Lecture-1

Introduction to Human Body- Ch-1

Define the following:

Anatomy: Study of the structure

Physiology: Study of how the body parts function

Subdisciplines/selected branches of Anatomy and Physiology:

Developmental biology: study of the entire life cycle from fertilization to death
Embryology: study of the first eight weeks of growth and development after fertiliation
Cell biology: Cellular structure and functions
Histology: Microscopic structure of tissues
Gross anatomy: Analysis of structures that can be observed without a microscope
Systemic anatomy: Structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or
respiratory system
Regional anatomy: Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest
Surface anatomy: Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through
visualization and palpation
Imaging anatomy: Internal body structures that can be visualized for clinical analysis
and medical intervention
Clinical anatomy: application of anatomyto the practice of medicine, dentistry, and other
healt-related sciences, for example, to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of disease
Pathological anatomy:structural changes associated with diseases
Molecuar physiology: Individual molecules such as proteins and DNA
Neurophysiology: Properties of nerve cells
Endocrinology: Hormones and how they control body functions
Cardiovascular physiology: functions of the heart and blood vessels
Immunology: study of the body's defenses against disease-causing agents
Respiratory physiology: functions of the airway and the lungs
Renal physiology: functions of the kidneys
Exercise physiology: changes in cell and organs due to muscular activity
Pathophysiology: Changes with disease and aging

Levels of Body Organization:

--Chemical level: study of the smallest unit of matter, composed of atoms such as carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, etc

--Cellular level: study of the combination of molecules that form cells, the most basic
structure of an organism
--Tissue level: study of groups of cells and surrounding material that work together to
perform a particular function

--Organ level: Different types of tissue form together, usually two or more types of tissue.
These structures work together and perform a specific function.

--System level: Study of a group of organs that perform a common function

--Organism level: study of an living individual, all parts working together to constitute
the total organism

Basic Life Processes:

1) Metabolism: Define: sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
2 types: Catabolism: breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler
components

Anabolism: Buildup of complex chemical substances from smaller ones

2) Responsiveness: Boy's ability to detect and respond to changes, like a change in body
temperature.

3) Movement: motion of the whole body, includes the individual, and smaller structures.

4) Growth: Increase in body as a result from increase in existing cells, number of cells, or
both

5) Differentiation: Development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state.

6) Reproduction: Formation of new cells for tussye growth, repair, or replacement

7) Homeostasis: Define: Maintenance of relatively stable condition in the body's internal

environment.

Maintenance of Homeostasis: By body fluids.

Body Fluids: Dilute, watery solutions found inside and outside the cells.
ICF: Intracellular fluid

ECF: Various kinds depending upon the region of the body.

Extracellular fluid

Interstitial fluid: fluid between cells of tissues

Control of Homeostasis:
 Feedback Systems:
Define: Receptor: structure that monitors changes in a controlled
condition and sends input to a control center

Control center: Sets the standard of points that should be

maintained, the signals go away from the control center

Effector: receives output of the control center and produces a

response based on the signal received

2 types of Feedback systems:

1) Negative feedback: An activity that negates the original stimulus, like

lowering BP after feeling BP increase

2) Positive feedback: An activity that strengthens the original stimulus, like

childbirth

Homeostatic Imbalances:

Define: Disorder: Abnormality of structure or function

Disease: Illness characterized by specific traits

Symptoms and signs: subjective changes of the body that may not be
apparent to the observer. Signs are objective observations that can be measured

Epidemiology: when and where do diseases occur, and how they're

transmitted across a population
Anatomical Terminology

Body positions: Supine: face up

Prone: face down

Regional names: Head: Skin, muscles, bones, and nervous system structure
Neck: Supports the head and attached to trunk
Trunk: chest, abdomen, and pelvis
Upper limb: attaches to trunk and consists of shoulder, armpit, arm,
forearm, wrist, and hands
Lower limb: attaches to trunk, consists of butt, thigh, leg, ankle, and
foot

Directional terms:
 Anterior: Ventral/ front of body
Posterior: Dorsal/ nearer to the back
Superior: Cephalic or cranial/ towards head or upper structure
Inferior: Caudal/ away from head or lower structure
Medial: nearer to the midline of the body
Lateral: farther from the midline
Ipsilateral: same side of the body as another structure
Contralateral: opposite side of the body from another structure
Proximal: nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk: nearer to
the origination of the structure
Distal: further away from the attachment of a limb to the trunk
Superficial: towards the surface of the body
Deep: away from the surface of the body

Planes and Sections:

Define: Sagittal plane: Longitudinal plane that divides the body into right and left
sides.
Frontal plane: divides the body into anterior and posterior sides
Transverse plane: horizontal plane that divides the bod into upper and
lower portions
Oblique plane: any plane that isn't 90*
Body Cavities:

Cranial cavity: hollow space of the head

Vertebral cavity: Spinal canal that is composed of the spinal bones, continuous
cavity with the cranial cavity
Thoracic cavity: has three parts:
Pleural cavity: cavity around each lung

Pericardial cavity: fluid filled space surrounding heart

Mediastinum: between the lungs, spans from the sternum to

the vertebral column and from the first rib to the diaphram

Abdominopelvic cavity: includes abdominal and pelvic cavities/ extends from

diaphram to the groin, two seperate names without division of walls
Abdominopelvic region and Quadrants: either a precise specific part of the
abdomen, or a more simple quadrant definition of the area.

Nine abdominal regions:

1) R Hypochondriac: upper far right
2) Epigastric: upper middle
3) L Hypochondriac: upper far left
4) R Lumbar: midline right
 5) Umbilical: center
6) L Lumbar: midline left
7) R Inguinal (iliac): lower right
8) Hypogastric: lower middle
9) L Inguinal (iliac): lower left

Medical Imaging: Define:

Common medical imaging procedures: Not in test, only for reference
1) Radiography: x-rays pass through the body and produce an interior structure on
xray sensitive film
2) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): exposure to a high energy magnetic field
arrange tissue in accordance with the field, then a pulse of radio waves reads and
color codes image in two- or three- dimensions
3) Computed Tomography (CT)- computer assisted radiograph, iodine containing
medium inserted and used to trace an arc around the heart.
4) Ultrasound scanning- Uses a handheld wand of high-frequency sound waves to
reflect off of internal body tissues, seen through a video monitor.
5) Positron Emission Tomography (PET): substance emits positrons and react with
the negatively charged electrons in the body. Used to study the physiology of the
body
6) Radionuclide scanning: a radioactive substance introduced in the body and
tracked with gamma rays being emitted from the outside.
7) Endoscopy: Using a lighted instrument to examine inside body organs, such as
colon or joints

Chemical Level of Organization-Ch -2

Chemical elements and their signs: building blocks that are observed throughout the
planet, 118 in total; 92 of which occur naturally. Signs are one or two letters that
represent the element in english, latin, etc.

Structure of Atoms: Three types of particles make up the structure of the atom. Nucleus,
which is composed of protons (+) and neutrons (neutral), and the electron cloud (-).

Define:

Atomic number: number of protons in the nucleus

Mass number: sum of protons and neutrons

Atomic Mass: average weight of an element in its naturally occurring isotopes

Ion: particle that has a positive or negative charge

Molecule: when two or more atoms share electrons

 Compounds: substance that contains two or more elements. Cannot be the same
element to be considered a compound, such as O2

Chemical bonds: 3 types (know each one with an example)

Ionic bond: A bond formed by the attraction of ions

Covalent bond: A bond formed by the sharing of electrons

Hydrogen bond: when a partially positively charged hydrogen attracts a partially

negative atom
Chemical reactions: Reactants and Products/ formation of new bonds from the
breakdown of old bonds
Energy: Capacity to do work
Forms of Energy: Three forms of energy
1) Potential: stored energy
2) Kinetic: energy in motion
3) Chemical: form of potential energy, but within the bonds of the
compound.
Transfer of Energy: Two modes of energy transfer

1) Exergonic: release of more energy than absorbed

2) Endergonic: absorption of energy more than release

Role of Activation energy and Catalysts: Energy required to begin a reaction. Catalysts
lower the required amount of energy with a new mechanism

Types of Chemical Reactions: (know the definition with one example)

1) Anabolism: synthesis reactions. Ex: Muscle building

2) Catabolism: decomposition reactions. Ex: breakdown of proteins into amino

acids

3) Exchange reactions: Both synthesis and decomposition in the same reaction.

4) Reversible reactions: reactions that can revert to their original reactants.

5) Oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of electrons) reactions: Loss

or gain of electrons. Ex: Oxidizing food molecules to carry out various
functions

Inorganic Compounds and Solutions: Inorganic compounds lack carbon and have
simple chemical structure.
Include water, acids, bases, and salts
 1. Water: All chemical reactions occur in a watery medium
a) Water as a solvent: Water is a good solvent for solutes to perform
chemistry

i) Solute and solvent: solutes are what get dissolved in the

medium, the medium capable of dissolving the solute is
called the solvent

ii) Hydrophilic and hydrophobic: Properties determine if the

solute can dissolve in water or not. hydrophilic dissolves
easily and hydrophobic does not

b) Water in chemical reactions: Serves as a medium in most chemical

reactions

c) Thermal properties of water: Water can absorb and release high

amounts of energy with a small change in its temperature.

d) Water as a lubricant: Water is a major component of mucus/

lubricating fluids

Solutions: Solute+Solvent
Acid-Base Balance:

Acid: substance that dissociates to one or more hydrogen protons and an anion

Base: Substance that takes H protons from solutions.

PH: Concentration of H protons in moles per liter

Buffer Systems: Maintaining PH: Compounds that can convert strong acids into weak
ones

Organic Compounds:

Carbon and its functional groups

1) Carbohydrates: (CHO)

A) Monosaccharides: Monomers used to build carbohydrates

B) Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides

C) Polysaccharides: can contain tens or hundreds of monosaccharides

joined through dehydration synthesis

2) Lipids: (CHO)
 A) Triglycerides: Glycerol backbone and two fatty acid chains attached
to the first two carbons
B) Saturated: only single bonds in the carbon atoms of the chain
Unsaturated: Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated: at
least one double bond, "kink" in the carbon chain.

C) Phospholipids: similar to tryglycerides, except the third carbon has a

phosphate group.

D) Steroids: four rings of carbon atoms. Structure of a cholesterol.

E) Other lipids: Eicosanoids: lipids derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid

called arachidonic acid. Involved in hormone modification.

3) Proteins: 20 different types, universal genetic code, made with amino acids
(monomers)

A) Amino acids and Polypeptide: monomers of proteins, 10+ chain of

amino acids make a polypeptide chain

B) Enzymes: catalysts
a) Specificity: Only binds to specific substrates
b) Efficiency: Can make reactions 100 million times to 10
billion times faster
c) Cellular control: In charge of enhancing or inhibiting gene or
cell activity
4) Nucleic acids: huge molecules that are found in nucleus
A) Deoxyribonucleic acid – DNA: Form the inherited genetic material
inside every human cell

B) Ribonucleic acid- RNA: relays information of genes for protein

synthesis

ATP—Adenosine Triphosphate: "energy currency"

a) Anaerobic phase: Series of reactions that don't require
oxygen, produce minimal amounts of ATP

b) Aerobic phase: Series of reactions that require oxygen,

produces 30-32 ATP molecules

Cellular Level of Organization-Ch-3

Cell and Parts of Cell

Plasma Membrane:

--Membrane Proteins:

--Membrane Fluidity:

-- Membrane Permeability:

--Membrane Gradients:

Transport across plasma membrane:

Define: Diffusion:

Osmosis:

Osmotic Pressure:

Active transport: Sodium-Potassium Pump

Transport in Vesicles: Types of transport:

1) Endocytosis:

Subtypes: Phagocytosis:

Pinocytosis:

Transcytosis:

2) Exocytosis:

Cytoplasm:

Cytosol and Organelles:

Cytoskeleton:

 Microfilaments
 Microvilli
 Microtubules

Organelles and their functions:

 Centrosome
 Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum—ER
  Golgi Complex
 Lysosomes (Tay-Sachs Disease)
 Peroxisomes
 Mitochondria
Nucleus:

Protein Synthesis:

--Transcription:

--Translation:

Cell Division

Define Mitosis:

Phases of Mitosis:

Cytokinesis:

Disorders: Types of Cancer:

Cellular diversity:

Medical Terminology: Atrophy, Hypertrophy