Instructional Design for Situated Learning

Author(s): Michael F. Young

Source: Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol. 41, No. 1 (1993), pp. 43-58
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30218369
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 Instructional Design for Situated Learning
Michael F Young
The design of situated learning must be
closely linked to the ecological psychology of
"situated cognition," as exemplified by prob-
lem solving in a complex situated context,
the Jasper Series. The extreme view of situ-
ated learning contends that all thinking
must be viewed as situated, and is therefore
better explained by concepts of perception
and action than by the concepts of informa-
tion processing psychology. In this article,
ideas of ecological psychology provide the
background for describing four broad tasks for
the design of situated learning: selecting the
situations, providing scaffolding, determin-
ing and supporting the role of the teacher,
and assessing situated learning. Further,
three metrics for evaluating situated learning
are suggested: affording transfer, providing
meaning, and providing an anchor for cross-
curricular investigation.
ETR&D, Vol. 41. No.1, pp. 43-58 ISSN 1042-1629 43
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O Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) have
suggested that learning should take place in
the context of realistic settings in which the
reasons for learning sometimes repetitive or
tedious procedures are made clear--an idea
with roots tracing back to experiential learn-
ing (Dewey, 1938). Using what Brown et al.
(1989) called "authentic tasks" enables students
to immerse themselves in the culture of an aca-
demic domain, much like an apprentice tai-
lor can be immersed in the culture of tailoring
while only being responsible for ironing the
garments finished by the master tailor. Brown
et al. suggested that cognitive apprenticeships
can be designed that immerse students in the
culture of traditional academic domains such
as mathematics, science, history, art, music,
and languages. By being immersed in such
realistic contexts, the need to learn certain
repetitive or tedious skills is made evident,
thus requiring less direct explanation by the
teacher. The Cognition and Technology Group
at Vanderbilt (1990, 1992) extended the ideas
of cognitive apprenticeships by proposing
macro-contexts (complex situations) that can
"anchor" instruction in subjects across the cur-
riculum. A recent commission designed to
implement the nation's educational goals
summarizes:
We believe, after examining the findings of cog-
nitive science, that the most effective way of
learning skills is "in context," placing learning
objectives within a real environment rather than
 44 ETR&D,
insisting that
what they
1991, p. 4)
But if we are able to turn in our textbooks for
realistic situations, a number of issues must
first be addressed. How should the situations
be selected or designed? How can we tell good
situations from bad ones? What kinds of tests
will we use?
THE NATURE OF SITUATED LEARNING AND
SITUATED COGNITION
The most extreme position on situated learn-
ing contends that not only learning but think-
ing itself is situated and hence must be viewed
from a ecological psychological perspective.
This framework draws heavily from the work
of James Gibson (1979/1986), emphasizing per-
ception rather than memory as the means by
which we learn. In contrast to schema theo-
ries in which meaning is stored and retrieved
from memory, meaning in situated cognition
is generated on the spot through perceiving
and acting (e.g., Clancey & Roschelle, in
press). In the situated cognition model, the
processes of perceiving and acting create
meaning "on the fly," rather than reading it
back from something (representation or sche-
matic) stored in the head. From this view,
remembering arises through interactions with
the environment, and the concept of memory
becomes nonexistent or irrelevant to an expla-
nation of knowledge and learning, replaced
by an emphasis of the tuning of attention and
perception; that is, perceptual learning.
From the perspective of situated cognition,
there are always two components to learning:
the agent and the context. Knowledge and
intelligence must be viewed as the relation-
ship between the actor (effectivities/abilities)
and the environment (information specifying
particular affordances)---a symmetry of acausal
interactions (Shaw, Turvey, & Mace, 1982). It
would be misleading at best to assert that the
properties of the domain, the problem space,
or the learning context merely influence think-
ing. For example, it is the relationship between
the agent and the problem that is problem solv-
ing. It would not be meaningful to character-
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Vol. 41, No.1
ize the problem solving of an
students individual apartlearn in
first
will be
from the context expected
in which that problem solv- to appl
ing occurs. A situated cognitive analysis of
thinking must describe both the abilities of the
problem solver and all the relevant attributes
of the environment perceived by the problem
solver, including dimensions of the problem
and problem space that afford certain actions.
In the equal emphasis of environment and
agent, situated cognition represents more than
Skinner's (1987) impoverished emphasis on the
context, antecedents, and consequences of
actions. Situated cognition asserts that not just
anything in the environment that causes a reac-
tion is a stimulus, but rather it is the infor-
mation picked up from the environment that
we must understand and use instructionally.
Greeno, Smith, and Moore (in press) address
the interactive nature of cognition as they
undertake to characterize transfer from a learn-
ing situation to a novel situation, using the
situated learning model. They write that an
activity like problem solving
. . jointly depends on properties of things and
materials in the situation and on characteristics
of the person or group. Following Gibson (1979/
1986) and Shaw et al. (1982)... affordances and
abilities are relative to each other: a situation can
afford an activity for an agent who has appro-
priate abilities, and an agent can have an ability
for an activity in a situation that has appropri-
ate affordances. (p. 4)
Thus, from the perspective of situated cog-
nition, it would be just as accurate (or inac-
curate) to classify environments as gifted or
retarded as it is to characterize the agents who
operate in those environments in those terms.
However, classifying individuals or environ-
ments in such terms is inappropriate from a
situated cognition perspective, since the entire
interaction is always dynamic. Students inter-
act differently in different situations, and even
in similar environments students' changing
goals and intentions make the situations dif-
ferent. In fact, it is only the interaction between
an agent and an environment that can truly
be said to be intelligent.
Vicente and Harwood (1990) explained the
role of context by referring to Simon's (1981)
allegory regarding an ant on a beach:
 ID FOR SITUATED
Viewed as a geometric
it, it is necessaryfigure,
is irregular, complex,
engaged in some
its complexity is really a complexity in th
(authentic) activity. In one important instance
surface of the beach, not a complexity of t
ant. (p. 64)
The ant's behavior is constrained by the land-
scape of the beach more than by internal
organismic forces. When the ant is placed on
a different part of the beach or when external
disturbances (e.g., wind, earth movement)
occur, different navigation actions are required
to reach the same goal. Different ants may have
different strategies for navigation that are used
depending upon the type of disturbance expe-
rienced. Vicente and Harwood (1990) sug-
gested that understanding such a situated
activity requires the determination of (a) reg-
ularities in the ways the landscape affects the
ant, and simultaneously (b) the psychologi-
cal invariance of the ant across different tasks.
For situated cognition which has social/cul-
tural components, potential invariants of the
agent include goals and intentions, and
potential regulation includes information con-
tained in the environment, especially other
people who provide mutual affordances for
each other (e.g., cognitive apprenticeship,
Brown et al., 1989; reciprocal teaching, Brown
& Palinscar, 1988; distributed intelligence, Pea,
1988; external memory, Wegner, 1987).
Situated cognition requires a radical redef-
inition of learning, thinking, and what it
means to be intelligent. With the emphasis not
on memory but on perception, knowledge is
no longer simply something stored in the head;
rather, it is an interaction in a specific context
in which "intelligent" activity is meaningful
and appropriate. Lave's (1988) work on every-
day cognition highlights the importance of con-
text (situations) to a description of thinking.
Lave describes how "just plain folks (JPFs)"
use mathematics, think differently, and solve
problems in everyday settings that they can-
not solve in classroom settings. Context
broadly includes people, machines, design arti-
facts, environments, and other objects and
agents that may interact to establish ecologi-
cal problem-solving relationships. But context
also includes a shared culture, understand-
ing, and motivations. In order to even detect
expert knowledge, let alone instruct or teach
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LEARNING 45
the
to have a student actively ant's pat
and
hard
important to
complex realistic describe. Bu
when the student's environment includes
other people (teachers), knowledge is often
constructed through communication (Greeno,
1992). A situated learning redefinition of
knowledge, then, contends that knowledge is
an active relationship between an agent and
the environment, and learning must take place
during the time the student is actively engaged
with a complex, realistic instructional context.
THE DESIGN OF SITUATED LEARNING
Beyond simply using authentic tasks occa-
sionally in classrooms, some have argued that
all learning must be understood as situated
in realistic contexts (e.g., Bereiter, 1991; Greeno
et al., in press). But if all learning is situated,
then part of the attributes of the situation for
most traditional instruction is a classroom,
where learning is competitive among individ-
uals, the subject and nature of problems
change on the hour in a predictable succes-
sion, and the major, if not only, source of infor-
mation is one person: the teacher. This is not
a context that transfers to many situations out-
side the educational system. In most other con-
texts in which academic subjects are applied,
there is usually one big problem to solve (such
as NASA's problem of how to put men on
Mars) and many related smaller problems in
service to this superordinate goal (such as engi-
neering the rocket, issues of human physiol-
ogy on a long space flight, planning for food
and fuel, and the physics of trajectories and
rendezvous). Further, the information for solv-
ing these problems is distributed across many
individuals and only through collaboration and
coordination can solutions be found. To meet
the test of "authenticity," situations must at
least have some of the important attributes
of real-life problem solving, including ill-
structured complex goals, an opportunity for
the detection of relevant versus irrelevant infor-
mation, active/generative engagement in find-
ing and defining problems as well as in solving
them, involvement of the student's beliefs and
values, and an opportunity to engage in col-
laborative interpersonal activities (Young &
 46 ETR&D, Vol. 41, No. 1

McNeese, inandpress). This

situations in general (teacher preparation is the
learning that and enhancement).place
takes The final task forin the everyd
(Lave, 1988). design of situated learning is to define the role
Consider and
three nature of assessment
examples and what it means of re
problem to "assess" situated
solving: the learning.
surgeon durin
tion, an Air On the issue ofpilot
Force selecting situations, Greeno
acquiring t
flying an et al. (in
F-15 press) point out that multiple
fighter jet, situa- and a
developing a tions
new are really needed
idea for studentswith
to acquire the a
puter design the general, abstract knowledge
tools. The that is knowledg
essen-
situations is tial
not static
to mathematical and not
and scientific thinking.
tained withinThethe
Cognition and Technology Group at
individual(s) inv
"knowledge" Vanderbilt (1990, 1992) also acknowledged the
is distributed throu
environment,need to
in providecomputers,
an intelligently selected and boo
monitors, sequenced set of situations
cockpit (in its Jasper Series,
instruments, an
other people: what
pairs of Pea
related adventures) that (1988)
provide stu- c
tributed dents an opportunity to detect the
intelligence." The componentsheart m
plane of their
avionics, andsolutions that are invariant across an
computer desig
for these entire class of problems. Butproblem
real-world little research is solv
vide available to guide
information us in selecting thecontinuall
while proper
new problems"generator
(and set" of situations that will enable
subproblems)
ing conditions. There istheory
students to learn algebra or political also team
volved, with orexperts
any of the traditional classroom
in subjects.
differen
collaborating From
to work on pattern recognition,
solve a general
problem
principlessolve
specialist could can be suggested, such as provid-
alone: what
Campione ing a contrast
(1990) have set (examples referred
and non-examples) to a
construction of knowledge."
and progressing from large differences to finer In ad
individual's and finer distinctions.
goals, values, and beli But these results come
with these distributed sources
primarily from use of static displays rather than of i
so that each person's the complex, interpersonal environments
experience of i
tion is unique. realistic problem-solving situations. Gibson
There are four critical tasks involved in (1979/1986) suggested that our perceptual sys-
instructional design for situated learning. The tems are designed to detect invariance and will
first task is the selection of the situation or do so readily if given an opportunity. The
set of situations that will afford the acquisi- designer's first task is to select the generator
tion of knowledge that the teacher wishes each set of situations (complex, realistic problem
student to acquire-selection of the proper spaces) that afford students the best oppor-
"generator set" (Shaw et al., 1982). The second tunity to detect the stable (invariant) concepts
task is to provide the necessary "scaffolding" of traditional subject domains.
for novices to operate within the complex real- On the issue of providing scaffolding, situ-
istic context and still permit experts to work ated learning recommends that students be
within the same situation (see for example, active generators of both problems and solu-
Bruner, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978). With the role tions, allowing each student to "crisscross the
of the teacher reconceptualized into more the landscape of knowledge" rather than take a
role of coach (Collins, 1991), the third task of linear trip down a single path that has been
design for situated learning is to provide sup- predefined by an instructional designer (Spiro,
ports that enable teachers to track progress, 1991). Allowing students to define their own
assess products, access distributed sources of constraints on the learning environment does
knowledge, interact knowledgeably and col- not imply complete freedom or aimless explo-
laboratively with individual students and/or ration. Rather, like the apprentice tailor as-
cooperating groups of students, and develop signed only to ironing finished garments,
their own skills in utilizing specific situations activities can be defined within a broader con-

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 ID FOR SITUATED LEARNING 47

text that provide student, and/or the combined

scaffolding actions of
for a coop-
novice wit
an environment.erating
Soloway (1991)
groups of students provides
operating within
good example of scaffolding when
the situation. This monumental his
task can only PASC
programming learning tool
be accomplished with supports makes
provided by cert
options unavailable to ornovices
other adults until
equivalently clever technology. they h
completed important, but
Without such aids, perhaps
practical implementations less obv
ous steps, such as goal
of "cognitive planning
apprenticeships" and pseu
(Collins, Brown,
coding. The & Newman,
concept of 1989)scaffolding
will be scant. is direc
related to the amount of learner control Although there will be value in students
afforded by the learning context. But ratherseeing their teacher as an experienced novice
than program control or advisement from the operating in a new domain, most often the
designer (e.g., Tennyson & Buttrey, 1980), teacher will need and want to be experienced
scaffolding refers to a process of initially lim-with the situation and, therefore, able to direct
iting a novice's access to all the features of thethe attention of students to important attri-
context and then removing those constraints butes of the environment. Teachers who are
as soon as possible. The issues for instructional comfortable with risk taking, and who are will-
design, then, are what scaffolding to provideing to turn over some control of the learning
for each situated learning context and how environment to students, have succeeded in
quickly it can be removed as students move working along with students as "experienced
from novice to expert performance. novices" in mathematical problem solving. But
On the issue of supporting the teacher's role such an approach increases the complexity of
in situated learning, it must first be cautioned the teaching task, even beyond the teaching
that for the situated learning perspective, challenge associated with focusing on higher
teaching is a role played only in part by peo-level thinking skills in the context of realistic
ple (like traditional teachers) in the student'sproblem solving. From the perspective of sit-
environment. The learning environment itself uated cognition, the teacher's role should be
plays a part in teaching by affording (or not to "tune the attention" of students to the
affording) certain important actions to be important aspects of the situation or problem-
learned. Some teaching is also done by other solving activity, specifically those attributes
students, who provide mutual affordances that are invariant across a range of similar prob-
to one another. Also, students involved in lems and therefore will transfer to many novel
situated learning teach themselves as their situations. This can be achieved as teachers
perceptual systems detect changes, analyze work along with students on a novel problem
environments, produce actions (changes in (a recommended aspect of cognitive appren-
the environment), and "learn" by detecting ticeship; see Collins et al., 1989), but is prob-
invariance across situations. From the situated ably best achieved when teachers are very
learning perspective, then, teaching can be familiar with the problem/solution space being
directed by any of the varied sources of dis- used for instruction.
tributed knowledge described by Pea (1988), One initial solution, then, would be for
including but not limited to the teacher. teacher training itself to be situated, includ-
Looking solely at the role played by an ex- ing both domain-specific training (math, sci-
perienced adult operating within the sit- ence, language, social studies) as well as
uated learning environment (like a traditional techniques of pedagogy, classroom manage-
teacher), teaching becomes not easier but sig- ment, and (situated) instructional design. Sit-
nificantly harder. Individual student differ- uated teacher training would involve using
ences (effectivities of the agents such as beliefs, classroom situations in which students are
goals, and values) must not only be consid- engaged in situated learning, and actively
ered, but are essential for understanding sit- engaging preservice teachers in solving the
uated learning. Therefore, a teacher using problems or designing and implementing sit-
situated learning must be constantly assess- uated learning (e.g., Collins & Brown, 1988).
ing the perception-action interaction of each Another possible solution is to provide "job

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 48 mEnD, Vo. 41, No. 1

aids" for teachers implementing

a partner or "knowledge navigator" in the pro- sit
ing. Such technology would
cess of learning. In short, design techniques at le
providestorage and
for situated retrieval
learning must encourage the con- of co
struction of instruction andmalrules,"
conceptions, "bugs," assessment as one a
ceptions (see Snow & Mandinach,see
(p-prims; 1991). diSessa, 1
used students by
Assessmentin aonly
must not particular
be integrated si
with instruction, but must focus on the learn-errors
possibly the characteristic
paths ing process
that are as well as the learning products
indicative of such
tions. (Case, 1985). When learning changes
Technology-rich from
situated le
allow continuous assessment
direct instruction to situated learning, the of stu
progress assessment of the
through successful andsolution
less successful space
situation, learners (or experts
freeing the and novices within a
teacher to
role of mentor/coach rather than lecturer/ domain) must change from an emphasis on
grade-giver. Finally, the combination of data- right/wrong responses toward an emphasis on
bases of common errors and embedded as- the information that each student perceives
sessment may, in the long run, afford the in the situation(s). The affordances that each
development of intelligent suggesters for par- student perceives can be detected by the types
ticular situations that can undertake some of of information to which they attend (e.g., video
the monitoring and coaching required to tune scenes replayed), the paths taken toward solu-
the attention of students engaged in situated tion (solution spaces), the types of analogies
learning. and transfer that occur, and the types of errors
(misconceptions or malrules) that are made.
These new sources of data will require new
and more elaborate (multivariate, nonlinear)
Assessment of Situated Learning and psychometric models. In short, as instructional
Anchored Instruction design models are adapted for situated learn-
ing with technology, the assessment compo-
As the nature of instruction changes to be nents will need to be radically different.
more collaborative, situated, and distributed Assessment should be a seamless, continuous
in its sources of information, traditional means part of the activity (a learning/assessment sit-
of assessment will quickly prove inadequate. uation), enabled by technology and comple-
Multiple-choice items that assess the static fac- mented by innovative psychometric techniques.
tual knowledge of students must be replaced
by cognitive tasks and assessments that can
focus on the processes of learning, perception, METRICS FOR SITUATED ENVIRONMENTS
and problem solving. In addition, assessment
can no longer be viewed as an add-on to an Not all situations afford learning to the same
instructional design or simply as separate degree. For example, sitting alone in a closet
stages in a linear process of pretest, instruc- is certainly a situation, but it is not a situa-
tion, posttest; rather, assessment must become tion that affords learning much about algebra
an integrated, ongoing, and seamless part of or chemistry, nor does it afford learning much
the learning environment. More than forma- about playing tennis or riding a bicycle. Once
tive and summative evaluation, the entire a proper generator set of situations has been
instructional design process must be changed determined, the teacher or instructional de-
from a serial stage model in which assessment signer must adopt some criteria for deter-
enters and leaves, toward a model in which mining whether they afford the conceptual
the processes that serve as instructional stim- or procedural learning desired. Three sug-
uli also serve to provide data to a psychomet- gestions for the type of evidence one should
ric model. Seamless assessment could then look for in a situation for learning are: (a)
provide important feedback to both teacher and the ability to afford transfer to targeted con-
student, and perhaps even be instantiated as cepts or procedures, (b) the ability to provide

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 ID FOR SrITUATED
meaning for
learning,
commodate "anchored instruction."
Transfer
If the design task for situated learning is to
select the proper generator set of situations
that will precisely afford students the best
opportunity to tune their attention to the
important invariants of a subject area (as sug-
gested above), then the true test for success-
ful learning is transfer of learners' skills from
the situations in which they are learned to
novel situations in which the relevant knowl-
edge could also be applied. Near and far trans-
fer situations as well as situations that afford
the use of both domain-specific knowledge and
higher-order skills (planning, discriminating
the relevant from the irrelevant, metacognitive
monitoring of progress, etc.) would constitute
the range of transfer situations needed to
determine successful learning. In fact, as dis-
cussed in the next section, such a determination
could be made continuously using dynamic
assessment techniques that are completely
integrated into the initial generator set of sit-
uations. In that case, the generator set would
need to be constituted broadly enough to incor
porate near and far transfer opportunities.
Meaning
When Brown et al. (1989) discussed situated
cognition and cognitive apprenticeships, they
relied heavily on real-world apprenticeships
(e.g., apprentice tailors) as the model for their
analysis. While real-world experiences are per-
haps the best situations, classrooms (as cur-
rently constituted) cannot provide or utilize
many such situations. Some classes are for-
tunate enough to be able to take instructional
advantage of trips to zoos, museums, aquari-
ums, and research institutions, but few are able
to take advantage of many such events dur-
ing the school year. The hallmark of such
events is the meaning they provide to students
for ubsequent study of biology, history, chem-
istry, and mathematics, etc. (see, for example,
cognitive apprenticeships; Collin et al., 1989).
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LEARNING 49
Immediately afterand
a trip to the(c)
zoo, students
the ability to
typically have little trouble answering the ques-
tion, "Why are you learning about evolution?"
The answers are often, "So I can become a
zoo keeper" or "To understand how frogs we
saw yesterday came to be the way they are."
But rarely did I get such meaningful answers
when I asked students in my traditionally
taught Algebra II class why they were learn-
ing logarithms; their answers tended toward,
"Because we have to" or "To get a good grade."
As designers begin to construct learning sit-
uations with the aid of technology, one essen-
tial standard should be the meaning students
attach to their activities and interactions within
those environments. Students should be able
to provide meaningful goals when asked, at
any point, why-questions such as, "Why are
you performing that action?" or "Why is your
group researching that issue?"
Anchor Situations
"Anchored instruction" is a term coined by
the Cognition and Technology Group at Van-
derbilt (1990) to describe a special type of sit-
uation for learning. Consider that it is possible
to situate learning in two ways. The first is
exemplified by many law school courses on
tort law, where a separate real-world case is
used to explain each new dimension of law.
In this tradition, it is possible to encounter
several cases in a single course lecture. Such
situations can be considered micro-contexts
for each specific topic to be learned. In con-
trast, it is also possible to select "macro-
contexts" that are sufficiently rich and complex
to be meaningfully viewed from several per-
spectives. The Vanderbilt Group describes the
use of a feature-length film, Young Sherlock
Holmes, to anchor a semester-long investiga-
tion of Victorian era history; scientific concepts
such as weather, geography, and inventions;
and literature, including story grammars,
vocabulary, and readings related to the con-
text. The use of a single film for an entire
semester might, at first blush, invoke images
of students bored to tears when viewing the
film for the tenth or thirtieth time. But learn-
ing new perspectives of material that students
 50 ER&D. Vl. 41, No. 1

initially thought
since quantitative facts asthey
well as story events unders
proved to can be quickly
be and easily reviewed. Even
challenging and
students. Itthough
was the
the mathematics changes
required to solve the
ing that proved motivating,
physics distance/rate/time problems of the Jas-
per episodes
presentation of are important
the in a real-world
situation.
dence of a sense, the computations themselves are
successful not
situated
it serves as complex, anchor
an and students are often challenged
for mult
all equally more by the process
valid and of dealing with the multi-
fully justi
context of the situation.
step nature of the problem rather than by the
mathematics involved (for discussion of such
difficulties see Campione, Brown, & Connell,
THE JASPER SERIES:
1988). Practice ONE
in dealing with complexity can EXAM
SITUATED LEARNING
develop in students an appreciation of the
need to plan, the ability to retrieve relevant
The Jasper Series* was
information when needed, skills in metacog- design
tional environment
nitive monitoring of progress toward in
solution, which
the emerging issues
and an appreciation that not all mathematicsof situ
Briefly, instruction
problems can be solved quickly, evenusing
when th
context involves viewing
the required computations are not in them- a seri
videodisc-based stories
selves complex (such skills are often called in w
character higher-order thinking
Jasper skills).
Woodbury, en
lem such as the
The discovery
Cognition and Technology Group at of
far out in the woods.
Vanderbilt (1992) All
have described seven design of t
to obtain a quantitative
principles underlying the Jasper Series. They soluti
of the eagle include
have been
a video-based format, embedd
a narrative struc-
Students areture,challenged
generative problem solving by the user, to list
they must consider to develop
all the data needed for quantitative solutions
cue (e.g., plan
being embeddedtime,
within the story, purpose- payload
plane, fuel, fuletc.).
complexity, pairing ofThey
stories to afford trans- are th
erate and document
fer, and enhancement of the narrative theirwith solu
out this time, the
links across the videodisc
curriculum. These principles i
for students address
to retrieve
the first of the four design tasks out-relevant
mation on request,
lined above, selecting (designing) aoften
situation. acc
themselves However, using a
they do not suggest Hypercar
the other three
hand-held controller.
design tasks for situated learning: what scaf-
Each episode in the series presents a com- folding to provide to problem solvers of dif-
plex multi-step problem that students typically ferent ability, how to support and develop the
require more than a week of traditional 40- teacher as coach and mentor, or the issues of
minute classes to solve, either individually, in assessing students' problem solving.
small groups, or as a class. There are currently
four episodes available, with plans for six epi-
sodes in the complete series. The random- Jasper as a Generator Set
access capability of the videodisc makes the
complexity of these problems manageable, As described by The Cognition and Technol-
ogy Group at Vanderbilt (1992), the Jasper epi-
sodes have been designed to afford perception
*The "Jasper Series" is commercially available from of invariance in the form of physics and math-
Optical Data Corporation. The series was developed by ematical "mid-level" concepts (diSessa, 1988),
the Learning Technology Center, Peabody College, Van-
such as distance/rate/time and area/volume.
derbilt University, John Bransford and Susan Goldman,
co-directors.
The episodes are sequenced to provide oppor-

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 ID FOR SITUATED LEARNING 51

tunities for near planning. The resulting

transfer of planning questions
mid-level concep
between pairs of also externalize the problem-solving
videodiscs, and goalsfar
of transf
of higher-level planning
the students, something and information
often missing or only
finding skills implied by
across verbal think-aloud
pairs of protocols of
videodiscs.
problem solving.

Scaffolding for the Jasper Series

Teaching with Jasper

A HyperCarda stack designed to assist Jasp

problem solvers The
hasCognition and Technology
been Group at
developed and
currently the Vanderbilt
focus of(1992) described three models for
instructional and asses
ment research (Figure
teaching with1). The
the Jasper Jasper
materials they devel- Plannin
Assistant (JPA) provides
oped: (a) basics first, videodisc
immediate feedback, control,
calculator, and a place to
direct instruction; record
(b) structured related
problem solv- fac
(Young & ing; and (c) "guided
Kulikowich, generation." Perhaps
1992b). In this mor
importantly, the description,also
JPA the authors support the guided scaffoldin
provides
for navigating through
generation model as the
being morecomplex
powerful than soluti
space for the Jasper problem.
the other two, Student
without outright endorsement calc
lations cannot be of this approach. The
recorded on guided
thegeneration
system wit
out a related planning question
approach as described first
by the Vanderbilt Group being
generated. The JPA
involvesprovides a menu-selectio
teachers providing scaffolding to aid
page to assist problem solvers
the more novice problem in
solvers among their developin
the required planning questions
students. But instructional (see
designs for situ- Figur
2). In this way, planning
ated learning must is prompted
not only provide scaffold- throug
out problem solving, ing for and
students; they
novice must also provide
problem solv
ers are afforded additional information for scaffolding for teachers, to aid them in under-

FIGURE 1 - Component Screens of the JPA

j~o

Questioningl - Cacti ng

IPlanningI ViewingI

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 52 ER&D, Vol. 41, No. 1

FIGURE 2 O Menu Selection Pag

Question
How far is it from Cedar Creek to Willie's

Choose I from each column to BUILD A QUESTION: Clear Question)

Will Jasper from Cedar Creek to Willie's
How far is it from Willie's to home
How much from Jasper's home dock to Larry's
Where can Jasper have enough does Jasper have
How fast fuel remaining
How far money can he go
How long time can he buy
get more can he get
is needed

SSaue Question
Type Your Own

Retum to Facts

taking the guided generation approach to the simulated "J'7asper" responses supplied by
teaching. preservice teachers enrolled in courses focus-
While no intelligent technology implemen- ing on situated learning.
tations currently exist, a number of prelimi- Finally, a microanalytic analysis of Jasper
nary steps have been taken toward facilitating problem solving, adapted from Chi & Koeske
the role of Jasper teacher as coach. First, (1983), Shoenfeld (e.g., Shoenfeld, Smith, &
HyperCarda controllers have been developed Arcavi, in press) and diSessa (1983), revealed
to facilitate retrieval of information from the in detail the nature of common misconcep-
videodisc. These controllers map the time tions associated with the Jasper situation. In
sequence of story events onto a spatial map this microanalysis, videotapes, interviews,
of the locations at which events occurred. The think-aloud protocols, and traditional tests
controllers free teachers from controlling the were used to document the genesis of con-
videodisc and allow them to concentrate on ceptual changes during problem solving with
student thinking and problem solving. Sec- the first two Jasper episodes. For example, it
ond, videodisc-based segments of Jasper class- was revealed that some Jasper problem solv-
rooms afford first-time Jasper teachers an ers assumed that large boats traveled at the
opportunity to experience some of the mis- same rate as smaller boats, even when travel-
conceptions and errors that students typically ing with a current rather than against it.
make in solving the Jasper problems. Third, Another misconception for fifth-grade students
strategies and ideas can be disseminated in this analysis was that a mile was shorter if
among teachers, through both online telecom- traveled at a fast speed and longer when trav-
munications and more conventional means, eled slowly (confusing time with actual dis-
a Jasper newsletter. Fourth, through telecom- tance traveled). In addition to documenting
munications links with participating univer- common errors, the microanalysis highlighted
sities, it is envisioned that Jasper teachers and some of the student abilities (effectivities)
students could contact "Jasper" directly, with tapped by the Jasper problem, including the

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 ID FOR SITUATED LEARNING 53

ability to map time onto

sure they a spatial
can get the injured eagle to the vet. array (to u
a videodisc map The gunshot wound will be bleeding
controller), the andability
they to mat
ematically need to worry aboutthe
operationalize infection."problem,
This use of and th
ability to verbalize
knowledgemathematical
which is (unfortunately) part of this operation
and results of student's everyday experiences
calculations (toindicates
participate i
collaborative problem-solving
that problem solving in the Jasper context is groups). A
these techniques, activating
some technology-supporte
everyday cognition, as opposed to
others empirical, traditional
have "inert"yielded
school knowledge (for ainformation
dis-
aid teaching in this
cussion ofone particular
inert knowledge, see Whitehead, situation
the Jasper 1929). InIt
problem. this case
istheargued
mathematics is mean-
here that sim
ilar efforts will be ingful,
required for
not simply something done for aeach
grade new desig
of situated learning.
or because a teacher requests it.

Jasper and Transfer

Jasper as Anchored Instruction

If, as suggested above, the offirst

A recent implementation metric of su
the Jasper Series
cessful situations inis
a suburban Connecticut middle schoolthen
transfer, dem- the Jasp
Series, while yet unproved, has
onstrated the capability of the Jasper situationsbegun to co
lect the to anchor evidence.
appropriate instruction across the curriculum.
Initial researc
on Jasper suggested that
Students engaged transfer
in solving the first Jasper does occu
to completely isomorphic problems
episode, situated as a river trip, used the sit- in a dif
ferent context uation as Mary
(e.g., an anchor for science
goesand social stud-
to the grocer
store versus Jasper
ies, as wellgoes to buy
as the central mathematics problem. a boat). Fur
ther evidence of transfer has also been dem-
Pairs of students designed river-related science
onstrated from situated
questions, such as: Jasper
How much inorganic problem
mat- solvi
to traditional ter canand
one- be observed two-step
in the Connecticut river? word prob
lems (Van HaneghanWhat microscopic
et al., organisms 1992).
can be observed A final pie
of evidence is provided by
in water samples? What types the
of birds can demonstrati
be
of transfer from the
observed onmathematical
the Connecticut river? Then the domain of

the Jasper problem

studentsto reading
were taken comprehensio
on a one-hour river trip
for passages with analogous
on which content
they performed their science exper- (Youn
& Kulikowich, 1992a). These
iments. Students wrote essays about theirpreliminar
results have takenresults
considerable
and presented their findings. Oneresearch
pair effo
to acquire, suggesting
of students was sothat evaluating
convinced of the impor- situ
tions for learning will
tance of their not
findings about be
the numerous a simple o
quick task. bottles and cans floating in the river that they
submitted their essay to the executive com-
mittee responsible for running the local tri-
Jasper as Meaningful Learning athlon, which included a swimming race in
the river. In social studies, students drew maps
The microanalysis of Jasper problem solving to locate the equivalent locations on their local
mentioned above revealed that, when asked river (e.g., mile 132.6 on the Connecticut River)
why they are working in class, students often for mile markers mentioned in the Jasper prob-
referred to the meaningful nature of the Jas- lem. The same group of students studied flight
per context to justify their mathematical oper- and participated in a balsa wood plane com-
ations. For example, when asked why he was petition when solving the second Jasper epi-
performing the calculation 65 x 2 (65 miles sode involving the rescue of a wounded eagle
from the veterinarian's to the injured eagle, using an ultralight airplane. These selected
times 2 for a round trip), one low-achieving, examples suggest that, in addition to afford-
street-wise fifth-grader responded, "To make ing transfer and providing meaning, the Jas-

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54 ER&D, d. 41, No.1

per kowich
situations can &
also Young,
serve a1
instruction can be
across supported
traditional s
problem solving by
serve as the stimu
Situated Jasper Assessment
explain what they
the problem (as in
In the context of
proach Jasper
has pro
proved
Kulikowich and Young
problem (1991)
solving ofh
the advantages of using
Information an au
collec
retrieval through
system, the the JPA
Jasper P
tant, to transfer verbal
complement of situate
pro
(For a context
description of to analogo
verbal pr
in the Jaspersages, assessed
context, see by
Van
al., 1992.) Thetasks (Young
automated & Ku
system
scaffolding The
for ecological
instructing psy
novic
ers uated
(planning, learning
questioning, dra
cal
retrieving basis
data; suggests
see Figure that
1) an
that can targeted
service a at detecti
psychometric
ing planning student perceives
statements, operati
mation per
retrieved context.
from This
the prom
for each of these
of activities,
several types an
of
interest measures
types (see
of Figure
informati
data (Jasper
summary at video
bottom). scene
Young and toward solution
Kulikowich (s
(1992b
of the JPA inof analogies
use as both and tr
scaffo
ningduring by transfer and
instruction tasks),
coll
mation for assessment.
conceptions Studen
or m
individually sessed
or in by microana
pairs. At first
a tutorial and records).
several These
Likert-typn
interest and require interpreta
self-efficacy. Nex
the Jasper dynamics
story and models s
assesses c
mation logical
perceived by approaches
the student
action.
of multiple-choice questions. JP
the student to initially create
questions before attempting to
per problem (thus providing sc
planning). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Students are then e
enter all the facts they can recall
or There is a growingretrieve
subsequently consensus that significant by r
video. JPA educational changes are required
includes an in order to
interfac
disc that meet the nation's educational
enables it togoal to make
control
request, andAmerican
to students number one in mathemat-
store the fram
video ics and science.
segments In concert, there is a grow-
re-viewed by th
put data ing awareness
from the that situating learning in realistic
JPA enables
of various contexts can provide much of what is lacking
problem-solving eve
specific in traditional approaches
analyses of to instruction
time and spen
questioning,instructional
reviewing design. These insights rely heav- facts,
video, and ily on the concepts of situated
making cognition for
calculations
and their justification, which, in
interpretation turn, rely heav-
are shown i
The system JPA can
ily on the ecological psychology of James Gib-comple
assessment techniques role
son (1979/1986). Once the important in sever

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ID FOR SrATED LERNNG 55

FIGURE 3 O Sample JPA Output with

,L jmi Intamrprtation by Exoerimenter

Student A.A. Starting 8/19/92 Time in: 11 :3542 AM

1. Tutorial
2.
Instructions

Facts 12:06:07 PM Estimating Mile Markers

Video 12:06:20 PM

Facts 12:07:18 PM Entering Facts

Add Fact: from 129 to 157 12:07:46 PM

Calculating 12:07:51 PM Calculating (distance)

Cale: 157 - 129 = 28 (error)

Questioning 12:08:36 PM
Planning 12:08:36 PM Entering Answer
Facts 12;08:47 PM
ANSWER How far from Cedar Creek to ho

Planning 12:08:06 PM
Facts 12:09:16 PM
Video 12:09:18 PM Info Finding (speed, 7.5)

,V: 1 12:10:18
Facts Mie TestPM

Calculating 12:10:32 PM
Calc: 28 * 7.5 = 210 Calculating (time)
Calc:210 / 60 = 3.5

Planning 12:11:57 PM
Questioning 12:12:58 PM Entering Answer
Planning 12:12:58 PM
Q: How tar is it from Cedar Crek to homr? 12:13:21 PM

ANSWER How far is It from Cedar Creek to home? - 3.5 winuDa (error)

Planning 12:13:28 PM Correcting Units

Change Answer 6 to 3.5 hours

Facts 12:14:21 PM
Video 12:14:23 PM
..V: Map info finding (T sunset)
..V: soat Leaving
Facts 12:16:32 PM
Add Fact sunset is at 7:52 12:16:59 PM

Video 12:17:02 PM Into finding (T current)

.V: Jasper Thinks
Facts 12:18:10 PM
Add Fact he is read to leave at 2:35 12:18:29 PM

Calculating 12:18:34 PM
Facts 12:19:42 PM Calculating (T available)
Calculating 12:20:22 PM
CaIc: 5.2 = 5.2

.. Output Continues ...

Summary Data:
Total Time Planning: 570, Total Time Ouestioning: 357, Total Time Facts: 807,
Total Time Calculating: 491, Total Time Viewing: 1043
Rated Math Efficacy: 77, Rated Computer Efficacy: 78,
Rated River Interest 52. Rated Horme Interest 26,
Rated Confidence in Solurtion: 84

Time out: 1:00:36 PM

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 56 E&D, w. 41, No. 1

"authentic"domain of interest must be selected. Second,

contexts can play
education scaffoldingacknowledged,
is that allows novices and experts to
selecting perform alongside
and one another in the learn-
designing situ
students ing situation
the must be designed. Third, the
opportunity to
tant instructional design
concepts of task mustmathematic
include train-
begin. An ing teachers to understand and perform using
ecological approac
perception the
andsituation as well asaction
support their role in rather
retrieval the classroom with technology
leads tothat a can facil-very dif
ization of itate guiding and assessing students as they
instructional des
Changes work within an instructional
must be situation. Fourth,
made to
new assessment must cognition
situated be integrated with instruc- app
tion with ation new
so that the situation provides both instruc-
ecological ap
tional tional and assessment
design. opportunities and
There is a hi
in instructional design
information. An ecological approach to instruc- mode
changes in tional design must include a new approach
psychological th
programmed instruction
to assessment, moving away from static assess- d
showed thementlimitations
to situated assessment that incorporates of in
based both theon
solely affordances of the environment as
behaviorist
1965; Glaser, 1963).
well as the abilities brought to the situation Behav
restricted by the student. In fact, it is the interaction
cognitive concepts of
ifestations the two that constitutes knowledge
(e.g., recitationfrom the r
standing), situated
and learning perspective,
reinforcem and therefore
be neither itnecessary
is this interaction that must be assessed and nor su
ing (Case &rated as intelligent or underachieving. New 1984).
Bereiter,
archical psychometric models can
analysis be anticipated, mod-
approach im
of els that acknowledge theobjectives
instructional complexity and
nitive as well as
dynamic nature of the behavior
agent-environment
interaction and draw on nonlinear models to
Gagn6's approach has prov
dressing characterize them.
ill-structured dom
of An ecological
transfer, and approach
into instructional
accomm
abilities anddesignlearning
also suggests that new metrics forstrateg
the
and novices,
evaluationand both
of situations must be adopted. chil
(Resnick, When instruction takes Reigeluth
1976). place in a complex,
marized a realistic, and "authentic" context,
number of then mea-
compet
ories of sures of success of the instruction must include
instructional desig
unique characteristics,
transfer, the meaningfulness of learning, and str
nesses. In all
a capacity to cases, the
anchor instruction across the cur- mo
rather than holistic,
riculum. Perhaps the most important are
concern linea
grated, with situating learning assessment
separate in a single context (or
and, according to
in a few contexts) is the danger Snow
that the
(1991), acquired knowledge will be tied to only those
contexts in which it was learned (e.g., one stu-
... move too quickly to prescription without dent in the microanalysis reported that he liked
coming to grips with the psychology of instruc-
problem solving with the Jasper eagle prob-
tional variables and performance, and of diag-
lem, but he was really only interested in cars--
nostic assessment for instructional adaptation.
(p. 8) ignoring the transfer of distance/rate/time
concepts across the two topics). Therefore, it
A situated cognition perspective suggests is essential that learning in context be dem-
that an instructional designer is faced with four onstrated to transfer to both closely related sit-
basic tasks: First, the proper generator set of uations and to situations where only the most
situations that will afford learning in the abstract or higher-level thinking skills are

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 ID FOR SITUATED LEARNING 57

invariant across the19(6), 2-10.

situations. It is importa
that students Cognition and Technology
learning inGroup at Vanderbilt.
realistic contexts
aware of the (1992). The Jasper experiment:
meaning provided An exploration of by the sit
issues in learning and instructional design. Edu-
tion and access their own everyday
cational Technology Research and Development, 40(1),
know
edge (including beliefs,
65-80. goals, and intentio
related to the context. Finally,
Collins, A. (1991, it will
Sept.). The role of computer tech- be imp
tant that the situations selected afford inte- nology in restructuring schools. Phi Delta Kappan,
29-36.
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Collins, A., & Brown, J. S. (1988). The computer as
traditional subject boundaries. O a tool for learning through reflection. In H. Mandl
& A. Lesgold (Eds.), Learning issues for intelligent
Michael F. Young is with the Educational tutoring systems. New York: Springer.
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Connecticut. Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of
reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B.
Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction:
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