Anaphy Reviewer

Chapter 1
Anatomy:
 investigates body structure
 the term means to dissect
Physiology:
 investigates processes and functions
 Human Physiology = studies the human organism
 Systemic Physiology = studies body organ-systems
 Cellular Physiology = studies body cells
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology:
 Understand how the body:
 responds to stimuli (touch, pain, smell, etc)
 environmental changes (climate change, pollution)
 environmental cues (light, temp, sound, chemical, etc)
 diseases
 injury
Types of Anatomy:
a) Systemic = studies body organ-systems
b) Regional = studies body regions (medical schools)
c) Surface
 studies external features, for example, bone projections
 Anatomical imaging = using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
Structural and Functional Organization
1. Chemical:
 smallest level
 atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
2. Cellular:
 Cells = basic units of life
 compartments and organelles
 examples of organelles: mitochondria, nucleus
3. Tissues:
 group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular
substances they release
 4 broad types: (ECMN)
1) Epithelial
 2) Connective
3) Muscular
4) Nervous
4. Organs:
 two or more tissue types acting together to perform function(s)
 Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney
5. Organ-System:
 group of organs contributing to some function
 for example, digestive system, reproductive system
6. Organism:
 all organ systems working together
 includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal bacteria
11 Major Organ Systems (ISMNECLRDUR)
1. Integumentary System
2. Skeletal System
3. Muscular System
4. Nervous System
5. Endocrine System
6. Cardiovascular System
7. Lymphatic System
8. Respiratory System
9. Digestive System
10. Urinary System
11. Female Reproductive System, Male Reproductive System
Characteristics of Life: (OMRGRD)
 Organization = functional interrelationships between parts
 Metabolism:
 sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
 ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
 Responsiveness:
 ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
 includes both internal and external environments
 Growth:
 can increase in size
 size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
 Development:
 changes in form and size
 changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized—
differentiation
 Reproduction:
  formation of new cells or new organisms
 generation of new individuals
 tissue repair
Homeostasis
 maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in the external
or internal environment
 Variables = measures of body properties that may change in value
 Normal range = normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point
 Set point
 normal, or average value of a variable
 Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point
 Negative feedback
 is the main mechanism used in homeostatic regulation.
 A negative feedback response involves:
1) detection of deviation away from set point
2) correction or reversal of deviation toward set point and normal
range
 Components of feedback mechanism: (RCE)
 Receptor = detects changes in variable (ex. Body temperature)
 Control center:
 receives receptor signal
 establishes set point
 sends signal to effector
 Effector = directly causes change in variable (ex. Body temperature)
Anatomical position:
 person standing erect with face and palms forward
 all relational descriptions based on the anatomical position, regardless of body
orientation
Directional Terms
 Superior: above
 Inferior: below
 Anterior: front (also: ventral)
 Posterior: back (also: dorsal)
 Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral (belly) and dorsal (back)
correspond to anterior and posterior in humans
 Medial: close to midline
 Lateral: away from midline
 Proximal: close to point of attachment
  Distal: far from point of attachment
 Superficial: structure close to the surface
 Deep: structure toward the interior of the body
Body Regions (ULC)
 Upper limbs: upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand
 Lower limbs: thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot
 Central region: head, neck, trunk
Body Planes
 Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and left parts
 Median plane: a sagittal plane along the midline that divides body into equal left
and right halves
 Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that separates the body into superior and
inferior parts.
 Frontal plane: a vertical plane that separates the body into anterior and
posterior parts.
Body Cavities
 Dorsal Body cavity:
 Encloses the organs of the nervous system
a) Cranial cavity = contains the brain
b) Vertebral Canal = contains the spinal cord
 Ventral Body cavity:
 Contains the majority of internal organs (viscera)
 Divided into:
a) Thoracic cavity
 space within chest wall and diaphragm
 contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
 Mediastinum:
o space between lungs
o contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
b) Abdominopelvic cavity
 Divided into:
i. Abdominal cavity
o space between diaphragm and pelvis
o contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
pancreas, kidneys
ii. Pelvic cavity
o space within pelvis
 o contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs,
part of large intestine
Serous Membranes
 Smooth & thin layers of tissue
 Line trunk cavities, cover organs in the ventral body cavity
 Visceral serous membrane = covers organs
 Parietal serous membrane = lines the walls of the cavities
 Cavity = a fluid-filled space between the membranes
 Serous membranes are named after the cavities they are in:

Cavity Name Membrane Name

Pericardial cavity - Pericardium

around the heart

Pleural Cavity - Pleura

around lungs

Peritoneal Cavity - Peritoneum

around abdominopelvic
cavity and its organs

Pericardium
 Visceral Pericardium = covers heart
 Parietal Pericardium = lines wall of heart; thick, fibrous
 Pericardial cavity = fluid-filled; reduces friction
Pleura
 Visceral Pleura = covers lungs
 Parietal Pleura = lines inner wall of thorax
 Pleural Cavity
 reduces friction
 adheres lungs to thoracic wall
Peritoneum
 Visceral Peritoneum
 covers, anchors organs
 Mesenteries = double layers
 Parietal Peritoneum = lines inner wall of abdominopelvic cavity
 Peritoneal Cavity = reduces friction
Chapter 2
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass (solid, liquid, or gas)
Mass: amount of matter in an object (kilogram, gram)
Weight: gravitational force acting on object
(= mass x gravitational acceleration)
(Newton, kg/ms2)
Element:
 simplest form of matter
 Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl
Atom:
 smallest particle of an element
 contains protons, electrons, and neutrons
Planetary Models of Atomic Structure
Three major types of Subatomic Particles
1. Proton: positive charged particle located inside the nucleus
2. Neutron: neutral charged particle located inside the nucleus
3. Electron: negative charged particle located outside the nucleus
Atomic number: the number of protons in each atom
Mass number: the number of protons and neutrons in each atom

Chemical bonds
 occur when outermost electrons (valence shell electrons) are transferred or
shared between atoms
 Types of chemical bonds
a) Ionic
 Ion: a charged atom formed because of a donation or gain of an
electron(s). Example: Na+, Cl−
 Ionic bonding - occurs when there is an attraction between two
oppositely charged ion. Example: NaCl
b) Covalent
 Covalent bonding - occurs when atoms share one or more pairs of
electrons. Example: hydrogen molecule (H2)

 Polar covalent bonds

 form when there is an unequal sharing of electrons between
atoms of the bond
 Example: water (H2O)
 Polar covalent bonded molecules, like water, have a
positive end and a negative end
c) Hydrogen
 Polar molecules = have a positive end and a negative end
 A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end of one polar
molecule is weakly attracted to the negative end of another polar
molecule
 The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than ionic or covalent bonds
Molecule = 2 or more atoms chemically combine. Example: water (H2O), Oxygen (O2),
carbon dioxide (CO2)
Compound = chemical combination of 2 or more different types of atoms. Example:
NaCl, C6H12O6
Dissociation
 When ionic compounds dissolve in water they dissociate from each other.
 Positively charged ions are attracted to the negative ends of the water molecules.
 Negatively charged ions are attracted to the positive ends of the water molecules
 Dissociated ions can be called Electrolytes because they can conduct an
electrical current
Chemical reactions - occur when there is a formation or breaking of chemical bonds
between atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds.
Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction
Products: substances that result from the reaction

A+B → C+D

Reactants Product

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Synthesis Reaction
 build a new molecule
 energy-requiring
 Example: ADP + P → ATP
2. Decomposition Reaction
 break down molecule
 energy-releasing
 Example: ATP → ADP + P
3. Exchange Reaction
 combination of synthesis and decomposition reactions
 Example: AB + CD → AC + BD
 Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
4. Reversible Reactions
 occur when the reaction can run in the opposite direction, so that the
products are converted back to the original reactants.
 CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
 Equilibrium = when the rate of product formation equals the rate of
reactant formation
Energy - is the capacity to do work.
Work - is the moving of matter.
Kinetic energy - is energy in motion
Potential energy
 is stored energy
 Chemical energy – is a form of potential energy stored in chemical bonds.
Chemical reactions may require or release energy:
 If the potential energy of the reactants is less than that of the products, energy
input is needed.
 If the potential energy of the reactants is more than that of the products, energy
is released.

The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds factors: (CatConT)

 Catalyst
 increases the rate of a reaction without itself being permanently
changed or depleted.
 Enzyme
 is a protein catalyst that increases the rate of reactions within
the human body.
 increase the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy
needed to start the reaction.
  Concentration of the reactants: within limits, the higher the concentration of
reactants the faster the rate
 Temperature: within limits, the higher the temperature the faster the rate
Acid:
 a proton H+ donor
 pH below 7
 Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Base:
 a proton H+ acceptor
 pH above 7
 Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
Chapter 3
Functions of the Cell:
 Smallest units of life
 Cell metabolism and energy use
 Synthesis of molecules
 Communication
 Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Structure
A. Cytoplasm:
 jelly-like substance that holds organelles (membrane-bound structures
inside cell)
B. Cell membrane
 also termed the Plasma Membrane
 a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
 the outermost component of a cell.
 forms a boundary between material inside the cell and the outside.
 Intracellular = materials inside the cell
 Extracellular = those outside the cell
 acts as a selective barrier
 Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in
higher concentrations inside the cell.
 Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher
concentrations outside the cell
 Cell Membrane Structure
 Fluid-Mosaic Model = is the model used to describe the cell
membrane structure.
 The membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and
carbohydrates.
 Phospholipids = form a bilayer.
 2 regions:
i. Polar (hydrophilic head)
ii. Nonpolar (hydrophobic tail)
Active Transport and Passive Transport
 Passive membrane transport
 does not require the cell to expend energy.
 Examples:
1) Diffusion
 movement from high concentration to a low concentration
  generally involves movement of substances in a solution
down a concentration gradient.
o Concentration Gradient
 the difference in the concentration of a solute in
a solvent between two points divided by the
distance between the two points.
 steeper when the concentration difference is
large and/or the distance is small.
2) Osmosis
 diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of higher water concentration to one of
lower water concentration.
 Osmotic Pressure = the force required to prevent movement of
water across cell membrane
o Types of Solutions: (Hypo-Iso-Hyper)
i. Hypotonic Solution
 has a lower concentration of solutes and
a higher concentration of water relative
to the cytoplasm of the cell.
 has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than
the cell.
 Water moves by osmosis into the cell,
causing it to swell.
 Lysis = a process in which if the cell
swells enough, it can rupture
ii. Isotonic Solution
 cell immersed in an isotonic solution has
the same solute concentrations inside
and outside the cell.
 cell will neither shrink nor swell
iii. Hypertonic Solution
 The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic
solution has a higher solute
concentration and low water
concentration than the surrounding
solution.
 Water moves by osmosis from the cell
into the hypertonic solution, resulting in
cell shrinkage, or crenation.
3) Facilitated diffusion
 carrier-mediated transport process that moves substances across
the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area
of lower concentration of that substance.
  Because movement is with the concentration gradient, metabolic
energy in the form of ATP is not required.
 Carrier molecules
o proteins within the cell membrane involved in
facilitated diffusion.
o Move water soluble molecules or ions across the
membrane.
o They exhibit specificity; only specific molecules are
 transported by the carriers.
 Two classes of cell membrane channels:
1) Leak channels = constantly allow ions to pass through.
2) Gated channels = limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing.

• Active membrane transport

 does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
 Examples:
1) Active transport
 a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that moves substances
across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to
those of higher concentration against a concentration gradient.
 processes accumulate necessary substances on one side of the
cell membrane at concentrations many times greater than those on
the other side.
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
o major example of active transport is the action of the
sodium-potassium pump present in cell membranes.
o moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells.
o result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and a
higher concentration of K+ inside cells
2) Secondary active transport
 uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient established
by the active transport of one substance, such as Na+ to transport
other substances.
 No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the
initial active transport pump.
 Cotransport = the diffusing substance moves in the same direction
as the initial active transported substance.
 Countertransport = the diffusing substance moves in a direction
opposite to that of the initial active transported substance.
3) Endocytosis
  process that that brings materials into cell using vesicles.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis = occurs when a specific
substance binds to the receptor molecule and is transported into
the cell.
 Phagocytosis = is often used for endocytosis when solid particles
are ingested.
 Pinocytosis = has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain
liquid rather than solid particles.
4) Exocytosis
 involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called Secretory
Vesicles that accumulate materials for release from the cell.
 The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately
releasing the material by exocytosis.
 Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes.
Solution
 generally composed of two major parts, solutes and the solvent.
 Solutes = substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is called
the Solvent.
General Cell Structure
 Cytoplasm = interior of a cell; which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds the
organelles.
 Organelles
 specialized structures that perform certain functions.
 Organelles include the: (NREGPLFMitoMicroCytoCentCil)
a) Nucleus
 a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.
 bounded by a Nuclear Envelope, which consists of outer
and inner membranes with a narrow space between them.
 The Nuclear Membrane contains nuclear pores, through
which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus.
 nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
which consist of DNA and proteins.
 During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely
coiled and collectively called Chromatin
 Nucleoli = within the nucleus; which are diffuse bodies with
no surrounding membrane
b) Ribosomes
 produced in the nucleolus.
 organelles where proteins are produced.
 may be attached to other organelles, such as the
endoplasmic reticulum.
  Free Ribosomes = ribosomes that are not attached to any
other organelle
c) Endoplasmic Reticulum
 series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends
from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
 Rough ER = involved in protein synthesis and is rough due
to attached ribosomes.
 Smooth ER = has no attached ribosomes and is a site for
lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification, and it stores calcium
ions in skeletal muscle cells.
d) Golgi apparatus
 also called the Golgi Complex, consists of closely packed
stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs.
 collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and
lipids manufactured by the ER.
 forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles,
lysosomes, and other vesicles.
e) Lysosomes
 membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.
 They contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems.
 Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in
order to breakdown materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
 One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.
f) Peroxisomes
 small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that
break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
 Hydrogen peroxide = a by-product of fatty acid and amino
acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.
 The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.
g) Mitochondria
 (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles responsible
for producing considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with
O2) metabolism.
 They have inner and outer membranes separated by a
space.
 The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner
membranes have numerous folds, called Cristae, which
project into the interior of the mitochondria.
h) Cytoskeleton
 gives internal framework to the cell.
  consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold
organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape.
 These protein structures are: (Microtub=Microfil-I)
1) Microtubules
o hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
o perform a variety of roles, including helping to
support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell
division, and forming essential components of
certain organelles, such as cilia and flagella.
2) Microfilaments
o small fibrils formed from protein subunits that
structurally support the cytoplasm, determining
cell shape.
o Some microfilaments are involved with cell
movement.
o Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells
to shorten, or contract.
3) Intermediate Filaments
o fibrils formed from protein subunits that are
smaller in diameter than microtubules but
larger in diameter than microfilaments.
o They provide mechanical support to the cell.
o A specific type of intermediate filament is
keratin, a protein associated with skin cells.
i) Centrioles
 small, cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules.
 involved in the process of mitosis.
j) Cilia
 project from the surface of certain cells.
 They are responsible for the movement of materials over the
top of cells, such as mucus.
 cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are
composed of microtubules.
k) Flagella = have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much
longer, and they usually occur only one per cell.
l) Microvilli
 specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments.
 They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
 numerous on cells that have them and they increase the
surface area of those cells.
  They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the
intestine, kidney, and other areas in which absorption is an
important function.
DNA
 contains the information that directs protein synthesis
 Gene Expression
 protein synthesis, involves transcription and translation.
 Transcription
 involves copying DNA into messenger RNA.
 takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
 DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
 During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment
separate, and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA
nucleotides that form the mRNA
 DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine.
 Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or
guanine.
 DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA nucleotides. (TA-AU-
CG-GC)
 DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
 DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
 DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
 DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.
 Translation
 involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein.
 occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited the nucleus
through the nuclear pores.
 The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
 Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by anticodons
(3 nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA (tRNA).
 Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to
the ribosome-mRNA complex and initiates formation of the
polypeptide chain.
 The process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely
formed
 A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two nucleotide
strands.
 The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted around its
long axis.
  Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base.
 Gene = is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions
for making a specific protein.
The Cell Cycle 1
 During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number of
cells or replace damaged or dying ones.
 This cell division involves a cell cycle.
 The cell cycle includes Two major phases:
1. Interphase = a nondividing phase
2. Mitosis = cell dividing phase
The Cell Cycle 2
 A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase which is divided into three
phases:
 G1 phase = during which the cell carries out normal metabolic activity
 S phase = during which the DNA is replicated
 G2 phase = during which the cell prepares to divide.
 At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of genetic material
Mitosis
 involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell.
 Four phases:
1. Prophase
 chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes.
 Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in breaking the
centromere between the chromatids and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
 The nuclear membrane dissolves.
2. Metaphase
 the chromosomes align near the center of the cell.
 The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached
spindle fibers.
3. Anaphase
 At the beginning, the chromatids separate and each chromatid is
called a Chromosome.
 Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle
fibers toward the centriole at one of the poles of the cell.
 At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an
opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
4. Telophase
  chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell.
 The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic
material during interphase.
 Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two
separate daughter cells are produced
Tumors
 are abnormal proliferations of cells.
 They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
 Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer).
 Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed Metastasis.
Differentiation
 The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions
 During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others are
inactive.
Apoptosis
 termed programmed Cell Death, is a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
 In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between
the developing fingers and toes.
 In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant
number of cells within the tissue.
Various causes for cellular aging:
 Existence of a cellular clock
 Presence of death genes
 DNA damage
Chapter 4
Tissue = group of cells with similar structure and function, plus the extracellular
substance surrounding them.
Histology = the study of tissues.
Types of Tissues: (ESPC)
1. Epithelial
 a covering or lining tissue
 covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body.
 Included under the classification of epithelial tissue are the exocrine and
endocrine glands.
 Characteristics:
a) Mostly composed of cells
b) Covers body surfaces
c) Has an exposed surface
d) Attaches at the basal surface
e) Specialized cell connections and matrix attachments
f) Avascular
g) Capable of regeneration
 Functions:
 Protects underlying structures
 Acts as a barrier
 Permits passage of substances
 Secreting substances
 Absorption of substances
 Classification of Epithelia Based on Number of Cell Layers:
1) Simple epithelium
 consists of a single layer of cells, with each cell extending
from the basement membrane to the free surface.
a) Simple squamous epithelium
 is a single layer of thin, flat cells.
 allows for gas exchange in the lungs.
 helps filter wastes from the blood while
keeping blood cells inside the blood vessels in
the kidney
b) Simple cuboidal epithelium
 is a single layer of cube-like cells that carry out
active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
secretion.
  have a greater secretory capacity than simple
squamous epithelial cells.

c) Simple columnar epithelium

 is a single layer of tall, thin cells.
 The large size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as secretion.
 The simple columnar epithelium of the small
intestine produces and secretes mucus and
digestive enzymes.
2) Stratified epithelium
 consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal
layer attaches the deepest layer to the basement
membrane.
a) Stratified squamous epithelium
 forms a thick epithelium because it consists of
several layers of cells.
 the naming is based on the shape of the
surface cells.
 Two types:
i. Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
 comprised of outer layer of the
skin is a keratinized squamous
epithelium.
 Keratin - reduces the loss of
water from the body.
ii. Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
 At mouth
 provides protection against
abrasion and acts as a
mechanical barrier.
b) Transitional Epithelium
 special type of stratified epithelium that can be
greatly stretched.
 lines cavities that can expand greatly, such as
the urinary bladder.
 protects underlying structures, like the urinary
bladder, from the caustic effects of urine.
3) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
 is a special type of simple epithelium, that appears to be
falsely stratified.
  consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to
the basement membrane.
 secretes mucus, which covers its free surface.
 Three types of epithelium based on idealized shapes of the epithelial
cells:
1) Squamous cells = are flat or scalelike.
2) Cuboidal cells = are cube-shaped, about as wide as they are tall.
3) Columnar cells = tend to be taller than they are wide.
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in
the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities
Cell Connections
 Desmosomes = are mechanical links that bind cells together.
 Hemidesmosomes = are half desmosomes that anchor cells to the
basement membrane.
 Tight junctions
 cell connection structures that form barriers and anchor cells to
each other.
 found in the lining of the intestines.
 Adhesion Belts = found just below the tight junctions, and help
tight junctions anchor epithelial cells to each other.
 prevent the passage of materials between epithelial cells because
they completely surround each cell.
 Gap junctions = are small channels that allow small molecules and ions
to pass from one epithelial cell to an adjacent one.
Glands
 secretory organs that secrete substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or
into the bloodstream.
 composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting network of connective
tissue.
 Exocrine glands
 glands with ducts
 Modes of secretion:
a) Merocrine secretion = involves the release of secretory
products by exocytosis.
b) Apocrine secretion = involves the release of secretory
products as pinched-off fragments of the gland cells.
c) Holocrine secretion = involves the shedding of entire cells.
 3 categories of exocrine glands:
 1) Unicellular glands = are composed of only a single cell.
2) Simple glands = are multicellular and have a single,
nonbranched duct.
3) Compound glands = are multicellular and have several
branched ducts.
 Endocrine glands = ductless glands; they secrete their products (termed
hormones) into the bloodstream.
 Tubular = glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules (small tubes)
 Acinar/Alveolar Glands = shaped in saclike structures
 Several types of simple glands:
1) Simple tubular = glands forming a straight tube with no branching
of the secretory portion
2) Simple branched tubular = gland with several tubular secretory
portions branching from the single duct
3) Simple acinar = glands with a single sac-like secretory portion
4) Simple branched acinar = glands with several acinar secretory
portions branching from the single duct
 Several types of compound glands:
a) Compound tubular = glands with multiple ducts, each with a narrow tubular
secretory portion
b) Compound acinar = glands with multiple ducts, each with a several sac- like
secretory portions
c) Compound tubuloacinar = glands with multiple ducts, each with several tubular
and acinar secretory portions
Connective Tissue
 Two main types: embryonic and adult connective tissue.
 diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the body.
 Comprised of: cells, protein fibers, and an extracellular matrix.
 Functions:
1) Enclose and separate other tissues
2) Connecting tissues to one another
3) Supporting and moving parts of the body
4) Storing compounds
5) Cushioning and insulating
6) Transporting
7) Protecting
 Osteoblasts = form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and osteoclasts break it down.
 Fibroblasts = are cells that form fibrous connective tissue, and fibrocytes
maintain it.
 Chondroblasts = form cartilage and chondrocytes maintain it.
 Macrophages = are large cells that are capable of moving about and ingesting
foreign substances, including microorganisms in the connective tissue.
 Mast cells = are nonmotile cells that release chemicals, such as histamine, that
promote inflammation.
 Extracellular Matrix
 tissue has three major components: protein fibers, ground
substance, and fluid.
 Ground substance = consists of non-fibrous protein and other
molecules.
 Three types of protein fibers that help form most connective tissues:
1) Collagen fibers = which resemble microscopic ropes, are very flexible but
resist stretching.
2) Reticular fibers = are very fine, short collagen fibers that branch to form a
supporting network.
3) Elastic fibers = have the ability to return to their original shape after being
stretched or compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.
 Proteoglycans = trap large quantities of water between the polysaccharides,
which allows them to return to their original shape when compressed or
deformed.
 Loose connective tissue = consists of relatively few protein fibers that form a
lacy network, with numerous spaces filled with ground substance and fluid.
 Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue:
1) Areolar connective tissue = primarily consists of collagen fibers and a
few elastic fibers.
2) Adipose tissue = consists of adipocytes, or fat cells, which contain large
amounts of lipid for energy storage; pads and protects parts of the body
and acts as a thermal insulator.
3) Reticular tissue = forms the framework of lymphatic tissue, such as in the
spleen and lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver.
 Dense connective tissue
 has a relatively large number of protein fibers that form thick bundles and
fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
 Two major subcategories of dense connective tissue:
1) Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue
 has an extracellular matrix consisting mostly of collagen
fibers.
 Dense Regular: having the collagen fibers oriented in the
same direction. Ex: tendons and ligaments.
 Dense Irregular: Dense collagenous connective tissue
having the collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions. Ex: in the dermis of the skin and in organ
capsules.
 2) Dense Elastic Connective Tissue
 Has abundant elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
 The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and recoil.
 Examples include the dense elastic connective tissue in the
vocal cords.
 Cartilage
 is composed of chondrocytes, located in spaces called Lacunae within an
extensive matrix.
 resilient because of the proteoglycans of the matrix trap water.
 provides support, but if bent or slightly compressed, it resumes its original
shape.
 Types:
1) Hyaline cartilage
 the most abundant type of cartilage and has many
functions, such as covering the ends of bones, where they
form joints.
 forms the cartilage rings of the respiratory tract, the nasal
cartilages, and the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to
the sternum (breastbone).
2) Fibrocartilage
 has more collagen than does hyaline cartilage and is able
to withstand compression and resist tearing or pulling.
 found in the disks between the vertebrae (bones of the
back) and in some joints, such as the knee and
temporomandibular (jaw) joints.
3) Elastic cartilage
 contains elastic fibers in addition to collagen and
proteoglycans.
 able to recoil to its original shape when bent.
 The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain
elastic cartilage.
 Bone
 a hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and a mineralized
matrix.
 Osteocytes are located within lacunae.
 The strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix enables bones to
support and protect other tissues and organs.
 Types of Bone Tissues:
1) Spongy bone = has spaces between trabeculae or plates, of
bone and therefore resembles a sponge.
2) Compact bone = is more solid, with almost no space between
many thin layers of mineralized matrix.
  Blood
 a liquid connective tissue
 contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma, along with formed elements.
 The formed elements are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
 Functions: transport of food, oxygen, waste, hormones, and other
substances.
Muscle
 Main function: to contract, or shorten, making movement possible.
 Muscle contraction results from contractile proteins (actin & myosin) located
within the muscle cells.
 Types of Muscle Tissue:
1) Skeletal muscle
 attaches to the skeleton and enables the body to move.
 striated, or banded, because of the arrangement of
contractile proteins within the cells.
2) Cardiac muscle
 the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for pumping blood.
 Cells are cylindrical but much shorter than skeletal muscle
cells.
 striated and usually have one nucleus per cell.
3) Smooth muscle
 forms the walls of hollow organs; it is also found in the skin
and the eyes.
 responsible for a number of functions, such as moving food
through the digestive tract and emptying the urinary
bladder.
 Cells are tapered at each end, have a single nucleus, and
are not striated.
Nervous Tissue
 forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
 responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
 Glial Cells = consists of neurons and support cells.
 Neuron = is responsible for conducting electrical signals.
 composed of three parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
 Tissue membrane
 is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity.
 Types of Tissue Membrane:
1) Cutaneous membrane (Skin) = is an external body surface
membrane.
 2) Mucous membranes
 line cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as
the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
 Many, but not all, mucous membranes secrete mucus.
 consist of epithelial cells, their basement membrane, and a
thick layer of loose connective tissue.
 Functions: protection, absorption, and secretion.
3) Serous membranes
 line cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body,
such as the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
 Three components:
a) a layer of simple squamous epithelium,
b) its basement membrane, and
c) a delicate layer of loose connective tissue.
 Do not contain glands, but they secrete a small amount of
fluid called Serous Fluid, which lubricates the surface of
the membranes.
4) Synovial membranes
 line the cavities of freely movable joints.
 They are made up of only connective tissue and consist of
modified connective tissue cells.
 Produce Synovial Fluid, which makes the joint very
slippery, thereby reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint.
Inflammation
 occurs when tissues are damaged.
 Produces five major symptoms: (PRSHD)
a) Redness
b) Heat
c) Swelling
d) Pain
e) Disturbance of function
Tissue repair
 involves substitution of dead cells for viable cells.
 Can occur by regeneration or replacement.
 Regeneration = the new cells are the same type as those that were destroyed,
and normal function is usually restored.
 Replacement = a new type of tissue develops, which eventually produces a scar
and causes loss of some tissue function.
Chapter 5
Integumentary System Functions (PSVET)
1. Protection. The skin provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.
2. Sensation. The integumentary system has sensory receptors that can detect
heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain.
3. Vitamin D production. When exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin produces a
molecule that can be transformed into vitamin D.
4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s surface
and the activity of sweat glands in the skin both help regulate body temperature.
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are lost through the skin and in
gland secretions.
Layers of the Skin
 Epidermis
 The most superficial layer of skin.
 layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the dermis.
 Known as the Cutaneous Membrane, is a keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
 Prevents water loss and resists abrasion.
 composed of distinct layers called Strata.
 As new cells form, they push older cells to the surface, where they slough, or
flake off.
 Dandruff = excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells from the surface of the
scalp
 Callus = thickened area produced whenever the skin is subjected to friction
causing the number of layers in the stratum corneum greatly increases
 Corn = cone-shaped structure that forms when the stratum corneum thickens,
over a bony prominence
 Stratum corneum
 The most superficial, consists of dead squamous cells filled with keratin
for structural strength.
 Outermost layer of keratinized cells
 Accounts for three quarters of the epidermal thickness
 20-30 cell layers thick, all dead.
 Millions rub off every day. Totally new every 25-45 days.
 Functions include:
 Waterproofing
  Protection from abrasion and penetration
 Rendering the body relatively insensitive to biological, chemical,
and physical assaults

 Stratum lucidum
 Thin, transparent band superficial to the Stratum Granulosum
 Consists of a few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
 Present only in thick skin
 Stratum granulosum
 Drastic changes in keratinocyte appearance occurs
 Keratohyaline and lamellated bodies (waterproofing) accumulate in the
cells of this layer
 Above this layer the epithelial cells die because they are too far from the
dermis
 Stratum spinosum
 Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells are abundant in this layer
 Melanin is taken up by the keratinocytes and accumulates on the “sunny
side” to protect the nucleus from UV damage
 Stratum basale (basal layer)
 Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis
 Structural strength is provided by desmosomes and hemidesmosomes
 Consists of a single row of the youngest keratinocytes
 Cells undergo mitotic divisions ~every 19 days, 10-25% are melanocytes
 Dermal papillae
o are projections toward the epidermis found in the upper part of the
dermis.
o contain many blood vessels.
o The dermal papillae in the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet,
and the tips of the digits are arranged in parallel, curving ridges that
shape the overlying epidermis into fingerprints and footprints.
 Dermis
 It is a layer of dense connective tissue.
 The skin rests on the subcutaneous tissue, which is a layer of connective
tissue.
 Subcutaneous Tissue (Hypodermis)
 not part of the skin.
 The skin (cutaneous membrane) rests on the subcutaneous tissue.
 attaches the skin to underlying bone and muscle and supplies it
with blood vessels and nerves.
 It is loose connective tissue, including adipose tissue that contains
about half the body’s stored lipids.
  The amount and location of adipose tissue vary with age, sex, and
diet.
 Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue functions as padding
and insulation.
 can be used to estimate total body fat.
 The acceptable percentage of body fat varies from 21% to 30%
for females and from 13% to 25% for males.
 composed of dense collagenous connective tissue containing fibroblasts,
adipocytes, and macrophages.
 Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic vessels
extend into the dermis.
 Collagen fibers, oriented in many directions, and elastic fibers are
responsible for the structural strength of the dermis and resistance to
stretch.
 Some collagen fibers are oriented in more directions than others, forming
cleavage lines.
 Cleavage lines, or tension lines in the skin are more resistant to stretch.
 An incision made parallel with these lines tends to gap less and produce
less scar tissue.
 If the skin is overstretched for any reason, the dermis can be damaged,
leaving stretch marks.
 Skin Color
 Factors that determine skin color include pigments in the skin, blood circulating
through the skin, and the thickness of the stratum corneum.
 2 Primary Pigments of the Skin:
 Melanin
 the group of pigments primarily responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
 Most melanin molecules are brown to black pigments, but some are
yellowish or reddish.
 provides protection against ultraviolet light from the sun.
 is produced by melanocytes and then packaged into vesicles called
Melanosomes, which move into the cell processes of melanocytes.
 Melanin production is determined by genetic factors, exposure to light, and
hormones.
 Carotene
 a yellow pigment found in plants such as squash and carrots.
 lipid-soluble; when consumed, it accumulates in the lipids of the stratum
corneum and in the adipocytes of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
 If large amounts of carotene are consumed, the skin can become quite
yellowish.
 Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the melanocyte cell processes, thereby
acquiring melanosomes.
  Large amounts of melanin form freckles or moles in some regions of the skin.
 Genetic factors are responsible for the amounts of melanin produced in different
races.
 Since all races have about the same number of melanocytes, racial variations in
skin color are determined by the amount, kind, and distribution of melanin.
 Suntan = exposure to ultraviolet light—for example, in sunlight— stimulates
melanocytes to increase melanin production results to this
 Albinism = a single mutation can prevent the production of melanin and cause it
 The color of blood in the dermis contributes to skin color.
 A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock, can make the skin appear pale.
 Cyanosis
 a decrease in the blood O2 content produces a bluish color of the skin
 a bluish color to the skin caused by decreased blood O2 content, is an
indication of impaired circulatory or respiratory function.
 Skin Cancer
 Most common cancer
 Mainly caused by UV light exposure
 Fair-skinned people more prone
 Prevented by limiting sun exposure and using sunscreens
 UVA rays cause tan and is associated with malignant melanomas
 UVB rays cause sunburns
 Sunscreens should block UVA and UVB rays
 Types of Skin Cancer
1. Basal cell carcinoma
o cells in stratum basale affected
o cancer removed by surgery
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
o cells above stratum basale affected
o can cause death
3. Malignant melanoma
o arises from melanocytes in a mole
o rare type
o can cause death

Accessory Skin Structures

 Hair
 In humans, hair is found everywhere on the skin, except on the palms,
soles, lips, nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the distal segments of the
fingers and toes.
 Each hair arises from a Hair Follicle, an invagination of the epidermis that
extends deep into the dermis.
  Hair Shaft = protrudes above the surface of the skin; the root is below the
surface
 Hair Bulb = is the expanded base of the root.
 Hair Cycle
I. Growth Stage = hair is formed by mitosis of epithelial cells within
the hair bulb; these cells divide and undergo keratinization.
II. Resting stage = growth stops and the hair is held in the hair
follicle.
 When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is formed and
the old hair falls out.
 The duration of each stage depends on the individual hair.
 Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest for 105 days,
whereas scalp hairs grow for 3 years and rest for 1 to 2 years.
 The loss of hair normally means that the hair is being replaced
because the old hair falls out of the hair follicle when the new
hair begins to grow.
 Hair color is determined by varying amounts and types of melanin.
 With age, the amount of melanin in hair can decrease, causing the hair
color to become faded, or the hair can contain no melanin and be white.
 Arrector Pili Muscle
 each hair follicle is attached to these smooth muscle cells
 can contract and cause the hair to become perpendicular to the
skin’s surface.
 Glands of the Skin
1. Sebaceous glands
 Simple, branched acinar glands, with most being connected by a duct to
the superficial part of a hair follicle.
 Produce Sebum, an oily, white substance rich in lipids.
 The sebum is released by holocrine secretion and lubricates the hair and
the surface of the skin, which prevents drying and protects against some
bacteria.
2. Sweat glands
 Eccrine sweat glands
 Simple, coiled, tubular glands and release sweat by merocrine
secretion.
 Located in almost every part of the skin but most numerous in the
palms and soles.
 Produce a secretion that is mostly water with a few salts.
 have ducts that open onto the surface of the skin through sweat
pores and are for thermal regulation.
 Sweat can also be released in the palms, soles, armpits, and other
places because of emotional stress.
  Apocrine sweat glands
 Simple, coiled, tubular glands that produce a thick secretion rich in
organic substances.
 The glands open into hair follicles in the armpits and genitalia.
 Apocrine sweat glands become active at puberty because of the
influence of sex hormones.
 The secretion generally is odorless, but when released quickly
breaks down by bacterial action giving body odor.
 Nails
 The nail is a thin plate, consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum cells
that contain a very hard type of keratin.
 Nail Body = the visible part of the nail
 Nail Root = part of the nail covered by skin.
 Cuticle (eponychium) = is stratum corneum that extends onto the nail
body and the nail root extends distally from the nail matrix.
 The nail also attaches to the underlying nail bed, which is located distal to
the nail matrix.
 The nail matrix and bed are epithelial tissue with a stratum basale that
gives rise to the cells that form the nail.
 Lunula
 A small part of the nail matrix
 can be seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent-shaped
area at the base of the nail.
 Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail to grow continuously.
Integumentary System protective functions:
1. Reduction in body water loss
2. Acts as a barrier that prevents microorganisms and other foreign substances
from entering the body
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion
4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and protects underlying structures from its
damaging effects
5. Hair protection: The hair on the head acts as a heat insulator, eyebrows keep
sweat out of the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign objects, and hair
in the nose and ears prevents the entry of dust and other materials.
6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes from damage and can be used
in defense.
Sensory Receptors
 Many sensory receptors are associated with the skin.
 Receptors in the epidermis and dermis can detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
  Although hair does not have a nerve supply, sensory receptors around the hair
follicle can detect the movement of a hair.
Vitamin D Production
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a precursor molecule of vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the blood to the liver where it is
enzymatically converted.
3. The enzymatically converted molecule is carried by the blood to the kidneys
where it is converted again to the active form of vitamin D.
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate for
many body functions.
Temperature Regulation
 Regulation of body temperature is important because the rate of chemical
reactions within the body can be increased or decreased by changes in body
temperature.
 Even slight changes in temperature can make enzymes operate less efficiently
and disrupt the normal rates of chemical changes in the body.
 Exercise, fever, and an increase in environmental temperature tend to raise body
temperature.
 In order to maintain homeostasis, the body must rid itself of excess heat.
 Blood vessels in the dermis dilate and enable more blood to flow within the skin,
thus causing heat to dissipate from the body.
 Sweat also assists in loss of heat through evaporative cooling.
 If body temperature begins to drop below normal, heat can be conserved by the
constriction of dermal blood vessels, which reduces blood flow to the skin.
 Less heat is transferred from deeper structures to the skin, and heat loss is
reduced.
 With smaller amounts of warm blood flowing through the skin, the skin
temperature decreases.
Excretion
 The integumentary system plays a minor role in excretion, the removal of waste
products from the body.
 In addition to water and salts, sweat contains small amounts of waste products,
such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia.
 Even though the body can lose large amounts of sweat, the sweat glands do not
play a significant role in the excretion of waste products.
Diagnostic Aid
 The integumentary system is useful in diagnosis because it is observed easily.
 Jaundice
  A yellowish skin color
 can occur when the liver is damaged by a disease, such as viral hepatitis.
 Rashes and lesions in the skin can be symptoms of problems elsewhere in the
body.
Burns
 injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
 classified according to their depth.
 Partial-thickness burns = first-degree and second-degree.
 Full-thickness burn = third-degree burn.
 First-degree (superficial) Burn
 involves only the epidermis and is red and painful.
 Slight edema, or swelling, may be present.
 can be caused by sunburn or brief exposure to very hot or very cold
objects, and they heal without scarring in about a week.
 Second-degree (partial-thickness) burns
 damage both the epidermis and the dermis.
 If dermal damage is minimal, symptoms include redness, pain, edema,
and blisters.
 Healing takes about 2 weeks, and no scarring results.
 If the burn goes deep into the dermis, the wound appears red, tan, or
white; can take several months to heal and might scar.
 Third-degree (full-thickness) burns
 damage the complete epidermis and dermis.
 The region of third-degree burn is usually painless because sensory
receptors in the epidermis and dermis have been destroyed.
 appear white, tan, brown, black, or deep cherry red.
 Burn Healing
 In all second-degree burns, the epidermis, including the stratum basale
where the stem cells are found, is damaged.
 The epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue in hair follicles and sweat
glands, as well as from the edges of the wound.
 Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns take a long time to
heal, and they form scar tissue with disfiguring and debilitating wound
contractures.
 Treatment of Burns
 To prevent complications of deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns
and to speed healing, skin grafts are often performed.
 Split Skin Graft = a procedure where the epidermis and part of the dermis
are removed from another part of the body and placed over the burn
  When it is not possible or practical to move skin from one part of the body
to a burn site, physicians sometimes use artificial skin or grafts from
human cadavers.
 Aging and the Integument
 Blood flow decreases and skin becomes thinner due to decreased
amounts of collagen
 Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat glands make temperature
regulation more difficult
 Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and wrinkle
Chapter 6
Components of Skeletal System (BCTL)
 Bones
 Cartilages
 Tendons
 Ligaments
Functions of the Skeletal System (BodysBodymOMB)
1. Body support
2. Organ protect
3. Body movement
4. Mineral storage
5. Blood cell production
Bone Histology
 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal system are all connective
tissues.
 Their characteristics are largely determined by the composition of their
extracellular matrix.
 The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance, and other organic
molecules, as well as water and minerals.
 Collagen = a fibrous protein that provides flexibility but resists pulling or
compression.
 Matrix ground substance = contains proteoglycans which are water trapping
proteins that help cartilage to be smooth and resilient.
 Extracellular Matrix = of tendons and ligaments contains large amounts of
collagen fibers, making these structures very tough, like ropes or cables.
Bone Matrix
 about 35% organic and 65% inorganic material by weight.
 The organic material is primarily collagen and proteoglycans.
  The inorganic material is primarily a calcium phosphate crystal called
Hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Bone Cells
 Osteoblasts
 are responsible for the formation of bone and the repair and remodeling of
bone.
 Produce collagen and proteoglycans.
 Also secrete high concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate ions, forming
crystals called Hydroxyapatite.
 Ossification = the formation of new bone by osteoblasts
 Osteocytes
 cells that maintain bone matrix and form from osteoblast after bone matrix
has surrounded it.
 Account for 90–95% of bone cells and are very long-lived.
 Osteocyte cell bodies are housed within the bone matrix in spaces called
Lacunae.
 Their cell extensions are housed in narrow, long spaces called Canaliculi.
 Osteoclasts
 are bone-destroying cells.
 They contribute to bone repair and remodeling by removing existing bone,
called Bone Reabsorption.
 Bone breakdown is important for mobilizing crucial Ca2+
 As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the blood.
Lamellar bone = Mature bone; is organized into thin, concentric sheets or layers, called
Lamellae.
Spongy Bone
 has less bone matrix and more space
 Trabeculae
 Sponge bone consists of this
 interconnecting rods or plates of bone
 surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a single layer of cells consisting of
osteoblasts with a few osteoclasts.
Compact Bone
 has more bone matrix and less space
 Cortical Bone
 the solid, outer layer surrounding each bone.
 Osteon
 the functional unit of compact bone
  composed of concentric rings of matrix surrounding a central canal.
 Central canals = are lined with endosteum and contain blood vessels,
nerves, and loose connective tissue.
 Lamellae
 concentric rings of bone matrix which surround the central canal.
 Lacunae
 Osteocytes are located in these spaces
 between the lamellar rings.

 Canaliculi
o Small tunnels that radiate between lacunae across the
lamellae.
o connect osteocytes to one another, transport nutrients and
remove waste.
Structure of a Long Bone
 Diaphysis = is the center portion of the bone which is composed of the
medullary cavity
 Medullar cavity
o compact bone surrounding a hollow center
o Some spongy bone tissue lines the medullary cavity.
 Epiphyses
 The ends of a long bone
 They contain mostly spongy bone, with an outer layer of compact
bone.
 Articular Cartilage = the end of a long bone within the joins that is
covered with hyaline cartilage
 Epiphyseal Plate = located between the epiphysis and the diaphysis.
Growth in bone length occurs at the epiphyseal plate.
 Epiphyseal Line = When bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal
plate becomes ossified and is called this
Bone Marrow
 Cavities in spongy bone and the medullary cavity in the diaphysis are filled with
soft tissue called Marrow.
 Red marrow = the location of blood forming cells.
 Yellow marrow = mostly fat.
Periosteum
 The outer surface of a bone is covered by a connective tissue membrane
 The outer layer of periosteum contains blood vessels and nerves.
  The inner layer is a single layer of bone cells, including osteoblasts and
osteoclasts.
Endosteum
 is a single cell layer of connective tissue that lines the internal surfaces of all
cavities within bones.
 includes osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

Bone Formation
1. Intramembranous Ossification
 occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone within connective
tissue.
 This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
 Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers and
begin depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae
 The process begins in areas called Ossification Centers and the
trabeculae radiate out from the centers.
 Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat skull
bone and mature skull bones result from fusion of these centers as
they enlarge.
 The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they may enlarge or
be replaced by compact bone.
2. Endochondral Ossification
 Endochondral bone formation = is bone formation within a cartilage
model.
 The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
 Initially formed is a Primary Ossification Center, which forms bone in the
diaphysis of a long bone.
 A Secondary Ossification Center forms bone in the epiphysis.
Appositional Growth = a process in which as osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on
the surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the bone
increases in width, or diameter
Epiphyseal Plate = growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source of
increased height in an individual, occurs here
Bone remodeling involves:
 removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
 deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
  occurs in all bones
 responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair, adjustment of bone to
stress, and calcium ion regulation
Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a hematoma forms.
2. A callus forms which is a bone cartilage network between and around the bone
fragments.
3. Woven, spongy bone replaces the callus.
4. Compact bone replaces the spongy bone.
Skeletal Anatomy Overview
 The average adult has 206 bones.
 Bones are segregated into:
a) Axial skeleton
 consists of the bones of the skull, the auditory ossicles, the hyoid
bone, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
 composed of the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage.
 Skull = has 22 bones divided into those of the braincase and those
of the face.
 Braincase = which encloses the cranial cavity, consists of 8 cranial
bones that immediately surround and protect the brain.
 Bony structure of the face = has 14 facial bones.
 Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly connected to form the
bulk of the face.
 The mandible, however, forms a freely movable joint with the rest of
the skull.
 There are also three auditory ossicles in each middle ear (six total).
b) Appendicular Skeleton
 consists of the bones of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the
two girdles.
 Girdle
 refers to the two zones where the limbs are attached to the
body.
 Two zones: (PecPel)
1. Pectoral girdle
2. Pelvic girdle
Bone Shapes
  Long bones = are longer than they are wide; examples are upper and lower limb
bones.
 Short bones = are approximately as wide as they are long; examples are the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
 Flat bones = have a relatively thin, flattened shape; examples are bones of the
skull and sternum.
 Irregular bones = include the vertebrae and facial bones, which have shapes
that do not fit readily into the other three categories.

Skeletal Terminology
Foramen:
 hole
 Example - foramen magnum
Fossa:
 depression
 Example - glenoid fossa
Process:
 projection
 Example - mastoid process
Condyle:
 smooth, rounded end
 Example - occipital condyle
Meatus (Canal):
 canal-like passageway
 Example - external auditory meatus
Tubercle (Tuberosity):
 lump of bone
 Example - greater tubercle
Vertebral Column
 In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones
 Grouped into five regions
i. 7 cervical vertebra
 ii. 12 thoracic vertebra
iii. 5 lumbar vertebra
iv. 1 sacrum
v. 1 coccyx
 Atlas:
 1st vertebra
 holds head
 Axis:
 2nd vertebra
 rotates head

 Functions of Vertebral Column

 Supports body weight
 Protects the spinal cord
 Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord
 Provides a site for muscle attachment
 Provides movement of the head and trunk
 Four major curvatures:
1. Cervical region = curves anteriorly.
2. Thoracic region = curves posteriorly.
3. Lumbar region = curves anteriorly
4. Sacral and Coccygeal regions = together curve posteriorly

Thoracic Cage
 Protects vital organs
 12 pair of ribs
 Sternum:
o breastbone
 True ribs:
o attach directly to sternum by cartilage
 False ribs:
o attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
 Floating ribs:
o not attached to sternum

Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

 Scapula:
• shoulder blade
  Clavicle:
• collar bone
Articulations (Joints)
 are where two bones come together.
 Can be classified structurally as: fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial, according
to the major connective tissue type that binds the bones together and whether a
fluid-filled joint capsule is present.
 Joints in functional categories according to their degree of motion: synarthroses,
amphiarthroses, or diarthroses.
 Synovial joints
 are surrounded by fluid filled joint cavity.
 cavity is created by the joint capsule and is full of synovial fluid.
 The joint capsule helps hold the bones together while still allowing for
movement.
 The joint capsule consists of two layers:
1. Fibrous Capsule
 the outer layer of the joint capsule.
 It consists of dense irregular connective tissue and is
continuous with the fibrous layer of the periosteum that
covers the bones united at the joint
2. Synovial Membrane
 the inner layer of the joint capsule.
 It lines the joint cavity, produces synovial fluid, a viscous
lubricating liquid.
Structural Classification of Joints
 Fibrous joint:
• united by fibrous connective tissue
• subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses
 Cartilaginous:
• united by means of cartilage
• subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis
 Synovial:
• joined by a fluid cavity
• Most joints of the appendicular skeleton
 Synarthrosis:
 non-movable joint
 Example – skull bone articulations
 Amphiarthrosis:
 slightly movable joint
 Example - between vertebrae
  Diarthrosis:
 freely movable joint
 Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations
Types of Movement
 Flexion: bending
 Extension: straightening
 Abduction: movement away from midline
 Adduction: movement toward the midline
 Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms down
 Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
 Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis
Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints
1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes