breakdown & Digestion of Faulty or Broken-down Proteins
1. Mitochondria — Site of Aerobic Respiration. Contains Outer / Inner / Inter-MeM Spaces

where Mitochondrial Cristae make the Folds that comprise the Matrix
A) Apoptosis: Mitochondria plays a Role in this. If Cytochrome C is Released, that means there are
Toxic Chemicals inside = Apoptosis Occurs
3.5 Nucleus [PG 84 DIAGRAM EXAM!!]

———————————————————
Nuclear Envelope — Separates Nucleus from Cytoplasm that contains Nuclear Pores for mRNA to
go through along w/ RNA & Proteins [Require NRG Input for these 2]
Nucleoli — Spherical Bodies that F’n to Produce Ribosomes [rRNA] = Cluster of Protein + DNA + RNA
Chromatin — Complex of DNA, Proteins, & RNA [PG 85 - 86 DIAGRAM EXAM!!]

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1. Nucleosome — Consists of DBL-Stranded DNA wrapped around Histones

2. Linker DNA — String B/W Beads [Nucleosomes] that holds them Together
3. Chromatin Fiber — ~Dividing Cells B/C Histones Coil them Tightly
3.6 Protein SyN

————————
Proteome — Refers to ALL Proteins an Organism has
Gene Expression — DNA is Transcribed into mRNA & is Translated into Proteins
Genetic Code — Rules that Relate the Codon’s of DNA to their RNA & AAcids
Transcription — DNA serves as Temple to make RNA. Occurs in Nucleus [PG 87]
1. Messenger RNA [mRNA] — Directs SyN of Proteins
2. Ribosomal RNA [rRNA] — Joins w/ Ribosomal Proteins to make Ribosomes
3. Transfer RNA [tRNA] — Contains Anticodon that Base-Pairs w/ mRNA in a Complementary
fashion, then AAcids are made based on this Bonding
RNA Polymerase — Catalyzes Transcription, but Requires a Promoter to start until Terminator is
Reached
1. Introns — ~Coding Regions, are Excised by Small Nuclear
Ribonucleoproteins [snRNPs] and also Join Exons together
2. Exons — Coding Regions, are bonded together via Alternative Splicing
3. Pre-mRNA — Contains both Exons & Introns, and
Translation — mRNA binds to Ribosomes that consist of 3 sites; P [Peptidyl] Site, A [Aminoacyl]
Site, and E [exit] Site [PG 89 DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. mRNA — Binds to Small Subunit, and an Initiator-tRNA binds to the AUG on mRNA. tRNA
Anticodon [UAC] binds to the mRNA Start Codon [AUG]
1. Large Subunit — Binds to Small Subunit, and the Initiator-tRNA goes into the P-Site while the
tRNA binds to A site
1. Methionine + tRNA — Now bind to each other on the A site. The P-Site tRNA goes to E site &
is Released, while A-Site tRNA goes to P site. This repeats with multiple tRNAs until Stop Codon
is Made
3.7 Cell Division

————————
(O) Discuss: Stages, Events, & Significance of Somatic & Germ Reproduction
(O) Des: Signals that Induce Somatic Cell Division
Somatic Cell Division — ANY Cell other than a Germ Cell, where Cells undergo Mitosis and
Cytokinesis to Produce IDENTICAL Cells w/ the same # of Chromos. These are Diploid [2n] Cells B/
C they contain 2xSets of Chromos [23+23] and are termed Homologous Chromos [Homologs]
1. Interphase — Cell Replicates its DNA and Organelles via 3 Phases… [PG 91!!]
(1) G1 Phase — Cell is Metabolically Active, replicates its Organelles [~DNA] that lasts 8-10 HOURS
(2) S Phase — Lasts 8xHours, DNA Replication Occurs = Same Genetic Material
(3) G2 Phase — B/W S & M phase, lasts 4-6 HOURS where Cell Growth & Enzyme Production Occur
in Preparation for Cell Division
1. Mitotic Phase — Formation of 2xIdentical Cells that contains Stages [PG 93 EXAM!]
(1) Prophase — Chromatin Fibers Condense & Shorten into Chromos that are held together
via Centromere [Inside] while Kinetochore [Outside, Protein Complex] is the Site for Attachment of
Mitotic Spindle from Centrioles

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(2) Metaphase — Metaphase Plate Occurs

(3) Anaphase — Centromeres Split to Separate Chromatid Pairs into Daughter Cells
(4) Telophase — Reverse of Prophase 1
(5) Cytokinesis — Division of Cytoplasm into 2 Cells via Cleavage Furrow
CTRL of Cell Destiny — Cells have 3 Possible Futures; F’n w/out Dividing, or Grow / Divide, or Die
1. Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinases [Cdk’s] — Enzymes that Transfer a Pi from ATP to
Protein to Activate them which Regulates Initiation & Regulation of DNA Replication
1. Cyclins — Proteins that switch Cdk’s ON/OFF = how Interphase Occurs
Reproductive Cell Division — Meiosis = Occurs in Gonads to Produce Gametes that are 23xChromos
= HAPLOID [n] Cells
1. Meiosis — There are 2 Stages to this [PG 95 - 97 EXAM!!!]
1. Meiosis 1 — You begin w/ Diploid and end with Haploid

A) Prophase 1: Similar to Mitosis, BUT 2xEvents that are DIFF = Sister- Chromatids form Homologs/
Tetrads [Synapsis] AND Crossing-Over Occurs [how we get Genetic Recombination]
B) Metaphase & Anaphase 1: Centromeres remain intact
C) Telophase & Cytokinesis: Produce Haploid Chromos that are ~Identical
1. Meiosis 2 — Very similar to Mitosis where you start with Haploid BUT end w/ 4xGametes
Cells Shape is Related to its FUNCTION — Hence, why sperm has a Flagella Tail
Cancer — Uncontrolled Cell Division that becomes A Tutor / Neoplasm

1. Malignant Tumor — Spreads to other parts of body [Metastasis]
2. Benign Tumor — ~Move, can be Removed Surgically [Warts]
CHAPTER 4 — Tissue LvL of Organization [18 pages so far]
4.1 Types of Tissues

——————————
(O) Name: 4xBasic Tissues & their Characteristic
Body Tissues — Classified into 4xTypes according to their STRUCTURE & F’N
1. Epithelial Tissue — Covers Surfaces & Lines Organs/Ducts to form Glands and allows body to
Interact w/ Internal & External Enviro
1. Connective Tissue — Protects & Supports Organs, also Binds them together Acts as a NRG
Reserve [Fats] & Immunological Functions
1. Muscular Tissue — Contraction & Force Generation, also Heat Production
1. NRVS Tissue — Generates Electrical Signals [Action-PoT] to Activate Gland Secretion &

Muscular Contractions
4.2 Cell Junctions

—————————
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of 5xMain Types of Cell Junctions
Cell Junctions — Contact points B/W Plasma MeM & Tissue Cells [PG 107 - 108!!!]
1. Tight Junctions — Trans-MeM Proteins that fuse Together to seal off Passageways = Prevent
Contents from Leaking out of Cells
1. Adherens Junctions — Contain Plaque [Layer of Proteins] that is Inside the Plasma-MeM

and Attaches to BOTH MeM-Proteins & to Microfilaments of the Cytoskele

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A) Cadherins: Trans-MeM Glycoproteins, join the Cells by Inserting into Plaques of OPP Side of the
MeM that form Adhesion Belts [Similar to a Belt around your waist] that help RESIST Separation via
Contraction
1. Desmosomes — Also contains Plaque, BUT ~Bind to Microfilaments. Rather, it attaches

to Intermediate Filaments that Extend across Cells and into their Cytosol = Stability for
Cells & Tissues = Found in Epidermal Cells
1. Hemidesmosomes — ~Link Adjacent Cells, rather they use Integrins = Anchor Cells to

Basement-MeM and NOT to each other
1. Gap Junctions — Connexins form Tunnels t allow Diffusion of Ions B/W Cells
Checkpoint
1. Which types of cell junctions are found in epithelial tissue?
A.
4.3 Comparison B/W Epithelial & Connective Tissues

——————————————————————————
Structural Differences
1. Number of Cells in Extracellular Matrix — Epithelial Cells are Tightly packed w/ No Matrix,
while C-Tissue contains The Matrix to Separate Cells so that they have a Medium to Secrete
Waste & take up Nutrients
1. B-Vessels — Epithelial Cells have NO B-V’s, while C-Tissue has Networks of them
A) Note: E-Cells are found Next to C-Tissue to use them for their B-V’s!
1. Surface Layers — Epithelial Cells FORMS Surface Layers, while C-Tissues support Frameworks
and Gland F’ns
4.4 Epithelial Tissue [PG 110 DIAGRAM EXAM!!!!]

————————————————————————
(O) Des: General Features of Epithelial Tissue
(O) List: Location, Structure, & Function of EACH type of E-Tissue
Epithelial Tissue [Epithelium] — Cells arranged in a Sheet as Layer(s) that form Coverings & Linings
throughout the body, but is NOT Covered by other Tissues
1. 3 Main F’ns — (1) Selective Barrier (2) Secretory Surface that Releases Products into
the Surface [sweat] (3) Protective Surface that Resists Abrasion
A) Important Roles: Protection, Filtration, Secretion, Absorption, & Excretion
1. 3 Surfaces — Each differ in their Structure & F’n

(1) Apical Surface — Faces body Surface or Lumen of Organ [Villi & Microvilli
(2) Lateral Surface — Face Adjacent Cells [Tight & Adheren Junctions]
(3) Basal Surface — OPP of Apical, it is the Deepest Layers that Adheres to the Basement-MeM [use
Hemidesmosomes]
1. Basement MeM — Consists of 2 layers; A) Basal Lamina [Attachs to Epithelial Cells via

Hemidesmosomes] and B) Reticular Lamina [Contains Collagen made by C-Tissue]
A) F’n: Form Surface to allow Epithelial Cells to Migrate during Growth or Wound Healing, Restrict
Large Molecules & Filtration of Blood in Kidneys
1. Nerve Supply — E-Tissues are Avascular, Rely n C-Tissues
2xTypes of E-Tissue
1. Covering & Lining Epithelium — Forms Covering of Skin & Lining of B-V’s
2. Glandular Epithelium — Make up Secreting Portion of Glands
Classification of Epithelial Tissues — Arrangement of Cells as Layers/Shape [111!!!!]

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1. Layers
1. Simple — Single Layer of Cells that function in Secretion [Sweat] and Absorption
2) Pseudostratified — Simple BUT Extend far Up
3) Stratified — > 2 Layers that Protect Underlying Tissues
1. Cell Shape
1) Squamous — Thin = Allows Rapid Passage of substances
2) Cuboidal — Tall & Wide, MAY contain Microvilli for Secretion/Absorption
3) Columnar — Specialized for Secretion/Absorption [Contain Microvilli]
4) Transitional — Change from Squamous-Cuboidal for Organs that Stretch [Bladder]
Total Types of E-Tissues [all contain Epithelium at the end] [PG 112 - 117 EXAM!!!]
1. Simple Epithelium
1. Simple Squamous — Single Layer of Cells,

A) Location: Lymphatic SyS [B-V’s] = Endothelium or Forms Epithel-Layer of Serous MeM
= Mesothelium
B) F’n: Filtration or Diffusion of Blood/Nutrients
1. Simple Cuboidal
A) Location: Covers Surface of Ovarys, Lens of Eye, and Lines Kidney Tubules
B) F’n: Secretion/Absorption
1. ~Ciliated Simple Columnar — Contains Microvilli & Goblet Cells

A) Location: G.I Tract & Gallbladder
B) F’n: Secretion/Absorption [MORE than Cuboidal]
1. Ciliated Simple Columnar — Contain Cilia

A) Location: Lines Respiratory Tract & Reproductive Organs
B) F’n: Moving Mucus & Particles
1. Pseudostratified Columnar — Single Layer that Extends to Basement-MeM

A) Location: Ciliated [Respiratory], ~Ciliated [Lines Ducts of Glands]
B) F’n: Secret Mucus [Ciliated] or Absorption/Protected [~Ciliated]
1. Stratified Epithelium — 4 Types

1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium — Keratinized [Skin], ~Keratinized
A) L: Keratinized [Skin], ~Keratinized [Wet Surfaces, Mouth / Vagina]
B) F’n: Protection against Abrasion, H2O Loss & Microbes
(2) Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

A) L: Sweat Gland Ducts
B) F: Protection [Little Secretion/Absorption]
(3) Stratified Columnar Epithelium

A) L: Urethra & Esophagus
B) F: Protection/Secretion
(4) Transitional Epithelium — Go from Simple to Cuboidal and back

A) L: Urinary Bladder
B) F: Allows Organs to Stretch & Maintain their Lining
Glandular Epithelium — F’n = Secretion. 2xTypes: Endocrine & Exocrine Glands

1. Structural Classifications of ExO-Glands — Unicellular [Goblet Cells]
or Multicellular [Contain more than 1 type of F’n & Glands] [PG 118 - 119 EXAM!!!!]
1. Multicellular Glands — Categorized via 2xCriteria

a. Branched / Unbranched Ducts
A) Simple Gland = ~Branch

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B) Compound Gland = Branched
a. Shape of Secretory Portion of Gland

A) Tubular Glands = Tubular Secretory
B) Acinar Glands = Rounded Secretory
C) Tubolacinar Glands = BOTH Tubular & Rounded
Full Structural Classification of Multicellular ExO-Glands

1. Simple Glands [ALL Attach to ~UNBRANCHED Duct]
A) Simple Tubular: Tubular Secretion, ~Branched
B) Simple Branched Tubular: Tubular Secretion, Branched
C) Simple Coiled Tubular: Tubular Secretion, Coiled, ~Unbranched
D) Simple Acinar: Rounded Secretion
E) Simple Branched Acinar: Rounded Secretion, Branched
1. Compound Glands [ALL Attached to BRANCHED Duct]

A) Compound Tubular: Tubular Secretion
B) Compound Acinar: Rounded Secretion
C) Compound Tubuloacinar: BOTH Tubular & Rounded Secretion
2) Functional Classification of ExO-Glands — Based on whether a Secretion is a i) Product of Cell

or ii) Part of the Cell or iii) the Entire Cell itself
A) Merocrine Glands: SyN’d on Ribosomes, & Release their Contents via Exocytosis [Salivary
Glands] [Product of Cell]
B) Apocrine Glands: Accumulate their Product on Apical Surface & Pinches off via Exocytosis [Sweat
Glands] [Part of Cell]
C) Holocrine Glands: Accumulate Product in CYTOSOL, Cell Ruptures = becomes Secretory Product
[Sebaceous Gland = Oil] [Entire Cell]
4.5 C-Tissue
———————
(O) Explain: Features of C-Tissue
(O) Des: Structure, Location, & F’n of C-Tissue types
C-Tissue — Acts as a Network to Support E-Tissue and provide Nutrients for Body
General Features of C-Tissue — C-Tissue consists of 2xElements…

1. Extracellular Matrix — Found B/W Spaces
2. Cells — Contains RBC’s, WBC’s, along w/ NRV Cells to Accomplish Variety of F’ns
C-Tissue Cells — ‘Blasts’ = Immature, while ‘Cyte’ = Mature [PG 122!!!!]

1. Fibroblasts — Secret Fibers & Components that make up the Matrix
2. Macrophages — Immunological & Inflammation F’ns
3. Plasma Cells — Develop from B-Lymphocyte, Secret Antibodies = Immunity
4. Mast Cells — Produce Histamine for Inflammatory & Injury F’ns
5. Adipocytes — Fat Cells, store Triglycerides
6. Leukocytes — Migrate from Blood to C-Tissue during Infections
C-Tissue Extracellular Matrix — Consists of 2xMajor Components

1. Grounded Substance — Support Cells via as a Medium = Exchange Substances B/W Blood &
Cells [C - G = are ALL Glycosaminoglycans]
A) Glycosaminoglycans [GAG]: Project upwards to Trap H2O
B) Hyaluronic Acid: Lubricates Joints & Maintains Shape of Eyeballs
C) Chondroitin Sulfate: Provides Adhesiveness for Skin & Bone
D) Dermatan Sulfate: B-Vessels & Heart Valves
E) Keratan Sulfate: Bone & Cartilage
F) Adhesion Proteins: Links Components of 1) Together = Adhesion!
G) Fibronectin: Binds Collagen Fibers & Ground Substances together

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1. Fibers — 3xTypes are found in Extracelllular Matrix

(1) Collagen — Resist Pulling, but are also Flexible and act as Cushions
(2) Elastic — Form Networks to add Strength & Stability to C-Tissues
(3) Reticular — Provide Support for B-V’s
Classification of C-Tissues — Two Main types with their Subtypes [PG 124 - 133!!!]
1. Embryonic — 2xSubtypes
A) Mesenchyme: Found in Skin & Bones. F’n = Forms ALL C-Tissues
B) Mucous: Found in Umbilical Cord. F’n = Support
1. Mature C-Tissue
A) Loose C-Tissue
i) Areolar C-Tissue: Found EVERYWHERE. F’n = Strength & Support
ii) Adipose Tissue: Found by Aerolar. F’n = Insulation & NRG Reserve
iii) Reticular C-Tissue: Network of Fibers
o) Location: Stroma of Organs & Filters Worn-out RBC’s
B) Dense C-Tissue — Thicker & more Dense

i) Dense Regular C-Tissue: Forms Tendons & Ligaments [F & L]
ii) Dense Irregular C-Tissue: Epidermis & Dermis = Tensile Strength
iii) Elastic C-Tissue: Stretching of Organs [Lungs] [F & L]
C) Cartilage — Network of Collagen that Resists DMG & Stress. Also Consists of Chondrocytes [found
in Lacunae, Bone] and Perichondrium [Surrounds Cartilage to Protect it]
i) Hyaline Cartilage: Resilient Gel, found in Bones to Provide SMOOTH Surfaces for Movement &
Flexibility
ii) Fibrocartilage: Thick = Hip Bones = Support & Join Structures
iii) Elastic Cartilage: Found in Larynx & Auricle, Provides Elasticity
D) Bone Tissue — Compact + Spongy Bone, Support bone & Store Ca+
E) Liquid C-Tissue
i) Blood Tissue: B-V’s, Transport of O2 & CO2 [RBC] or Immunity [WBC]
ii) Lymph:
Repair & Growth of Cartilage — Repair is Slow B/C its Avascular, but Grow in 2 ways
1. Interstitial Growth — Growth W/IN Tissue = Chondrocytes SyN new Matrix and Expand
[Growing bones] = LENGTH Growth
1. Appositional Growth — Outer-Surface Growth where Chondroblasts Surround themselves w/

Matrix and become Chondrocytes = Matrix Accumulates Outside = WIDTH Growth
Bone Tissue — Supports Tissues, used for Movement, & Storage of Ca+
1. Osteon — Basic Unit of Compact Bone. 4 Parts…
A) Lamellae: Consist of Minerals = Hardiness of Bone
B) Lacunae: Spaces B/W ^, contain Osteocytes
C) Canaliculi: Projecting from ^, Networks of Canals for Nutrients & Waste
D) Central/Haversion Canal: Contain B-V’s & Nerves
2) Spongy Bone — Lack Osteons. Contain Trabeculae = Lamellae, Osteocytes, Lacunae, &

Canaliculi, BUT Space B/W contains Red-Bone-Marrow! [RBM]
4.6 MeM’s
—————
(O) Des: Classification of MeM’s
MeM’s — Cover part of Body, consisting of Epith-Layer & C-Tissue = Epithelial MeM’s
Epithelial MeM’s — 3 types [PG 133, DIAGRAMS]

1. Mucous — Lines body Cavity for Movement of Substances that OPEN to
Exterior, Function = Immunity against Microbes [~Pass through this]
A) C-Tissue Layer = Lamina Propria [Vascular Source for ^]

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2) Serous — Lines Body Cavity that ~OPEN to Exterior that consist of a Parietal Layer [Lining Cavity
Wall] and Visceral [Adheres w/in Cavity] w/ Serous Fluid [Lubricant]
A) Pleura: Covers Lungs
B) Pericardium: Covers Heart
C) Peritoneum: Covers Abdominal Organs
3) Cutaneous — Covers Surface of Body
Synovial MeM’s — Lines Freely-Movable Joints, Lack Epithelium

1. Composed of — Synoviocytes [Layer of Cells] and Synovial Fluid [Lubricates]
4.7 Muscular Tissue

——————————
(O) Contrast: Structure, Location, & Mode of CTRL for 3xMuscular Tissues
Muscular Tissue — Elongated Muscle Fibers for Movement [PG 134-135 EXAM!!!]
1. Skeletal — Striated, Voluntary. Attached to Bones [Tendons]. Multi-Nucleated
A) F’n: Movement, Protection, & Heat Production
1. Cardiac — Striated, 1-2 Nucleus. Contains Intercalated Discs [Gap Junction +

Desmosomes]. Involuntary
A) F’n: Pump Blood
1. Smooth — ~Striated, Involuntary. Uni-Nucleated. Contains Gap Junctions

A) F’n: Movement [G.I Tract, B-V’s]
4.8 NRVS Tissue [PG 136!!!]

——————————————
NRVS Tissues — Consist of 2xType of Cells; Neurons & Neuroglia [Support Neurons]
Excitable Cells — Neurons + Muscle Fibres B/C they Exhibit Electrical Excitability [Respond to Action-
PoT’s for Effect such as Movement or NeuroTrans Release]
4.9 Tissue Repair
—————————
Stroma or Parenchyma — New Cells Originate from these two
1. Epithelial Cells — Continuous Capacity for Renewal via Stem Cells
2. C-Tissue — Continuous Capacity for Renewal via B-V’s
3. Muscular Tissue — Poor Renewal. Only undergo Hyper/Hypo-Trophy
4. NRVS Tissue — Poorest Capacity
3 Factors that Affect Tissue Repair — Nutrition, Blood Circulation, & Age
Fibrosis — Fibroblasts SyN Collagen that Aggregate to form a Scar

Granulation Tissue — Actively Growing C-Tissue when Wound is Large
Wound Dehiscence — Partial/Complete Separation of Layers [Surgery Error]
Systematic Lupus Erythematosus — Chronic Inflammatory Disease of C-Tissue in Non-White

women in Childbearing Years = Autoimmune Disease
1) EX — Painful Joints, Loss of Scalp hair, Anorexia
CHAPTER 5 — Integumentary SyS
5.1 Structure of Skin [PG 143 - 144 EXAM!!!]

—————————————————————
(O) Des: Layers and Cells of Epidermis
(O) Compare: Papillary & Reticular Regions of Dermis
(O) Explain: DIFF Skin Colours

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Skin = Cutaneous MeM, Covers External Surface of Body

1. Epidermis — Composed of Epith-Tissue
2. Dermis — C-Tissue Layer
3. Subcutaenous [SubQ] Layer — Hypodermis, Areolar + Adipose Tissue
Epidermis — Composed of Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium, 4xCells

1. Keratinocytes — Produce Keratin = Protection against Abrasion & H2O Loss
2. Melanocytes —Produce Melanin = Produces Skin Colour and Absorbs UV Light
3. Tactile Epithelial — Connect to Tactile Disc = Somatosensation
4. Intraepidermal Macrophages — Participate in Immune Response
Thin Skin = Stratum Basale, Spinosum, Granulosum, and Corneum

Thick Skin = 4 above PLUS Lucidum
Stratum Basale/Germinativum — Deepest Layer, composed of Cuboidal & Columnar

Keratinocytes. Contains Keratin Intermediate Filaments that PRODUCE Keratin
A) Named Germinativum B/C they Divide A LOT!
B) As you go up the Stratum; i) Ability to Divide & ii) Layers = DeCs
Stratum Spinosum — Can still Divide. Covered in Thorn-like Spines = Projection of Keratin
Intermediate Filaments that insert into Desmosomes to JOIN Cells Together
Stratum Granulosum — Undergoes Apoptosis B/C they’re far from Basale = far from Vascular Portion
= ~Nutrients
A) Kerato-hylain: Assembles Keratin Intermediates into Keratin
B) Lamellar Granules: Fuse w/ Plasma MeM to Release Lipids [Hypodermis]
Stratum Lucidum — Present in THICK Skin = Keratin + Thickened Plasma-MeM

Stratum Corneum — Keratin w/out Nucleus/Organelles = Forms Callus [^nC’d Keratin
Psoriasis — Skin Disorder, Keratinocytes Divide more Quickly & are Shed
Keratinization & Epidermis Growth — AS Cells move up the Layers, they Accumulate more Keratin
= Keratinization = Undergo Apoptosis to Replace them overtime
1. Stratum Basale — Most Metabolically Active B/C they’re Closest to B-V’s
2. Epidermal Growth Factor — Proteins that Regulate all of the above
3. Dandruff — Excessive amount of Keratinized Cells that are Shed
Dermis — Composed of Dense, Irregular C-Tissue along w/ Collagen & Elastic Fibers = Tensile
Strength and can Stretch
1. Papillary Region — Contains Collagen & Elastic Fibers. Superficial Portion
A) Dermal Papillae: Project into Epidermis to ^nC Surface Area of 1)
B) Capillary Loops: Found in ^, contain…
i) Corpuscles of Touch: Tactile Receptors for Touch
ii) Free Nerve Endings: Dendrites = Warmth, Itching, Tickling
1. Reticular Region —Combination of Collagen + Elastic Fibers = Provides Skin

w/ Extensibility [Stretch] & Elasticity [return to original shape]
Surfaces of Lucidum
1. Epidermal Ridges — Ridges/Grooves = our Finger-Print = ^nC Surface Area, Protect
against Mechanism Stress, and ^nC Grip
Structural Basis of Skin Colour — Melanin + Hemoglobin + Carotene = 3 Pigments

1. Melanin — Causes Skin colour to Vary from Yellow - Brown - Black
A) Melanocytes: SyN Melanin from Tyrosine in Melanosome [More UV Light = ^nC Enzymatic
Activity = Darker Skin B/C DNA is being DMG’d and want to Protect against it]
B) Phomelanin: DIFF Form of Melanin = Yellow/Red
C) Eumelanin: DIFF Form of Melanin = Brown/Black
D) Nevus/Mole: Overgrowth of Melanocytes

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Study Guide Extras

1. Albinism — Inherited, ~Produce Melanin B/C they ~SyN Tyrosinase
2. Vitiligo — Complete Loss of Melanocytes from Patches of Skin
3. Cyanotic — Skin is Blue B/C of Lack of O2 being Absorbed via Lungs
4. Jaundice — Buildup of Bilrubin in Skin = Yellow Skin [Liver Disease]
5. Erythema — Redness of Skin via Engorgement of Capillaries [Skin Injury]
6. Pallor — Pale Skin = Shock / Anemia
5.2 Accessory Structures of Skin

————————————————
(O) Contrast: Structure, Distribution, & F’ns of Hair + Skin Glands + Nails
Hair — Protection from Sunray, Particles [Eyes], and Traps them [Nose]
1. Anatomy of Hair — Composed of Keratinized Cells bounded by Proteins
A) Shaft: Superficial Portion, Projects above Skin [PG 151 DIAGRAM!!!]
B) Root: Deep Portion, in Dermis. Hair is composed of 3 layers…
i) Medulla: Pigment Granules are Located
ii) Cortex: Elongated Cells [how hair is long]
iii) Cuticle: Outermost Layer, Heavily Keratinized Cells
C) Hair Follicle: Surrounds Root, made up of External and Internal Root Sheath [Epithelial Root
Sheath], while Dermal Root Sheath surrounds Hair Follicle
D) Bulb: Base of hair follicle + Dermal R-Sheath, Onion-Shaped

i) Papilla of the Hair: Contains B-V’s to Nourish Hair
E) Hair Matrix: Germinal Layer that surrounds Bulb = where Hair Grows from

F) Arrector Pili: Smooth-M, causes our hair to go Erect
G) Hair Root Plexus: Dendrites of Neurons that Surround each hair follicle
1. Hair Growth — Cycle; Growth [Hair Matrix Divide], Regression [Hair follicle Atrophies],

and Resting [nothing happens, everything resets]
A) Alopecia: Androgens prevent Hair Growth = Hair Loss
1. Types of Hairs
A) Lanugo: ~Pigmented Hairs, Covers Fetus [shed later on]
B) Terminal Hairs: Heavily Pigmented, Long Hair [my arm]
C) Vellus Hairs: Peach Fuzz
Skin Glands
1. Sebaceous/Oil Glands — Simple, Branched Acinar Glands that Secret Sebum [Triglycerides,
Proteins + Cholesterol] to coat Skin & Hair to Prevent H2O Loss
A) Acne: Inflammation of Sebacous Glands via Androgens = Infection Occurs
1. Sudoriferous/Sweat Glands — Release Sweat. Divided into 2 Types… [PG 154]

A) Eccrine: Simple, Coiled Tubular Glands that Secret H2O + Salts = Regulate Body TemP via
Evaporation [Thermoregulatory Sweating]
i) Insensible Perspiration: Sweat Evaporates B4 we even Notice it
ii) Sensible Perspiration: Sweat Excreted in Large Amounts [can Notice]
iii) Emotional Sweating: Sweating due to Emotional Stress
B) Apocrine: Simple, Coiled Tubular Glands = Sweat is Milky or Yellow [Armpit], and is Odourless [until

Bacteria break it down = B.O]
1. Ceruminous Glands — Waxy Lubricating [Ear Wax]

A) Cerum: Ceruminous + Sebacous Glands = Yellow Wax = Ear wax

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Nails — Tightly Packed, Keratinized Cells that consists of the Nail Body/Plate [Middle part of Nail,

Pink], Free Edge [Grows on top of Nail Body], and Nail Root [Portion of Nail buried in Skin [PG 155,
DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
A) Lunula: Crescent shape B/W Body & Nail Root
B) Eponychium: B/W Lunula and Nail Root
C) Hyponychium: B/W Free Edge & Body
D) Nail Bed: Skin B/W Body & Lunula
E) Nail Matrix: Divides to Produce new Nail Cells
5.3 Types of Skin

—————————
(O) Compare: Structure & F’n diFF’s in Thin / Thick Skin
Hair Follicles + Arrector Pili? | Sebacous-G? | Sudoriferous-G? | Sensory Receptors?

Thin: Present | Present | Fewer | Sparse
Thick: Absent | Absent | More | Denser
5.4 F’ns of Skin

————————
Thermoregulation
1. Hot TemP — Sweat + Dilating B-V’s near Epidermis for Cooling
2. Cold TemP — OPP of ^ + Skeletal Muscles SHIVER for Heat
Blood Reservoir — Skin contains 8-10 % of total Blood

Protection — Microbes/Abrasion/H2O Loss, Sweat = Acidic = Stops Microbial Growth
Cutaneous Sensations — Tactile and Thermal Sensations
Excretion / Absorption — Excretion of Sweat [has waste in it] + Absorption [Lotion]
SyN of Vitamin-D — Enzymes in Liver + Kidney take UV to make Calcitriol which is used as an Active-
Form of Vitamin D
Checkpoint [PG 158 Diagram??]

1. What types of Molecules can Penetrate the Stratum Corneum?
A) Sweat = H2O + Salts + Proteins and Lipids
5.5 Skin Wound Healing

————————————
(O) Explain: How Epidermal & Deep Wounds HEAL
Epidermal Wound Healing — Basal Cells go to Cut, Enlarge, and Migrate across Wound to Cover it
until they hit each other [Contact Inhibition]
Deep Wound Healing — Injury goes to Dermis & SubQ Layer = Scar’s Form
1. Inflammatory Phase — Blood Clot forms, Phagocytes Migrate to kill Microbes
1. Migratory Phase — Clot becomes Scab, Epithelial Cells Migrate & Bridge Wound while
Fibroblasts Migrate to SyN Scar Tissue
A) Granulation Tissue: Tissue Filling the Wound
1. Proliferative Phase — Same as 2) but more Extensive

1. Maturation Phase — Scab sloughs off & it’s done
Fibrosis — Formation of Scar Tissue

1. Hypertrophic Scar — Scar remains w/in Boundaries of Original Would
2. Keloid/Cheloid Scar — Extends beyond Boundary
Study Guide Extras

1. Skin Cancer — Exposure to Prlonged UV Radiation
2. Burn — Tissue DMG via Excessive Heat
3. Pressure Ulcers — Constant Deficiency of Blood to Tissues = Infected & die

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CHAPER 6 — Skeletal SyS
6.1 F’ns of Bone & Skeletal SyS

———————————————
1. Support — Skeleton = Framework that supports Entire Body
2. Protection — Protects Internal Organs from Injury
3. Movement — Muscles attach to Bones = Pulls them for Movement
4. Mineral Homeostasis — Storage & Release of Ca+ and Phosphorus
5. Blood Cell Production — RBM does this = Homopoiesis [RBC, WBC, & Platelets]
6. Triglyceride Storage — Yellow-BM contains Adipose Cells for Fat Storage
6.2 Structure of Bone

———————————
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of EACH part of a Long Bone
Long Bone — Consists of the Following Parts [PG 171 DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. Diaphysis — Bone’s Shaft [minus the Ends]
2. Epiphyses — Proximal & Distal ENDS of Bone [above & below Diaphysis]
3. Metaphyses — B/W Diaphysis & Epiphyses. Contains Epiphyseal Growth Plate
1. Articular Cartilage — Hyaline Cartilage covering Epiphysis where bones Articulate w/ other

bones = Freely Movable Joints, BUT is AVASCULAR
1. Periosteum — C-Tissue Sheath, Vascular, that surrounds a Bone and Nourishes it

A) Perforating Fibers: 5) Attaches to this = Collagen that goes into Matrix
1. Medullary/Marrow Cavity — Hollow Space inside Bone, contains YBM and B-V’s

1. Endosteum — MeM that Lines Medullary Cavity
6.3 Histology of Bone Tissue

——————————————
(O) Exp: Why bone is a C-Tissue
(O) Des: Cellular Composition of Bone Tissue & F’ns of each Cell
(O) Compare: Structural & F’n diFF’s B/W Compact & Spongy Bone
Bone/Osseous Tissue — Contains an Extracellular Matrix [15% H2O, 30% Collagen, 55% Mineral
Salts] [PG 172, PICTURES EXAM!!!]
A) Most Abundant Mineral Salt = Calcium Phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]
B) Hydroxyapatite: ^ + Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
C) Calcification: Deposition of Minerals in Bone via Osteoblasts
4 Cells in Bone
1. Osteoprogenitor Cells — Bone Stem Cells derived from Mesenchyme
2. Osteoblasts — Bone-Building. SyN & Secrete Collagen Fibers along w/ Initiating Calcification
[become 3) once they Trap themselves with their own Secretion]
3. Osteocytes — Maintain Bone by Exchanging Nutrients + Waste w/ Blood
4. Osteoclasts — Break down Bone via Lysosomal Enzymes = Resorption
Compact Bone Tissue — Strongest Form of Bone [PG 174 DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. Osteons / Haversion SyS — Repeating Structural Units of Bone found in ^ that consists
of Concentric Lamellae [Plates of Mineralized EC-Matrix w/ B-V’s] around a Central
Canal/Haversion Canal
1. Lacunae — Spaces that Osteocytes use for their F’n

1. Canaliculi — Channels that contain EC-Fluid that Osteocytes use
1. Interstitial Lamellae — Areas B/W Osteons, which contain Older Osteons that have been

Destroyed via Bone Remodelling

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1. Perforating Canals — B-V’s & Nerves use this to Connect to Medullary Cavity
1. Circumferential Lamellae — Arranged around the Shaft of a Long Bone and are Connected
via Perforating Fibers
Spongy Bone Tissue — ~Contain Osteons, rather it has Trabeculae [Lamellae arranged in a

Irregular Pattern]. Spaces B/W This is where you'll find RBM & B-V’s
1. Most Abundant in — Short, Flat, Sesamoid, & Irregularly shaped Bones
1. Structural F’n — The way Trabeculae of Spongy Bone is Shaped is done so B/C they Orient
themselves along lines of Stress to help RESIST Bone Fractures
6.4 Blood & Nerve Supply of Bone

—————————————————
Arteries that Deliver Blood to Bones [PG 175, DIAGRAM EXAM!!!]
1. Periosteal Arteries — Enter Diaphysis via Perforating Canals & Supply Periosteum
2) Nutrient Artery — Passes through Nutrient Foramen, and enters Medullary Cavity that Divides

into Proximal & Distal Branches to supply BOTH Compact & Spongy Bone
3) Metaphyseal Arteries — Enter Metaphyses along w/ Nutrient Artery to Supply RBM

4) Epiphyseal Arteries — Enter Epiphyses & ALSO Supply RBM
Veins that Carry Blood AWAY from Bones are found in 3 places
1. 1/2 Nutrient Veins — Accompany Nutrient Artery & exit via Diaphysis
2. Epiphyseal / Metaphyseal Veins — Accompany their Respective Arteries
3. Periosteal Veins — “ “
6.5 Bone Formation

——————————
(O) Des: Intramembranous & Endochondral Ossification
Ossification/Osteogenesis — Process of Bone Formation. Occurs in 4 Situations…
1. Bone Formation in Embryo/Fetus [all of these are below]
2. Bone Growth during our Life
3. Remodeling of Bone
4. Repair of Fractures
Initial Bone Formation in Embryo’s & Fetus
1. IntraMeM Ossification — Skull + Facial + Soft Spots

(1) Ossification Center Develo — Cluster of Mesenchyme
Cells that Differentiate into Osteoprogenitor -> Osteoblasts = Secrete Matrix until Surrounded
(2) Calcification — Osteoblasts become Osteocytes, which extend their Cytoplasmic Processes into

Canaliculi to allow Deposition of Mineral Salts
(3) Trabeculae Formation — Matrix Forms = makes Trabeculae to form Spongy Bone
(4) Periosteum Develo — Mesenchyme Clusters @ Periphery of Bone & Differentiates into

Periosteum
1. Endo-Chon Ossification — Replacement of Cartilage by Bone

(1) Cartilage Model — Mesenchyme Cells Cluster & Differentiate into Chondroblasts to Secrete
Cartilage Matrix = Cartilage Model [Hyaline Cartilage]

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(2) Cartilage Model Growth — Chondroblasts become Chondrocytes via being Trapped by their own

Matrix, and they grow in LENGTH via Interstitial [Endogenous] Growth AND WIDTH via Appositional
[Exogenous] Growth] = Hypertrophy
(3) Primary Ossification Center — Proceeds INWARD via Nutrient Artery that Stimulates

Osteoprogenitor Cells to become Osteoblasts while Periosteal Capillaries grow into the Cartilage [PMC]
= Cartilage becomes Replaced by Bone
(4) Medullary/Marrow Cavity — Osteoclasts break bone Inside = Medullary Cavity
(5) 2ndary Ossification Center — Epiphyseal Artery goes into Epiphyses and proceeds OUTWARD
(6) Articular Cartilage + Epihphyseal Growth Plate Develo — Hyalin Cartilage covers Epiphyses
is used to Articulate to other Bones
Bone Growth — via 2 ways Throughout our Life

1. Length Growth — Occurs via Interstitial Cartilage Growth & Replacement of that
Cartilage via Endo-Chon Ossification
Epiphyseal Growth Plate — Hyaline Cartilage found in Metaphysis, 4 zones…

(1) Resting Cartilage — Consists of Chondrocytes that are Inactive
(2) Proliferating-C — Chondrocytes are Active & Undergo Interstitial Growth
(3) Hypertrophic-C — Chondrocytes line up as Columns and Grow
(4) Calcified-C — Dead Chondrocytes due to Matrix is now Calcified. Osteoclasts break down this part
to allow Arteries & Veins to go through while Osteoblasts lay down more Matrix [PG 179, DIAGRAM
BOTTOM EXAM!!]
A) Epiphyseal Line: Cartilage stops being Produced = ~Growth
1. Width Growth — Does this via Appositional Growth where Periosteal Cells Differentiate into
Osteoblasts to Secret Collagen = Surrounded and become Osteocytes
6.6 Fracture & Repair of Bone

———————————————
(O) Exp: Sequence of Fracture Repair
Fracture — Break in Bone and are named according to their Severity or Shape
1. Stress Fracture — Fracture w/out Visibly Breaking
Repair of Bone
1. Reactive Phase — Inflammatory Phase and Blood forms @ Fracture Site [Fractura
Hematoma], while Phagocytes kill Bacteria and Osteoclasts remove Dead Bone
1. Reparative Phase; Fibrocartilaginous Callus Formation — B-V’s grow into the

Fracture. Fibroblasts produce Collagen & Chondroblasts produce Fibrocartilage
1. Rep-Phase; Bony Callus Formation — Osteoprogenitor Cells become Osteoblasts, Secrete

Matrix, and Converts Fibrocartilage into Spongy Bone
1. Bone Remodeling — Via Osteoclasts & Osteoblasts
Parathyroid Hormone — Released by Parathyroid Gland, breaks down bone by

Stimulating Osteoclasts while also Acting on Kidneys to DeC Ca+ loss in Urine
1. Calcitriol — Stimulated via ^, Active form of Vit-D, Promotes Ca+ Absorption from Foods to
Deliver it to Blood for Use
Calcitonin — OPP Effect
Study Guide Extras

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1. Osteoperosis — Bone Resorption outpaces Bone Deposition B/C Ca+ is lost via Excretion =
Bone Mass DeC’s & becomes Easy to Break
1. Rickets & Osteomalacia — Same Disease, Results from Inadequate Calcification of the Bone
Matrix via Vit-D Deficiency [mostly for Youth]
CHAPTER 7 — AXIAL SKELETON
7.1 Division of Skeletal SyS

—————————————
Adult Human — 206 Bones grouped into 2 Divisions
1. Axial Skeleton — 80 Bones [Skull + Spine + Ribs]
2. Appendicular Skeleton — 126 Bones [Upper & Lower Limbs]
7.2 Types of Bones

——————————
(O) Classify: Bones based on their SHAPE & LOCATION
Bones can be Classified into 5xMain Types [PG 194 - 195 MEMORIZE!!!!]
1. Long — What you just learned about in CH6
2. Short — Equal Length & Width = Carpal [wrist] & Tarsal [ankle]
3. Flat — Composed of 2xParallel Plates for Protection & Muscle Attachment = Skull
4. Irregular — Complex Shape = Vertebrae
5. Sesamoid — Develop in Tendons that EXP Friction & Physical Stress [Palms]
Sutural Bones — Classified via Location [~Shape] = Bones found in Sutures [Joints] B/W Cranial
Bones [Skull]
7.3 Bone Surface Markings

——————————————
(O) Des: Surface Markings & Their F’n
Bones have Surface Markings — Structural Features for Specific F’ns

1. 2xMajor Types of Surface Markings
A) Depressions/Openings: Allows Passage of Materials or Forming Joints
B) Processes: Projections that form Joints or Serve as Attachment Points
Depression & Openings

1. Fissures — Allow B-V’s & Nerves to pass through
2. Foramen — “ “ + Ligaments to Pass
3. Fossa — Depression
4. Sulcus — Accommodates B-V’s & Nerves
5. Meatus — Opening
Processes that form Joints

1. Condyle — Articular Surface @ End of Bone [Femur]
2. Facet — Concave Articular Surface [Vertebra]
3. Head — Found in Neck to support Head
Processes that form Attachment Points

1. Crest — Ridge
2. Epicondyle — Projection above Condyle
3. Line — Narrow Ridge
4. Spinous Process — Slender Projection
5. Trochanter — Large Projection
6. Tubercle — Rounded Projection
7. Tuberosity —

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7.4 Skull
—————
(O) Name: Cranial + Facial Bones, and Indicate if they’re Paired or Single
(O) Des: Sutures, Paranasal Sinuses, Frontanels
Skull — Grouped into 2 Categories

1. Cranial Bones — 8xBones Form the Skull
2. Facial Bones — 14xBones that make up the Face
PAGES = 197 - 205 [ASK IF ALL DIAGRAMS ARE IMPORTANT]
Cranial Bones
———————
Frontal Bone — Forehead + Top half of our Eye Socket [Orbitals]
1. Supraorbital Foramen — Supraorbital Nerve Passes through = Sensation on Head
2. Supraorbital Margin — Eyebrow Bones
3. Frontal Sinuses — Mucous MeM-Lined Cavities
2xParietal Bones — Protrusions & Depressions that Accommodate B-V’s
2xTemporal Bones — PAIRED, form the Cranial Floor + Inferior Cranium

1. Zygomatic Arch — Zygomatic Process of Temporal Bone [Temple] and Temporal Process
of Zygomatic Bone [Cheek]
2. Temporomandibular Joint — Mandible [Jaw] + Articular Tubercle
3. Mastoid Process — Point of Attachment for many Neck Muscles
4. Styloid Process — Attachment Point for Tongue / Neck Muscles
5. External Auditory Meatus — Directs Sound Waves into Ear
6. Internal Auditory Meatus — Facial (VII) Nerve Passes through here
Occipital Bone — Back of Head

1. Foramen Magnum — Medulla Oblongata Connects w/ Spinal Cord via 1)
2. External Occipital Protuberance — Bump @ Back of Head
3. Occipital Condyles — Binds w/ Atlas [C1] to make Atlanto-Occipital Joint [Nod]
Sphenoid Bone — Keystone of Cranial Floor B/C it Articulates with EVERY Cranial Bond to hold them
Together
1. Sphenoidal Sinus — Drains into Nasal Cavity [gives us Mucus]
2. Sella Turcica — Saddle-Shaped Structure
3. Optic Foramen— Optic (II) Nerve enters through for Eye Sensation
Ethmoid Bone — Anterior of Cranial Floor, Orbit Walls, Nasal Septum and Nasal Cavity
Facial Bones
———————
(O) Identify: Location & Surface Markings of all Facial Bones
2xNasal Bones — Bridge of Nose [where your glasses rest on]
2xLacrimal Bones — Form Medial Wall of Orbits

1) Lacrimal Fossa — Tunnel formed w/ Maxilla, houses Lacrimal sac that Gathers Tears and passes
them into Nasal Cavity [L-Sac = ~Important]
2xPalatine Bones — Form Posterior Portion of Hard Palate, L Shaped
2xInferior Nasal Conchae — Form Inferior Wall of Nasal Cavity and ^nC its Surface Area to
Swirl/Filter Air before it goes to Lungs
Vomer — Floor of Nasal Cavity, Forms Inferior Portion of Nasal Septum

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2xMaxillae — Jawbones, Unite to form Upper-Jawbone. Articulate with EVERY Face bone, EXCEPT
Mandible [Lower Jawbone]
1) Infraorbital Foramen — Allows B-V’s & Nerves to reach Jaw
2) Maxillary Sinuses — Empties into Nasal Cavity
2xZygomatic Bones — Cheekbones
Mandible — Lower Jawbone = ONLY Movable Skull Bone

1. Temporomandibular Joint — Mandibular Fossa + Articular Tubercle of Temporal Bone
2. Rami + Body + Angles [Area in which Ramus meets Body]
Nasal Septum — Separates Nose into L / R Sides. Made via 3 Bones…
Orbits — 7 Bones Join to form each Orbit

A) 3xCranial: Frontal, Sphenoid, Ethmoid
B) 4xFacial: Palatine, Zygomatic, Lacrimal, & Maxilla
Unique Features of Skull

1. Sutures — Immovable Joint that holds Skull Bones together [Infants = Movable]
(1) Coronal Suture — Unites Frontal + 2xParietal Bones
(2) Sagittal Suture — Unites ONLY 2xParietal Bones together [soft spot]
(3) Lambdoid Suture — Unites 2xParietal + Occipital
(4) 2xSquamous Sutures — Unite Parietal + Temporal Bones one each Side
1. Paranasal Sinuses — Lined w/ Mucus-MeM’s that Secretions into Nose = Snot

A) Which bones Contain ^? = Frontal, Sphenoid, Ethmoid, & Maxillae
B) F’n: ^nC Size of Skull w/out Changing Mass of Bones
C) F’n: ^nC Surface Area of Mucus = More Mucus to Clean & Filter Air
D) Voice: Serves as Resonating Chamber to Intensify & Enhance Voice Quality
1. Fontanels — Mesenchyme-filled Spaces B/W Cranial Bones present at BIRTH = Soft Spots until
Ossification Occurs = Serves as Spacers for Growth of Skull Bones & Flexibility for Fetus Skull
during Birth [PG 212!!]
(1) ~Paired Anterior Fontanel — Location = B/W 2xParietal + Frontal Bones

(2) ~Paired Posterior Fontanel — Location = B/W 2xParietal + Occipital Bones
(3) Paired Anterolateral Fontanels — L = Frontal + Parietal + Temporal + Sphenoid
(4) Paired Posterolateral Fontanels — L = Parietal + Occipital + Temporal Bones
Hyoid Bone — ~Articulate w/ ANY OTHER BONE. Supports & Provides Attachment Site for Tongue
Muscles [PG 213 EXAM!] [Strangulation: Breaks ^
7.6 Vertebral Column

———————————
(O) Identify: Regions & Curves of Vertebral Column
(O) Des: Structural & F’n Features of Bones in Vertebral Column
Vertebral Column — Series of Vertebrae [bones] that includes the Spine, Sternum, & Ribs. Also
consists of 4xCurves in Adults [1xCurve in Infants] [PG 214]
A) Why Curves?: Absorb Shocks & Maintains Balance
1. Cervical Vertebrae [Neck] — 7xBones
2. Thoracic Vertebrae [Chest] — 12xBones
3. Lumbar Vertebrae [Lower Back] — 5xBones
4. Coccyx & Sacrum — 1xBone each
Intervertebral Discs — B/W Vertebrae = Outer Fibrocartilage Ring [Annulus Fibrosus] and an Inner
Elastic Material [Nucleus Pulposus]
Parts of a Vertebra
1. Body — Weight-bearing Part and holds our Spine together

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1. Arch — Extends Posteriorly from Body

A) Vertebral Foramen: B-V’s to Nourish the Spine
B) Intervertebral Foramen: Spine Nerves to carry Info TO and FROM the Spine
1. Processes — Serve as Attachment Points for Muscles/Joints via Hyaline Cartilage

A) Transverse Process + Spinous Process = “Attachment for” Muscles
B) 2xInferior + 2xSuperior Articular Processes = “ “ Intervertebral Joints
Vertebral Regions Exhibitions

———————————————
Cervical Vertebrae
(O) Identify: Location & Surface Features of Cervical Vertebrae
Cervical Vertebrae
1. Atlas [C1] — 1st Cervical Vertebrae, Ring of Bone that allows us to Nod
2. Axis [C2] — 2nd Cervical Vertebrae = Allows us to Pivot our Head Left & Right
3. Dens / Odontoid Process — Allows 2) to Work
Thoracic Vertebrae
(O) Identify: Location & Surface Features of Thoracic Vertebrae
Thoracic Vertebrae
1. T1 - T10 = Long & Flattened, Inferiorly Directed = Articulate w/ Ribs
A) Vertebrocostal Joint: Vertebrae + Ribs
1. T11 & T12 — Shorter & Broader, Posteriorly Directed = ~Articulate w/ Ribs
Lumbar Vertebrae [PG 222!!!! EXAM!!!]

(O) Identify: Location & Surface Features of Lumbar Vertebrae
Lumbar Vertebrae — Largest & Strongest = Support the MOST Body Weight

Sacral & Coccygeal Vertebrae
(O) Identify: “ “
Sacrum — Foundation for Pelvic Girdle

1. Anterior + Posterior Sacral Foramina — Allow B-V’s & Nerves to Enter the Sacral
2. Sacroilliac Joint — Sacral + Ilium
Coccyx — Points (i) Inferior [Women] or (i) Anterior [Men]
Sternum
Sternum — Flat, Narrow bone that fuse at 25 [PG 224, BOTTOM LEFT!!!]
1. Manubrium — Superior Portion, Articulates w/ 1st & 2nd Ribs
2. Body — Middle, Articulates w/ 2nd through 10th Ribs
3. Xiphoid Process — Inferior = ~Articulation w/ Ribs = Broken during CPR
Ribs
Ribs — 12xPairs [1-12] give Structural Support to Thoracic Cavity [PG 225 EXAM!!]
1. True Ribs [Vertebrosternal] — 1st - 7th Ribs = Articulate w/ Sternum
2. False Ribs [Vertebrochondral] — 8th - 12th = INDIRECTLY Attach OR NOT at all
CHAPTER 8 — Appendicular Skeleton

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8.1 Pectoral [Shoulder] Girdle

———————————————
Pectoral Girdle — Consists of Clavicle & Scapula
Clavicle
(O) Des: Location & Surface Features of Clavicle
Clavicle — Collar-Bone that is S-Shaped

1. Sternal End — Articulates w/ Manubrium [Sternum] = Sternoclavicular Joint
2. Acromial End — Articulates w/ Scapula = Acromioclavicular Joint
Scapula
(O) Des: “ “
Scapula — Shoulder Blade

1. Glenoid Cavity — Humerus + Shoulder = Glenohumoral Joint
2. Coracoid Process — Lateral End, Muscles & Ligaments Attach to Back
3. Supraspinous Fossa — Attachment for Supraspinatus Muscle of Shoulder
4. Infraspinous Fossa — Attachment for Infraspinatus Muscle of Shoulder
8.2 Upper Limbs [Extremity]

——————————————
(O) Identify: Bones of U-Limb & their Principal Markings
Upper Limb/Extremity — 30xBones in 3 Locations = 1xBone in Arm [Humerus], 2xBone for Ulna +

Radius [Forearm], and 8xBone for Carpals [Wrist], 5xBone Metacarpal [Palm], & 14xBone for
Phalanges [Digits]
Humerus
(O) Identify: Location & Surface Markings of Humerus
Humerus — Longest & Largest bone in U-Limbs, Articulates Proximally w/ Scapula & Distally w/ Ulna +
Radius [Elbow Joint]
1. Proximal End: Articulates w/ Glenoid Cavity to make Glenohumeral Joint
2. Anatomical Neck: Distal to ^, Site of Epiphyseal Growth Plate
3. Surgical Neck: Most Common site of FRACTURES
4. Greater Tubercle — Palpable Bony Landmark of Shoulder Region
5. Deltoid Tuberosity — Attachment Point for Deltoid Muscles
6. Medial/Lateral Epicondyle — Distal End = Forearm Muscles Attach
Ulna & Radius

Ulna — Located on Medial Aspect [Pinky side] and is Longer

1. Coronoid Process — Articulates w/ Humerus = Elbow Joint
A) Olecranon: Forms Prominence of Elbow
B) Styloid Process: Attaches to Wrist Muscles [Both Ulna & Radius have this]
Radius — Located on Lateral Aspect [Thumb side]

1. Proximal End — Contains ‘Head’ that Articulates w/ Humerus [Elbow Joint]
2. Ulnar Notch — Articulate w/ Ulna
3. Elbow Joint — Head of Radius + Trochlear Notch Articulates w/ Humerus
Carpals, Metacarpals, & Phalanges [PG 239 MEMORIZE!!!!]

(O) Identify: Location & Surface Landmarks of Hand Bones
Carpals [Carpus] — Intercarpal Joints = Articulations among Carpal Bones
1. Proximal Row — Scaphoid + Lunata + Triquetrum + Pisiform

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2. Distal Row —Trapezium + Trapezoid + Capitate + Hamate
Metacarpals [Metacarpus] — Consists of 3xRegions [Middle of Hand]

1. Proximal Base — Articulates Proximally
2. Intermediate Shaft
3. Distal Head — Articulates w/ Digits
Phalanges — 14xPhalanges in our 5xDigits on BOTH of our Hands

A) Numbered — I -> V [I = Thumb, Pinky = V]
B) Thumb [Pollex]: 2x Phalanges = Proximal & Distal Phalanges
C) Digits: Also contain Base, Shaft, & Head
8.3 Pelvic [Hip] Girdle [PG 241, MEMORIZE BIG 3]

————————————————————————
(O) Identify: Bones of Pelvic Girdle & Their Principal Markings
Pelvic Hip Girdle — Consists of 2xHip-Bones [Coxal / Pelvic Bones / Os Coxa]

1. Pubic Symphysis Joint — Hip Bones join ANTERIORLY
2. Sacroilliac Joint — Hip Bones join POSTERIORLY w/ Sacrum
3. Bony Pelvis — All Joints and Bones that make up the Hips = Supports Spine
4. Acetabulum — Ilium + Ischium + Pubis Bones. F’n = Socket for Femur to Attach that allows
us to WALK
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

(O) Identify: Locations & Surface Features of 3xComponents of Hip Bone
Ilium — Largest, Composed of Superior & Inferior Body [Makes Acetabulum]

1) Greater Sciatic Notch — Sciatic Nerve Passes through = Longest Nerve in Body
2) Iliac Fossa — Cavity where Tendons of Iliac Muscles Attach
3) Iliac Tuberosity — Point of Attachment for Sacroiliac Ligament
4) Anterior Sup/Inf + Posterior Sup/In Iliac Spine — Attachment Points for Tends of MANY Muscles
for the Body
Ischium — Composed of a Superior Body & Inferior Ramus [Fuses w/ Pubis]

1. Ischial Tuberosity — what hurts when we sit improperly
2. Obturator Foramen — Largest Foramen, Allows B-V’s & Nerves to pass through
Pubis — Pubic Bone, Anterior & Inferior [Location]

1. 3xComponents — Superior & Inferior Ramus, + Body B/W them
2. Pectineal Line — How we Distinguish B/W Superior [False] & Inferior [True] Pelvis
3. Pubic Symphysis — Formed by the Pubis
8.4 False & True Pelvis [PG 243 MEMORIZE COLOURS!!]

———————————————————————————
(O) Distinguish: False & True Pelvis
(O) Exp: Why False & True Pelvis are Clinically Important
Pelvic Brim — Cuts Bony Pelvis into Superior & Inferior Portions
1. False [Greater] Pelvis — Superior to Pelvic Brim = our Intestinal Organs
2. True [Lesser] Pelvis — Inferior to Pelvic Brim = Vagina + Cervix
A) Pelvic Axis: Curves through True Pelvis from Pelvic Inlet to Outlet = Route babies take for Birth
Males — Bones are Larger & Heavier

Females — Pelvis is Wider & Shallower + more Space in True Pelvis for Birth
8.6 Lower Limb/Extremity

—————————————
(O) Identify: Bones in L-Limb + Principal Markings

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Lower Limb/Extremity — 30xBones in 4 Locations; a) Femur [Thigh], b) Patella [Kneecap], c) Tibia

+ Fibula [Leg], d) 7xTarsals [Ankle] + 5xMetatarsals + 14xPhalanges [Digits]
Femur & Patella

(O) Identify: Location & Surface Features of Femur & Patella
Femur — Longest & Strongest bone in Body

1. Proximal End — Rounded Head Articulates w/ Acetabulum [Socket]
1. Distal End — Articulates w/ Tibia + Patella

A) Medial & Lateral Condyle: Attaches to Tibia/Fibia
B) Medial & Lateral Epicondyle: Knee Joint
1. Greater & Lesser Trochanter —Attachment Points for Tendons of Thigh & Buttock
Patella — Kneecap that consists of a Proximal Base [Quad Muscles] & Distal Apex
1. Patellofemoral Joint — Patella + Femur on FRONT of Kneecap
2. Tibiofemoral Joint [Knee] — Femur + Tibia + Patella = Kneejoint
Tibia & Fibula

(O) Identify: Location & Surface Features of Tibia & Fibula
Tibia — Shin Bone

1. Proximal End — Articulates w/ Femur & Fibula
A) Tibiofemoral Knee Joint: Lateral & Medial Condyle + Femur
1. Distal End — Articulates w/ Talus [Ankle]

A) Distal Tibiofibular Joint: Fibular Notch Articulates w/ Fibula
Fibula — Parallel & Lateral to Tibia, ~Articulate w/ Femur. Only Stabilizes Ankle Joint

1. Proximal Head — Articulates w/ Tibia below Knee = Proximal Tibiofibular Joint
2. Distal End — Contains Lateral Malleolus that Articulates w/ Talus of Ankle
Tarsals, Metatarsals, & Phalanges

(O) Identify: Location & Surface Features of Foot Bones
Tarsus [Ankle] — Includes the Talus and Calcaneus [Posterior], Navicular [Anterior], 3xCunei-

form Bones [3rd, Lateral. 2nd, Intermediate. 1st, Medial], and Cuboid
Metatarsus — Consists of 5xMetatarsal Bones = Base, Shaft, & Head
Phalanges — Great Toe [I] -> Pinky [V]

1. Consists of — Proximal Base, Intermediate Shaft, and Distal Head
2. Hallux — Big Toe
Arches of Foot — 2xArches in Food that Distribute the Weight for Support
1. Longitudinal Arch — Consists of Tarsal + Metatarsal Bones Arranged as an Arch
A) Medial Part: Calcaneus -> Navicular -> 3xCuneiforms
B) Lateral Part: Calcaneus -> Cuboid -> 2xLateral Metatarsals
1. Transverse Arch — Found B/W A) & B), formed by Navicular + 3xCuneifroms & 5xMetatarsals
[PG 252!!!]
A) Ball of Foot: Carries 40% Weight
B) Heel: Carries 60% Weight
CHAPTER 9 — Joints
9.1 Joint Classification

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———————————
(O) Des: Structural & F’n Classifications of Joints
Structural Classification of Joints Depends upon 2xCriteria

1. Presence/Absence of Space B/W Articulating Bones [Synovial Cavity]
2. Type of C-Tissue that Binds Bones together
Fibrous Joints — ~Synovial Cavity, held together via Dense Irregular C-Tissue

Cartilaginous Joints — ~Synovial Cavity, held together via Cartilage
Synovial Joints — Synovial-C, held together via Dense Irregular C-Tissue, Articular Capsule, &
Accessory Ligaments
Functional Classification — Depends upon the Type of Movement they Permit

1. Synarthrosis — Immovable Joint
2. Amphiarthrosis — Slightly Movable
3. Diarthrosis — Freely Moveable Joint [Synovial Joints]
9.2 Fibrous Joints

—————————
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of 3xTypes of Fibrous Joints [ALL have same C-Tissue]
Sutures —Dense Irregular C-Tissue found B/W bones of SKULL = Synarthrosis

1. Synostosis — Sutures are Replaced by Bone [Soft Spot]
2. Frontal/Metopic Suture — Suture Persists beyond age 6
Syndesmoses — Specific Ligaments [Tibia + Fibula Joint] = Amphi

1. Gomphosis / Dentoalveolar joint — Cone-Shaped Peg into Socket = Teeth/Gums
Interosseous MeM’s — Binds Neighbouring Long Bones = Amphiarthrosis [Tibia+Fibula, &

Ulna+Radius]
9.3 Cartilaginous Joints

————————————
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of 2xTypes of C-Joints
Synchondroses — Uses Hyaline Cartilage that is Replaced by Bone [Epiphyseal Growth Plate], but is

Immovable = Synarthrosis
Symphyses — Ends of Articulating Bones use Hyaline Cartilage and Fibrocartilage to hold them
Together = Amphiarthrosis
9.4 Synovial Joints

—————————
(O) Des: Structure of Synovial Joint
(O) Discuss: Structure & F’n of Bursae and Tendon Sheaths
Synovial Joints — Contain Synovial Cavity B/W Articulating Bones to allow for Free-Movement
[Diarthroses], and the bones are Covered via Articular Cartilage to make Bone Surfaces Smooth &
Slippery [PG 262 DIAGRAM!!]
1. Articular Capsule — Surrounds Synovial Joint and Unites the Articulating Bones. Composed
of 2xLayers = Fibrous-MeM [D-Irre-C-Tissue] that attaches to Periosteum of Articulating
Bones, and Synovial-MeM [Aerolar-C-Tissue] that contains Articular Fat Pads to help
Cushion Bones
A) Ligaments: Fiber Bundles found in Fibrous-MeM = Greater Tensile Strength
1. Synovial Fluid — Synovial-MeM Secretes Synovial Fluid that contains Hyluronic Acid +

Interstitial Fluid that ReD’s Friction B/W Bones, Absorbs Shock, & Supplies O2/Nutrients to
Chondrocytes

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1. Accessory Ligaments, Articular Discs, & Labra

A) Accessory Ligaments: Helps Joint to F’n
B) A-Discs/Menisci: Fibrocartilage that’s B/W Articulating Bones and Creates 2xSpaces in a Synovial
Joint to Allow for Separate Movements
B) Labra/Labrum: Deepens the Joint Socket and ^nC’s Area of Contact B/W Socket + Ball
Bones [Humerus + Shoulder]
Bursae & Tendon Sheaths

1. Bursae — Saclike Structures, Alleviate Friction B/W Joints and are filled w/ Fluid
2. Tendon Sheaths — Tubelike, Wrap around Tendons that EXP Friction to Protect
9.5 Movements in Synovial Joints

————————————————
(O) Des: Types of Movements done in Synovial Joints
Gliding — Back/Fourth, Side/Side Movement
Angular Movements — ^nC / DeC Angle B/W Articulating Bones [PG 265 - 268]
1. Flexion — DeC Angle B/W Bones [biceps]
2. Extension — ^nC’s Angle B/W Bones [stretching out arm]
3. Lateral Flexion — Movement of Trunk Left - Right @ Waist
4. Hyperextension — Continuation of Extension beyond Anatomical Position
5. Abduction — Move bone AWAY from Midline
6. Adduction — Move bone TOWARD Midline
7. Circumduction — Movement of Distal End of Body Part in a Circle
Rotation — Bone revolves around its own Axis [turning head side to side]
Special Movements — Occur at CERTAIN Joints [PG 267 - 268]

1. Elevation — Superior Movement of Body [shrug]
2. Depression — Inferior Movement of Body [bringing shoulders down after shrug]
3. Protraction — Anterior movement of Body [Jaw]
4. Retraction — Bringing body back [^]
5. Inversion — Medial Movement of Body
6. Eversion — Lateral Movement of Body
7. Dorsiflexion — Bending of Foot @ Ankle in Direction of Superior Surface [on heels]
8. Plantar Flexion — Bending of Foot @ Ankle in Plantar/Inferior Surface [on toes]
9. Supination — Palm faces Anteriorly
10. Pronation — Palms face Posteriorly
11. Opposition — Movement of the Thumb that touches the Tips of the Fingers
9.6 Types of Synovial Joints

———————————————
(O) Des: 6xSub-Types of Synovial Joints
Plane Joints — Permit Back/Fourth, Side/Side movement = Biaxial [PG 270 PICS!!!]

1. Axis — Straight Line around which a Bone Rotates or Slides
2. Biaxial — Permit Movement along 2 Axis
3. Triaxial — Permit Movement along 3 Axis
Hinge Joints — Convex Surface of 1-Bone fits into Concave Surface of another Bone to Produce an
Open/Close Movement [opening / closing door]
1) Uniaxial — ^, Permits Flexion / Extension [flexing Biceps]
Pivot Joints — Rounded Surface of Bone Articulates w/ Ring of another Bone + Ligament
1) Uniaxial — ^ = Shaking your head No [Atlas = Ring of Bone]

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Condyloid Joints — Projection of 1-Bone fits into Depression of another Bone

1) Biaxial — ^ = Flex/Extension + Abduc/Adduction
Saddle Joints — Surface of 1-Bone is Saddle-Shaped and Articulates w/ another Bone that Sits on top
of it [riding a horse]
1) Biaxial — ^
Ball-Socket Joints — Ball-Surface of 1-Bone fits into Depression of another Bone

1) Triaxial — ^ = Shoulder / Hips
9.7 Factors that Effect Contact + Range of Motion of Synovial Joints

—————————————————————————————————
(O) Des: 6xFactors “ “
Range of Motion [ROM] — Range through which Bones of a Joint can be Moved
1. Structure/Shape of Articulating Bones — Some bones fit into Specific kind of other Bones
[Ball & Socket] = Limits Movement
2. Strength & Tension [Tautness] of Joint Ligaments — Tense Ligaments & Dense Materials
Limit Movement [Hip] while Less of Each = More movement [Knee]
3. Arrangement & Tension of Muscles — Tension of Muscles Reinforces the Joint and makes it
more Compact, but LIMITS Movement [Hip joint]
4. Contact of Soft Parts — Bending arm towards me = limited by my own body
5. Hormones — Relaxin = Hormone = Produced by Ovaries = ^nC’s Flexibility of Fibrocartilage
of Pubic Symphysis during Pregnancy
6. Disuse — Muscular Atrophy & Diminished Synovial Fluid = Limits Movement
9.7 Selected Joints of Body

——————————————
(O) Identify: Major Joints of Body by Location, Classification, & Movement
Temporomandibular Joint [TMJ] — Hinge + Planar Joint formed via Mandible + Temporal Bone =
Freely Movable
1. Anatomical Components
(1) Articular Disc / Menisus — Fibrocartilage Disc that Separates the Synovial Cavity into
Superior/Inferior Components
(2) Articular Capsule — Covers the Synovial Cavity & Joint
(3) Lateral Ligament — On Articular Capsule, Extend Inferior+Posteriorly to Strengthen the Joint

Laterally & Prevent Displacement
(4) Sphenomandibular Ligament — “ “ Extend Inferior+Anteriorly from Spine to Jaw
(5) Stylomandibular Ligament — Separates Parotid Gland from Submandibular Gland, which also
Limits Mandible Movement
2) Movements — Depression + Elevation + Protraction + Retraction
Shoulder Joint — Ball-N-Socket Joint

(1) Articular Capsule — Envelops Joint
(2) Coracohumeral Ligament — Strong Ligament that Strengthens Articular Capsule
(3) Glenohumeral-L — Joint Stabilization for Humerus
(4) Transverse-Humeral-L — F’ns as a Retinculum = Stabilizes Head of Biceps
(5) Glenoid Labrum — Fibrocartilage that Enlarges Glenoid Cavity
(6) Bursae

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1. Movement — ANY kind of Movement

3) Rotor Cuff Injury = Torn due to Excessive Circumduction [baseball pitchers]
Elbow Joint — Hinge Joint

(1) Articular Capsule — Envelops Joint
(2) Ulnar Collateral Ligament — Deepens Socket for Humerus
(3) Radial-C-L
(4) Anular Ligament of Radius — Encircles & Holds Head of Radius
1. Movement — Flexion + Extension
Hip Joint — Ball-N-Socket Joint via Femur + Acetabulum

(1) Articular Capsule
(2) Iliofemoral Ligament — Prevents Hyperextension of Femur during Standing, Strongest Ligament
(3) Pubofemoral-L — Prevents Over-Abduction of Femur

(4) Ischiofemoral-L — Slackens/Tenses during Adduction/Abduction
(5) Head of Femur-L — Contains Artery that Supplies Head of Femur
(6) Acetabular Labrum — Fibrocartilage that Prevents Femur Dislocation
(7) Transverse Acetabulum-L — Supports Acetabular Labrum + Capsule Connection
1. Movement — Flexion + Extension + Ab/Ad-Duction + Medial & Lateral Rotation +

Circumduction
Knee Joint — Largest & most Complex Joint that has 3xJoints in its Synovial Cavity
A) Medial / Lateral Tibiofemoral Joint: Femur + Tibia
B) Patellofemoral Joint: Patella + Femur
(1) Articular Capsule — Unites Bones of Knee Joint
(2) Medial + Lateral Patellar Retinacula — Strengthens Anterior Surface of Joint
(3) Patellar Ligament — Strengthens Anterior Surface of Joint
(4) Tibial Collateral Ligament — Strengthens Medial Aspect of Joint
(5) Fibular Collateral Ligament — Strengthens Lateral Aspect of Joint
(6) Intracapsular Ligament — Ligaments w/in Femur + Tibia Connection
A) Anterior Cruciate Ligament [ACL]: Limits Hyperextension of Knee & Prevents Anterior Sliding of
Tibia + Femur
B) Posterior Cruciate Ligament [PCL]: Prevents Posterior Sliding of Tibia
i) We use ^ to walk down STAIRS or Inclines
(6) Articular Discs / Menisci — 2xFibrocartialge Discs B/W Femur & Tibia
A) Medial Meniscus: C-Shaped Fibrocartilage that Connects Bones
B) Lateral Meniscus: O-Shaped Fibrocartilage “ “
Study Guide Extras

1. Rheumatism — Any Painful Disorder of Supporting Structures [Bones, Ligaments,Tendons]
NOT CAUSED BY INJURY/INFECTION
1. Arthritis — Form of ^, Joints are Swollen & Painful
1. Osteoarthritis — Degenerative Synovial Joint Disease where Articular Cartilage is Lost, & our
movement is Limited B/C Spurs are Filled in to replace the lost Cartilage which shortens the
Space B/W Bones
1. Rheumatoid Arthritis — Autoimmune Disease against Cartilage in Joints
1. Gouty Arthritis — Uric Acid builds up in Blood & becomes Sodium Rate which Accumulate in
Joints = Erode Cartilage

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1. Lyme Disease — Arthritis = Main Complication that Develops
CHAPTER 10 - Muscular Tissue
10.1 Muscular Tissue Overview

————————————————
(O) Exp: Structural diFF’s among 3xTypes of Muscular Tissue
(O) Compare: F’ns & Special Properties of 3xTypes of Muscular Tissue
Types of Muscular Tissue

1. Skeletal — MOVE Bones. Striated. Voluntary. Excitable Muscles [Action-PoT’s]
2. Smooth — ~Striated. Involuntary. B-V’s & G.I use these
3. Cardiac — Striated. Involuntary. CTRL’d via Autorythmicity
F’ns of Muscular Tissue — 4 Key Types

1. Producing Movement
2. Stabilizing Body Position — Skeletal Muscle Stabilize Joints when we Stand/Run
3. Storing/Moving Substances — Sphincters [Poop] & B-V’s to Propel
4. Generating Heat — Thermogenesis = Shivering
Properties of Muscular Tissue

1. Electrical Excitability — Action-PoT’s [Impulses] cause Muscles to Move
A) Autorhythmic Electrical Signals: For HEART
B) NeuroTrans: Causes Action [^nC Heart Rate, EX]
1. Contractility — Muscles Contract for Movement, Heat, Strength

1. Extensibility — Muscles can STRETCH w/out DMG’ing themselves
2. Elasticity — Muscles can return to their Original Shape
10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue

——————————————
(O) Exp: Importance of C-Tissue Components, B-V’s, & Nerves of Skeletal Muscle
(O) Des: Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle finer
(O) Distinguish: Thick from Thin Filaments
(O) Des: F’ns of Skeletal Muscle Proteins
C-Tissue Components — SubQ Layer [Hypodermis] Separates Muscle from Skin and Provides a
Pathway for Nerves, B-V’s, & Lymphatic Vessels, & Insulation [PG 294!!!!]
1. 3 Layers of C-Tissue that Protect & Strengthen Skeletal Muscle
A) Epimysium: Encircles Entire Muscle
B) Perimysium: Surrounds Muscle Fibres & Separates them into Bundles [Fascicles]
C) Endomysium: Separates Individual Muscle Fibers from each other
D) Aponeurosis: All 3 Extend as a Flat Sheet [Skull]
2) Nerve & Blood Supply — 1xArtery + 1-2xVeins supply Skeletal Muscles
Microscopic Anatomy —Multi-Nucleated, BUT ~Undergo Cell Division ONLY Atrophy

1. Sarcolemma, Transverse Tubules, & Sarcoplasm
(1) Sarcolemma — Plasma-MeM of Muscle Cells
(2) T-Tubules — Filled w/ Interstitial Fluid, & Action-PoT’s travel through T-Tubules to Quickly Spread
throughout Muscle Fibres = Faster Excitation
(3) Sarcoplasm — Cytoplasm, contains Glycogen for NRG and Myoglobin
1. Myofibrils & Sarcoplasmic Reticulum — PG 296 - 299 EXAM!!!!

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(1) Myofibrils — Contractile Organelles = Makes muscles appear Striated
(2) SR — Fluid-Sacs that Encircles each Myofibrils and contain Terminal Cisterns that Surround against
each T-Tuble [Triad], which Stores Ca+ & Releases it for Contraction
1. Filaments & Sarcomere

(1) Filaments — Found w/in Myofibrils, composed of Actin [Thin] & Myosin [Thick]
(2) Sarcomeres — Basic Functional Unit of Myofibrils

A) Z Discs: Separate Sarcomeres from each other
B) A Band: Extends entire Thick Filament Length = Zone of Overlap
C) I Band: Contains ONLY Thin Filaments
D) H Zone: Contains ONLY Thick Filaments
E) M Line: Middle, Hold Thick Filaments Together
Muscle Proteins — Myofibrils Built via 3xProteins; Contractile, Regulatory, & Structural

1. Contractile — Myosin and Actin used for Movement of Muscles
1. Regulatory — Tropomyosin & Troponin

A) Relaxed State: Tropomyosin covers Myosin-Binding Site on Actin
B) Active: Ca+ binds to Troponin, Binding Site is Exposed, & Myosin Binds
1. Structural — Contribute to Stability & Elasticity of Myofibrils [PG 301 EXAM!!!]

A) Titin: Connects Z-Disc to M-Line to Stabilize Thick Filaments
B) a-Actinin: Found in Z-Disc, Binds Actin to Titin for Stabilization
C) Myomesin: Forms M-Line to Connect Thick Filaments to Titin
D) Nebulin: Wrapped around Thin Filaments to Anchor them to Z Disc
E) Dystrophin: Links Thin Filaments to Sarcolemma = help Transmit Tension Generated by
Sarcomeres to Tendons
10.3 Contraction & Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle

————————————————————————
(O) Outline: Steps involved in Sliding Filament Model
(O) Des: How Action-PoT’s Arise @ Neuromuscular Junction
Sliding Filament Model — Myosin heads Attach to & walk along Thin Filaments, and PULLS them
toward M-Line = I + H Band Narrow, but A-Band ~Change Shape [PG 302 - 304 EXAM!!!]
Contraction Cycle — Sarcoplasmic Reticulum releases Ca+ into Sarcoplasm, where they bind to
Troponin to move Tropomyosin away and Myosin binds to Actin
1. ATP Hydrolysis — Myosin head contains ATP-Binding Site + ATPase to breakdown ATP in
order to Energize Myosin Head [EMH]
1. Myosin Binds to Actin — EMH attaches to Actin, Releases ADP + Pi = Cross Bridge
1. Power Stroke — Cross-Bridge Rotates, Releases ADP, & Causes Thin Filaments to slide past
Thick Filaments toward M-Line
1. Detachment of Myosin from Actin — ATP is Remade, binds to Myosin, & it Detaches from
Actin
Excitation-Contraction Coupling — Action-PoT’s go through T-Tubules and cause Sarcoplasmic

Reticulum to Release Ca+ = Ca+ Release Channels
1. Ca+ Active Transport Pumps — Uses ATP to bring Ca+ BACK from Sarcoplasm into
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
1. Calsequestrin — Ca+-Binding Proteins = ^nC’s Amount of Ca+ Released/Stored

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Length-Tension Relationship — Longer Length = Zone of Overlap Shortens & Fewer Myosin Heads
Contract = LESS Power
Neuromuscular J’n — Synapse B/W Motor Neuron & Skeletal Muscle Fiber [PG 306]
1. Somatic Motor Neurons — Neurons that Stimulate Skeletal Muscle Fibers
2. Acetylcholine [ACh] — Found in Synaptic Vesicles, Released during Action-PoT’s
3. Motor End Plate — OPP of Synaptic Bulbs
4. Acetylcholine Receptors — Integral-TransMeM Proteins that Binds ACh
5. Junctional Folds — Deep Grooves in Motor End Plate, Contain ^
Nerve Action PoT Process [PG 308 EXAM!!!]

1. ACh Release — Nerve Impulses = Ca+ goes Inward = Exocytosis of ACh
2. ACh Receptors — ACh binds to Receptor on Motor End Plate & Na+ Flows Inside
3. Muscle Action-PoT — Na+ flows Inside = PoS-MeM-PoT = Action-PoT
4. Termination ACh Activity — Acetylcholinesterase = Breaks down ACh
10.4 Muscle Metabolism

————————————
(O) Des: RxN’s that Produce ATP
(O) Distinguish: B/W Anaerobic & Aerobic Respiration
(O) Des: Factors that Contribute to Muscle Fatigue
Production of ATP — 3 Ways to do this

1. Creatine Phosphate — Excess ATP made during Rest binds to Creatine [AAcid]
1. Anaerobic Glycolysis — Lack of O2 = Glucose becomes Pyruvic Acid is ReD’d into Lactic Acid
= Glycolysis creates NRG [Not much]
1. Aerobic Respiration — Glycolysis + CaC + ETC = Lots of NRG [PG 308!!!]
O2 Debt
1. Convert Lactic Acid back into Glycogen Stores in Liver
2. Re-SyN Creatine Phosphate & ATP in Muscle Fibers
3. Put O2 back into Myoglobin
4. Recovery Oxygen Uptake — Better than O2 Debt B/C our Body is RECOVERING from the
Exercise rather than us Owing it
Muscle Fatigue — Inability of Muscle to Maintain Contraction

1. Central Fatigue — Feelings of Tiredness BEFORE Actual Muscle Fatigue = Protective to
Prevent Overexercising & causing DMG to Muscles
2. Causes
A) Inadequate Release of Ca+ from Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
B) Depletion of Creatine Phosphate
C) Insufficient Glycogen & O2
10.5 CTRL of Muscle Tension

——————————————
(O) Des: Structure & F’n of Motor Unit
(O) Exp: Phases of Twitch Contraction
(O) Des: How Frequency of Stimulation Affects Muscle Tension
(O) Distinguish: B/W Isotonic & Isometric Contractions
Motor Units — Consists of a Somatic Motor Neuron + Muscle Fibers it Stimulates

1. More Motor Units = More Muscles Activated = More Power
Twitch Contraction — Muscle Fibres Contract in Response to an Action-PoT

1. Latent Period — Muscle A-PoT causes Sarcoplasmic Reticulum to Release Ca+
2. Contraction Period — Ca+ binds to Troponin, Exposes Myosin-Binding Site = Cross-Bridge
3. Relaxation Period — Ca+ Actively transported back into Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and Myosin
Detaches from Actin

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Frequency of Stimulation
1. Wave Summation — Stimuli Arriving @ DIFF Times cause LARGER Contractions
2. Unfused Tetanus — Muscles partially Relax B/W Stimuli B/C the Stimuli are coming in too fast
3. Fused Tetanus — Muscles ~Relax at all B/C Stimuli is coming in far too fast
Motor Unit Recruitment — Recruiting Motor Units, but not all of them Contract. Some are used for
Contraction, while others are Inactive. More Recruitment = Stronger Contraction
Muscle Tone — Small amount of Muscle Tension in the same Fashion as a full on Contraction but to a
far lesser degree
1. Flaccid — Motor Neurons serving a Muscle are DMG’d = Lost Muscle Tone
Isotonic & Isometric Contractions [PG 314, DIAGRAMS]

1. Isotonic — Tension is Constant while Muscle Changes Length, done for moving Objects
A) Concentric: Muscle Shortens to Produce Movement B/C Tension > Resistanc
B) Eccentric: Muscle Lengthens, but Tension ~have to be > Resistance
1. Isometric — Tension ~> Resistance, Hence Muscles ~Change Length [holding a book while

your arm is stretched out]
10.6 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibres

———————————————————
(O) Compare: Structure & F’n of 3xTypes of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal Muscle Fibers

1. Red Muscle Fibers — HIGH Myoglobin content
2. White Muscle Fibres — LOW Myoglobin Content
Skeletal Muscle — Classified into 3xMain Types

1. Slow-Oxidative
2. Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic
3. Fast Glycolytic
Slow Oxidative Fibers — Appear Red [Myoglobin], Large Mitochondrias = Generate LOTS of ATP

1. Contract — Slowly & Hydrolyze ATP Slowly
2. Resistance to Fatigue — A lot = Marathon Running
Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic Fibers — Largest Fibers, Contain Myoglobin and can make ATP via
Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Glycolysis = Red Appearance
1. Contact = Fast
2. Resistance to Fatigue — Moderate
Fast Glycolytic Fibers — LOW Myoglobin Content, Low Mitochondria, & White

1. Generate ATP — Via Glycolysis B/C they contain LOTS of Glycogen
2. Contract = Fast & Strong
3. Anaerobic = Relies on this for Strength Training Exercises
Endurance Exercise — Transforms Fast Glycolytic Fibers to become Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic = More

Mitochondria & Blood Supply
1. Important — ~^nC Muscle Mass, only Strength Training
2. Important — DIFF Muscles contain DIFF amounts of Muscle Fiber Types. However,
Recruitment of Fibers proceeds in a Smooth motion from Slow Oxidative all the way to Fast
Glycolytic DEPENDING on the Activity
10.8 Cardiac Muscle Tissue
——————————————
(O) Des: Main Structural & F’n Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac Muscles — Contain Intercalated Discs w/ Gap J’ns = Unified Contraction

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1. Contraction — Lasts LONGER than Skeletal Muscle due to Prolonged Delivery of Ca+ into

Sarcoplasm
1. Autorhythymic — Cardiac Tissue is Stimulated by its own Fibers, while Skeletal is Stimulated
via NeuroTrans + ACh
1. Relies Heavily on Aerobic Respiration
10.9 Smooth Muscle

———————————
(O) Des: Structural & F’n Characteristics of Smooth Muscle
Smooth Muscle — Involuntary, ~Striated. 2xTypes of Smooth Muscle…

1. Visceral [Single-Unit] — Contraction is Unison
1. Multiunit — Stimulating one Fiber = ~Unison, usually found in Large Arteries that supply
Lungs
Microscopic Anatomy of Smooth Muscle — Contain Intermediate

Filaments and Caveolae [Invaginations that contain Ca+ for Muscle Contraction]
1. Important — ~Contain T-Tubules, & LOW Sarcoplasmic Reticulum = Relies on Caveolae for
Muscle Contractions
2. Dense Bodies — Attach to Thin Filaments, F’n as Z-Discs
3. Contraction — Tension is Transmitted from Thin & Thick Filaments to Intermediate
Filaments, Pull on Dense Bodies, & Shortens Muscle Fibers
Physiology of Smooth Muscle — S-Muscle can Stretch far Greater than Cardiac & Skeletal, but their
Contraction is More Slower & Lasts Longer [due to LOW Amounts of Sarcoplasmic Reticulum]
1. Calmodulin — Regulatory Protein, binds to Ca+ in Cytosol and uses ATP to add a Pi to Myosin
= Contraction Occurs and regulates the RATE of Contraction
1. Smooth Muscle Tone — Not only is Ca+ Release Slow, but Ca+ retrieval is also slow
= Continued State of Partial Contraction
1. Stress-Relaxation Response — When S-Muscle is Stretched, they Initially Contract to ^nC

Tension and then DeC it so that the Muscle can be Stretched but Retain their Ability to Revert
back to their shape
Regeneration
1. Skeletal Muscle — Undergoes Hypertrophy, ~Hyperplasia [^nC in Fibers]
2. Cardiac Muscle — Can Regenerate [Little] & Undergo Hypertrophy
3. S-Muscle — Hypertrophy AND Hyperplasia = Regenerators
Study Guide Extras

1. Myasthenia Gravis — Autoimmune Disease = Progressive DMG of Neuromuscular Junction =
Antibodies Block ACh Receptors & Muscle Weakness Occurs
1. Muscular Dystrophy — Progressive Degeneration of Skeletal Muscle
1. Abnormal Skeletal Muscle Contractions

1. Spasm — Involuntary Contraction of Muscles
2. Cramp — Painful Spasm Contraction [Overuse of Muscle]
3. Tic — Involuntary Contractions done by Voluntary Muscles [Eyelid]
4. Tremor — Involuntary Contraction that Produces a Quivering Motion
5. Fasciculation — Involuntary Twitch of an ENTIRE Motor Unit [MS]
6. Fibrillation — Spontaneous Contraction of 1 Muscle Fiber ~Visible under Skin

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BIOL 235 EXAM 1 Notes

Human Anatomy and Physiology (Athabasca University)

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1.1 Anatomy & Physiology Defined

Anatomy — Body Structures & their Relationships

1.2 LvL’s of Structural Organization & Body SyS

1. Cellular — Molecules Combine to form Cells = Functional Units of Organisms

1. Organ — > 2 Tissues join together to form Organs

11 SyS of Human Body

1. Skeletal SyS = Bones + Joins + Cartilage

1. Muscular SyS = Skeletal Muscle

1. NRVS SyS = Spine + Nerves + Eyes + Ears

1. Endocrine SyS = Glands + Testes/Ovaries

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A) F’n: Regulate body Activities via Hormones

1. Cardiovascular SyS = Heart + Blood + B-Vessels

1. Digestive SyS = Gastrointestinal Tract Organs + Mouth + Pharynx [Throat]

1. Urinary SyS = Kidneys + Urethra + Urinary Bladder

1. Reproductive SyS = SEVEN UP + Ovaries

1. Lymphatic SyS = Spleen + Thymus + Lymph Nodes + Tonsils

1. Respiratory SyS = Lungs + Pharynx + Trachea [wind pipe]

1.3 Characteristics of Life

Basic Life Processes — Six Important Life Processes

1. NeG-Feedback SyS — Product Reverses a Pathway

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A) Child Birth: Contractions = Stretch-Sensitive NRV Cells activate = Release Oxytocin = causes

Directional Terms — Words that Describe Position of Body in Relation to another

Planes & Section [PG 16 EXAM!!!]

1. Section — Cut of a Body or Organ along a Pre-used Plane to Study it

Body Cavities — Enclose Internal Organs [PG 17, 18 EXAM!!!]

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1. Abdominopelvic — Divided into Abdominal [Stomach + S.I] and Pelvic [Urinary Bladder, L.I

1. Pericardium = Serous MeM in the Pericardial Cavity

1. Peritoneum = Serous MeM of Abdominal Cavity

1.6 Medical Imaging

Medical Imaging — Techniques & Procedures used to Create Images

1. MRI — High Magnetic Field, causes Protons to Arrange themselves = shows Cellular

1. Computed Tomography [CT] — X-Ray for Section of Body as a Transverse Section =

1. Coronary [Cardiac] Computed Tomography Angiography Scan [CCTA] — Iodine-

1. Positron Emission Tomography [PET] — Positron injected in Blood, taken up by Tissues &

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1. Endoscopy — Visual Examination via Camera [goes up butt]

1. Radionuclide Scanning — Radioactive Substance Injected & Carried to Tissue = Emits

1. Single-Photon-Emission CT Scamming [SPECT] — Specialized type of 8) for the Heart,

CHAPTER 2 — Chemical LvL of Organization

2.1 How Matter is Organized

Chemical Elements — Are designed w/ a Chemical Symbol [H for Hydrogen]

Atomic # & Mass # — Atomic # = # of P+’s in Nucleus. Mass # = Sum of its P+ and

Atomic Mass — AvG-Mass of ALL Naturally Occurring Isotopes = Close to Mass #

Ions, Molecules & Compounds

2.2 Chemical Bonds

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3. Triple Covalent Bond — 3xPairs of e-’s are Shared [Triple Bond]

Hydrogen Bonds — Hydrogen Atom w/ a Partial-PoS-Charge attracts the Partial-NeG-Charge of other

2.3 Chemical RxN’s

Types of Chemical RxN’s [PG 37, EX]

2.4 Inorganic Compounds & Solutions

1. H2O as a Lubricant — H2O is part of Mucus & Lubricating Fluid

Solutions, Colloids, & Suspensions — Mixture = Combo of Elements or Compounds that are

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1. Bases — Dissociates into OH-